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Electron ionization

Electron ionization (EI), also known as electron impact ionization, is an ionization technique fundamental to mass spectrometry, wherein neutral molecules in the gas phase are bombarded by a high-energy beam of electrons to produce positive radical ions. This process typically involves accelerating electrons from a heated filament to an energy of 70 electron volts (eV), which ejects an electron from the analyte molecule, forming a molecular ion (M⁺•) while imparting excess internal energy that often leads to extensive fragmentation into characteristic daughter ions.^[1]^[2] As a hard ionization method, EI generates reproducible mass spectra rich in structural information, making it particularly suitable for the identification of volatile organic compounds through comparison with extensive spectral libraries.^[3] The origins of electron ionization trace back to the early development of mass spectrometry in the early 20th century, with the first practical implementation for analyzing gases and vapors described by Henry D. Smyth in 1922 using a magnetic sector instrument.^[4] By the late 1930s, Alfred O. Nier refined the EI source, establishing it as a standard technique that propelled advancements in isotope separation and organic analysis during World War II.^[3] In 1929, further innovations by Bleakney extended EI to inorganic vapors, solidifying its role in producing positive ions via electron-molecule collisions in a high-vacuum environment.^[5] In the EI process, gaseous analyte molecules—introduced via direct insertion probes, gas chromatography (GC), or vaporization—intersect perpendicularly with the electron beam in the ion source, where collisions occur according to the Franck-Condon principle, resulting in vertical electronic transitions without immediate nuclear rearrangement.^[3] The 70 eV electron energy exceeds typical ionization potentials (8–12 eV), distributing excess energy non-thermally to the molecular ion, which then fragments via mechanisms described by the Quasi-Equilibrium Theory, yielding ions up to approximately 600 Da.^[2]^[3] These spectra feature prominent molecular ions alongside abundant fragment ions, enabling detailed elucidation of molecular structures but often obscuring the intact molecular weight due to the hard nature of the ionization.^[1] EI's primary applications lie in gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) systems for environmental monitoring, forensic analysis, and pharmaceutical quality control, where its high sensitivity (ionizing about 1 in 1,000 molecules) and spectral reproducibility support automated library matching against databases containing over 100,000 compounds.^[3]^[1] Its simplicity and low cost make it a cornerstone of routine analyses, though limitations include the requirement for thermally stable, volatile samples and incompatibility with liquid chromatography (LC) due to the need for a vacuum-compatible gas phase.^[2] Despite these constraints, EI remains indispensable for generating standardized, fragmentation-based fingerprints that facilitate compound identification across diverse scientific fields.^[3]

Fundamentals

Principle of Operation

Electron ionization (EI), also known as electron impact ionization, is a hard ionization technique utilized in mass spectrometry wherein a beam of high-energy electrons, typically accelerated to 70 eV, interacts with gas-phase analyte molecules. This process primarily involves the ejection of a valence electron from the analyte, resulting in the formation of a radical molecular ion denoted as M⁺•. Due to the excess energy transferred during the collision—often exceeding the ionization energy of the molecule—extensive fragmentation occurs, producing a characteristic array of fragment ions that provide structural information about the analyte.^[6]^[7] The operational sequence begins with the emission of electrons from a heated filament, commonly constructed from materials such as rhenium or tungsten, which are thermionically heated to release free electrons. These electrons are then accelerated to energies ranging from 50 to 100 eV through an applied potential difference before entering the ionization region, where they collide with vaporized analyte molecules maintained in a high-vacuum environment. The collision dynamics are governed by inelastic scattering, in which the incident electron transfers sufficient kinetic energy to a bound valence electron in the molecule, overcoming the molecular orbital binding energy and ejecting it if the transferred energy surpasses the ionization threshold. This inelastic process contrasts with elastic scattering, where no net energy transfer occurs, and can also lead to electronic excitation without full ionization.^[7]^[8] The fundamental ion formation reaction is represented as:

\ce{M + e^- -> M^{+•} + 2e^-}

where M denotes the neutral analyte molecule, and the ejected electron joins the incident electron. The molecular ion M⁺• is often unstable due to the surplus energy (typically 3–7 eV above the ionization energy), prompting rapid dissociation into fragment ions via processes such as cleavage of bonds:

\ce{M^{+•} -> A^+ + B•}

Here, A⁺ is a charged fragment and B• is a neutral radical. The extent of fragmentation is influenced by the appearance energy (AE), defined as the minimum electron energy required to produce a specific fragment ion, which includes the ionization energy plus the energy needed for bond dissociation. In contrast, the ionization energy (IE) is the threshold electron energy for forming the intact molecular ion M⁺• without fragmentation. These energies determine ion stability and the resulting fragmentation patterns, with standard 70 eV conditions favoring reproducible, library-matchable spectra.^[6]^[9]^[10]

Efficiency of Ionization

Ionization efficiency in electron ionization (EI) is defined as the ratio of ions produced to electrons emitted from the filament, typically ranging from $10^{-4} to $10^{-2} ions per electron in optimized sources.^[11] This low yield arises because only a small fraction of electron-molecule collisions result in ionization, with the process being a rare resonance event.^[3] The probability of ionization per collision is quantified by the ionization cross-section \sigma, which represents the effective target area and is approximated as \sigma \approx \pi r^2, where r is the effective collision radius. For 70 eV electrons and small molecules, typical \sigma values are on the order of $2 \times 10^{-16} cm^2.^[3] These cross-sections peak near 70 eV, reflecting the balance between sufficient energy for ionization and minimal excess for scattering.^[12] Efficiency is influenced by several key factors. Electron energy, optimized at 70-100 eV, maximizes \sigma while promoting characteristic fragmentation; deviations reduce ion yield or alter spectra.^[3] Analyte pressure, typically $10^{-5} to $10^{-7} Torr, determines molecular number density n; insufficient pressure limits collisions, while excess risks unwanted reactions.^[3] Space charge effects from electron-ion repulsion distort beam paths and limit flux at higher currents, reducing overall production.^[13] Ion collection efficiency, governed by repeller plates that apply a repelling field to direct ions out of the source, typically achieves near-complete extraction in well-designed systems but can drop due to misalignment or field inhomogeneities.^[14] The resulting ion current I_\text{ion} is given by

I_\text{ion} = I_e \times (n \times \sigma \times l),

where I_e is the electron current, n is the analyte density, \sigma is the cross-section, and l is the electron path length through the gas; typical I_\text{ion} values range from $10^{-9} to $10^{-8} A.^[3] EI's limitations include a relatively low duty cycle—defined as the fraction of produced ions effectively analyzed, often below 10% in scanning instruments—and poorer sensitivity compared to soft ionization techniques, stemming from extensive fragmentation that disperses ion current across multiple m/z values rather than concentrating it on the molecular ion.^[15]^[16]

Historical Development

Origins and Early Experiments

The foundational observations in electron impact ionization trace back to J.J. Thomson's work in the early 1910s, where he analyzed positive rays (anode rays) produced in gas discharge tubes, demonstrating the creation of positive ions through interactions involving cathode rays and residual gases, laying the groundwork for mass analysis of ions.^[17] In these experiments, Thomson used modified apparatus to detect and measure the charge-to-mass ratios of positively charged particles, confirming electron-molecule collisions as a key ionization mechanism.^[4] Building on this, Irving Langmuir conducted systematic studies in 1913 at the General Electric Research Laboratory, investigating electron-gas interactions within vacuum tubes to understand the effects of residual gases on electron emission from hot filaments. Langmuir's work quantified key parameters, including ionization potentials, by measuring the currents of positive ions formed when accelerated electrons collided with gases such as mercury vapor, providing early empirical data on the energy thresholds required for ionization.^[4] These experiments highlighted the role of electron energy in initiating ionization processes and laid groundwork for controlling gas purity in electronic devices. A significant advancement came in 1918 with Arthur J. Dempster's invention of the first practical mass spectrometer, which integrated an electron ionization source with a 180-degree magnetic sector analyzer to separate ions based on their mass-to-charge ratios. Dempster's apparatus ionized gases or vapors by bombarding them with electrons from a heated filament, then deflected the resulting positive ions in a magnetic field to achieve isotopic separation, marking the initial coupling of electron ionization with mass analysis for precise atomic studies.^[4] In 1922, Henry D. Smyth described the first practical implementation of electron ionization for analyzing gases and vapors using a magnetic sector instrument, advancing the technique for chemical analysis.^[4] This was followed by Addison Bleakney's 1929 innovations, which extended EI to inorganic vapors and solids through electron-molecule collisions in high-vacuum environments, producing positive ions with a transverse electron beam setup.^[4] Prior to the 1940s, electron ionization techniques were extensively applied in vacuum tube technology and gas discharge investigations to determine atomic ionization energies.^[17] Researchers utilized controlled electron beams in low-pressure environments to measure the minimum electron energies needed to ionize elements like helium and neon, contributing essential data for understanding plasma behavior and electronic device performance.^[4] By the late 1930s, Alfred O. Nier refined the EI source design, establishing it as a standard technique that supported advancements in isotope separation and organic analysis during World War II.^[3]

Key Milestones and Evolution

In the 1940s, electron ionization (EI) mass spectrometry saw significant refinements for the analysis of organic molecules, particularly in the petroleum industry where it was applied to quantify small hydrocarbons in process streams, building on earlier foundational work to enable more practical structural elucidation.^[17] During the 1950s and 1960s, the standardization of 70 eV electron energy emerged as a key advancement to ensure reproducible fragmentation patterns and library-compatible spectra for organic compounds.^[18] The 1960s marked the commercialization of EI instruments by companies such as Varian and the newly founded Finnigan (established in 1968), which introduced quadrupole-based systems tailored for routine laboratory use, enhancing accessibility for organic analysis.^[19] A pivotal development was the 1959 coupling of gas chromatography (GC) with EI mass spectrometry by R.S. Gohlke, using a time-of-flight analyzer to separate and identify complex mixtures, laying the groundwork for GC-MS as a hyphenated technique. From the 1970s to 1980s, EI integrated with advanced mass analyzers like quadrupoles (commercialized post-1953 invention by Wolfgang Paul) and ion traps (refined by George Stafford in the early 1980s), improving sensitivity and selectivity for trace-level detection.^[20] Concurrently, the establishment of comprehensive spectral libraries, such as the NIST/EPA/NIH database originating from the 1973 EPA/NIH collaboration and expanding in the 1980s, standardized compound identification through matched EI spectra at 70 eV.^[21] In the 1990s and 2000s, high-resolution EI advanced with Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry, pioneered by Comisarow and Marshall in 1974 and refined for exact mass measurements in complex samples. Orbitrap analyzers, introduced commercially in 2005, also supported EI modes in later GC-MS configurations, particularly for metabolomics and residue analysis, offering resolutions exceeding 100,000.^[22] Recent 2020s innovations include liquid electron ionization (LEI) interfaces for LC-MS compatibility, enabling EI-like spectra from liquid effluents while preserving fragmentation for library searching.^[23] Over this period, EI evolved from a primarily qualitative tool for structural confirmation—reliant on reproducible fragmentation—to a quantitative method in environmental and forensic applications, where stable isotope dilution and selected ion monitoring in GC-EI-MS provide precise measurements of pollutants and drugs at ppb levels.^[24]^[25]

Instrumentation

Core Components

The electron source in electron ionization (EI) systems primarily consists of a thermionic filament, typically constructed from a tungsten or rhenium wire coiled or shaped as a ribbon to maximize surface area for emission. This filament is resistively heated to approximately 2000 K using a heating current of 3–4 A (with a typical voltage drop of 5–10 V across the filament), enabling thermionic emission of electrons according to the Richardson-Dushman equation, where the emission current is controlled at 50–500 μA to ensure stable beam generation.^[14] Tungsten filaments are robust but prone to oxidation, while rhenium variants offer longer lifetimes and reduced background ions from oxide formation.^[14] Electron optics encompass acceleration lenses and focusing electrodes that direct the emitted electrons into the ionization chamber with precise energy, typically 70 eV, to optimize ionization efficiency. The filament is biased at -70 V relative to ground potential, accelerating electrons across this potential difference, while electrostatic lenses collimate and focus the beam to minimize divergence and ensure uniform interaction with the analyte gas. Additional elements, such as a V-shaped repeller plate near the filament, enhance electron flux by reflecting stray electrons back into the path.^[14]^[26] The ionization chamber is a compact enclosure, typically with a volume of about 1 cm³, designed to confine the analyte gas and facilitate electron-molecule collisions. It features repeller and extractor plates: the repeller, often positively biased, pushes positive ions toward the extractor, which is grounded or negatively biased to draw ions axially out of the chamber for subsequent mass analysis. These plates maintain the analyte in a controlled electric field, promoting efficient ion extraction while the chamber operates at 180–220 °C to prevent condensation.^[14] The vacuum system is critical for EI operation, employing turbo-molecular pumps to achieve and sustain pressures around 10⁻⁶ Torr in the source region, thereby minimizing electron-neutral collisions and preserving beam integrity. These pumps, often backed by roughing pumps, evacuate the chamber to prevent filament oxidation and ensure the mean free path of electrons exceeds the chamber dimensions.^[14]^[27] Safety features include filament bias circuits that modulate emission to avoid overloads and interlock systems that disable high voltages if the vacuum is compromised or access panels are opened, preventing arcing from electrical discharges. These measures protect both the instrumentation and operators from hazards associated with the high currents and voltages involved.^[14]^[28]

Operational Configuration

In electron ionization (EI) mass spectrometry, the source is integrated with the mass analyzer through an ion exit slit that allows ions to be extracted into the analyzer region, such as a quadrupole, time-of-flight (TOF), or magnetic sector instrument, using low voltage gradients typically in the range of 5-20 V to focus and accelerate the ions without excessive fragmentation.^[29] This extraction setup ensures efficient transmission of ions while maintaining the high vacuum environment necessary for analyzer performance.^[30] Tuning the EI source involves adjusting key parameters to optimize ion yield and spectral quality. Electron energy is commonly set to 70 eV for standard fragmentation patterns but can be varied from 50 to 200 eV depending on the desired degree of ionization and molecular stability.^[31] Repeller voltage, applied to an electrode opposite the exit slit, ranges from 0 to 10 V to control ion focusing and extraction efficiency, with lower values minimizing contact cooling effects on the ion cloud.^[32] Filament current regulates the thermionic emission of electrons, typically maintaining an emission current of 50–250 μA to achieve stable beam intensity without overheating the filament.^[33]^[34] These parameters are often fine-tuned using standard compounds like perfluorotributylamine (PFTBA) to maximize ion abundance at diagnostic m/z values.^[29] Sample introduction into the EI chamber occurs primarily through gas inlets for volatile compounds or direct insertion probes for solids and semi-volatiles, allowing controlled volatilization under vacuum to prevent pressure spikes.^[35] The system employs vacuum interlocking mechanisms to isolate the source during sample loading, preventing contamination or loss of vacuum in the analyzer. To achieve and maintain ultra-high vacuum conditions (typically <10^{-6} Torr in the source), bakeout protocols heat the chamber and components to 150-250°C for several hours, removing adsorbed gases and restoring baseline performance.^[36]^[35] Routine maintenance includes filament replacement every 50-100 hours of operation, as evaporation and contamination degrade emission efficiency over time.^[37] Common troubleshooting addresses filament burnout from excessive current or oxygen exposure, often resolved by checking emission stability and cleaning the source, and low ion yield due to contamination, which manifests as elevated background noise and requires solvent rinses or full disassembly.^[38] These procedures ensure reliable, long-term operation of the EI source in mass spectrometric workflows.^[39]

Applications

Direct Probe and Vacuum Methods

The direct insertion probe serves as a key inlet system for introducing solid or semi-solid samples into the electron ionization (EI) source of a mass spectrometer without prior chromatographic separation. In this method, a small sample aliquot is placed in a quartz or ceramic crucible mounted on a probe rod, which is then inserted through a vacuum lock directly into the ionization chamber. The probe is resistively heated, typically from ambient temperature up to 400–500°C, to volatilize the sample analytes for subsequent EI at standard energies around 70 eV, promoting characteristic fragmentation patterns.^[40]^[6] This approach is well-suited for low-volatility or thermally stable compounds, including those prone to decomposition, as it minimizes exposure time in the hot source environment.^[41] The vacuum manifold, often referred to as a batch inlet system, provides an alternative for handling gaseous or highly volatile liquid samples in standalone EI setups. This configuration consists of a small, evacuated glass or metal chamber connected to the ion source via a molecular leak or valve, allowing precise introduction of microliter-scale sample volumes without significantly perturbing the high vacuum.^[42] Samples are admitted in batches, equilibrating briefly before ionization, which enables efficient analysis of limited quantities of volatiles while maintaining instrument stability. These methods find application in the characterization of complex, non-routine samples, such as archaeological artifacts and synthetic nanomaterials. For instance, pyrolysis-EI using a direct insertion probe has been applied to analyze resins in ancient pottery and adhesives, revealing triterpenoid compositions through diagnostic fragment ions from heated degradation products.^[43]^[44] Similarly, EI fragmentation patterns of fullerenes like C₆₀ and C₇₀, introduced via direct probe, exhibit sequential losses of C₂ units, aiding in structural confirmation of carbon clusters.^[45] The high reproducibility of EI spectra from these inlets supports qualitative identification by library matching, as standardized fragmentation facilitates comparison with databases like NIST, enhancing structural elucidation for unknowns.^[46]^[47] A primary limitation arises from the absence of separation, which can yield convoluted spectra from multicomponent mixtures, necessitating prior sample purification for accurate interpretation.^[6]

Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

In gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) utilizing electron ionization (EI), the effluent from a capillary column, typically operating at low carrier gas flow rates of 1–2 mL/min, is directly introduced into the EI ion source without the need for splitting due to the compatibility with the mass spectrometer's vacuum system.^[48] This interface is achieved via a heated transfer line maintained at temperatures around 250–300°C to prevent condensation of volatile and semi-volatile analytes, ensuring efficient transport of the separated compounds into the ionization chamber where they undergo EI fragmentation.^[49] The standard workflow involves temperature-programmed separation in the GC column, where analytes are volatilized and separated based on their boiling points and interactions with the stationary phase, followed by continuous EI at 70 eV to produce characteristic fragment ions for structural elucidation. These mass spectra are then matched against comprehensive libraries such as the NIST database for compound identification, enabling reliable qualitative analysis of complex mixtures.^[50] EI's production of reproducible fragmentation patterns is particularly advantageous here, providing rich structural information that complements the chromatographic separation.^[51] This technique finds extensive use in environmental analysis, such as detecting pesticides in water samples at trace levels through extraction and cleanup prior to GC-MS, allowing identification and quantification of contaminants like organochlorines.^[52] In biological fluid analysis, GC-EI-MS facilitates the profiling of steroids in urine, offering high sensitivity for endogenous and exogenous compounds after derivatization to enhance volatility.^[53] Forensic toxicology applications include the screening and confirmation of drugs in biological matrices, where EI spectra aid in distinguishing metabolites and analogs in overdose cases.^[54] Additionally, in archaeological studies, it enables the characterization of lipid biomarkers in artifacts, such as fatty acids from ancient residues, revealing insights into historical diets and vessel uses.^[55] For quantitative analysis, selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode in GC-EI-MS enhances sensitivity by focusing on target ions, achieving detection limits in the parts-per-billion (ppb) range for trace analytes in complex matrices.^[56] Recent advancements, such as fast GC-EI-MS, employ shorter columns and rapid temperature ramps to reduce analysis time to under 5 minutes per sample, supporting high-throughput screening in regulatory and clinical settings while maintaining EI's identification power.^[57]

Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

Electron ionization (EI) has been adapted for liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) to analyze non-volatile and thermally labile analytes, addressing the challenge of interfacing high liquid flow rates from LC systems, typically in the range of microliters per minute, with the gas-phase requirements of EI.^[58] Traditional approaches, such as particle beam (PB-EI) interfaces, involve nebulization of the LC effluent followed by solvent evaporation and momentum separation to deliver dry aerosol particles into the EI source, enabling desolvation without excessive dilution.^[59] Alternatively, direct liquid introduction methods use heated nebulization and evaporation to convert the liquid stream into vapor for EI, though these can suffer from solvent overload in the ion source.^[60] A significant recent advancement is liquid electron ionization (LEI), developed in the mid-2010s, which employs a vaporization microchannel to gently heat and evaporate analytes at sub-microliter flow rates, often assisted by helium nebulization or membrane diffusion, before introducing the gas-phase molecules into a standard EI source.^[58] This variant minimizes premature decomposition by separating vaporization from ionization, with temperatures optimized up to 400 °C based on analyte volatility, and has been extended in the 2020s to variants like extractive-LEI for ambient sampling.^[61] LEI supports nanoflow LC rates of 500–1500 nL/min, while PB-EI accommodates higher flows up to 1 mL/min after splitting.^[62]^[63] In applications, LC-EI, particularly via LEI or PB interfaces, is employed for pharmaceuticals such as cannabinoids and drug metabolites, where it complements soft ionization methods like electrospray ionization (ESI) by providing characteristic EI fragmentation patterns for structural confirmation and library matching against NIST databases.^[62]^[64] For peptides and larger biomolecules, it is used selectively for smaller, more volatile species to generate interpretable spectra, though ESI remains preferred for intact analysis.^[65] Environmental monitoring benefits from LC-EI in detecting non-volatile contaminants like surfactants (e.g., per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) and phthalates in complex matrices, leveraging EI's reproducibility for quantitative identification.^[66]^[62] These techniques are complementary to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for volatile compounds, extending EI's utility to polar and ionic species separated by LC.^[60] Performance-wise, LC-EI offers robust spectral libraries for identification but exhibits lower sensitivity than ESI, with limits of detection typically in the ng/mL range for nonpolar analytes, due to the need for complete vaporization and potential ion suppression from residual solvents.^[63] It excels in producing standard 70-eV EI spectra suitable for database searching, with minimal matrix effects compared to soft ionizations.^[58] However, limitations include analyte thermal degradation during the vaporization step, particularly for heat-sensitive compounds, which can lead to peak tailing or reduced recovery; this is mitigated in LEI by controlled heating but remains a challenge for larger molecules.^[67]^[62]

Advanced Mass Analyzer Integrations

Electron ionization (EI) sources are compatible with advanced mass analyzers that provide enhanced resolution and sensitivity, enabling detailed analysis of complex samples through high mass accuracy and multi-stage fragmentation capabilities. These integrations leverage the characteristic fragmentation patterns produced by EI, which are ideal for library matching, while the analyzers offer precise mass measurements and structural elucidation beyond traditional quadrupole systems.^[68] In time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometry, EI benefits from pulsed ion extraction, where ions generated by a continuous or gated electron beam are rapidly accelerated into the flight tube, allowing high-speed analysis with scan rates exceeding 100 spectra per second. This configuration is particularly advantageous in metabolomics, where EI-TOF enables millisecond-resolution profiling of volatile metabolites from gas chromatography separations, achieving mass accuracies below 5 ppm for confident identification of hundreds of compounds in biological matrices like human plasma.^[69]^[70] Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) analyzers paired with EI sources deliver ultra-high resolution exceeding 10^5, facilitating exact mass determination of EI fragments for unambiguous molecular formula assignment. Although less common for large biomolecules due to EI's fragmentation, EI-FT-ICR has been applied in the analysis of complex mixtures such as petroleum and environmental samples, where the high resolving power resolves isobaric ions in detailed compositional studies.^[71] Ion trap mass spectrometers integrated with EI enable sequential isolation and fragmentation (MS^n, up to n=10), allowing iterative breakdown of precursor ions to reveal structural details not visible in single-stage spectra. In forensic applications, EI-ion trap systems excel at distinguishing structural isomers of novel psychoactive substances, such as positional variants of synthetic cathinones or phenethylamines, by comparing fragmentation pathways and ion abundance ratios in controlled drug analyses.^[72]^[73] Orbitrap analyzers in hybrid configurations with EI sources provide high-resolution accurate mass (HRAM) detection up to 240,000 FWHM, combining EI's reproducible fragmentation with sub-ppm accuracy for building comprehensive spectral libraries. Recent advancements since 2023 incorporate machine learning for spectral interpretation, where deep neural networks refine library matching by predicting fragment origins and resolving ambiguities in EI data from environmental or metabolomic samples.^[68]^[74] Hybrid configurations, such as quadrupole-TOF (Q-TOF) with EI sources, utilize the quadrupole for precursor ion selection and collision-induced dissociation prior to TOF analysis, enhancing sensitivity and specificity in targeted workflows. These setups maintain EI's 70 eV ionization for standard library compatibility while achieving resolutions over 40,000, as demonstrated in contaminant screening and isomer differentiation.^[75]^[76]

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

Electron ionization (EI) at the standard energy of 70 eV produces highly reproducible fragmentation patterns, allowing for the creation and utilization of extensive spectral libraries that facilitate unambiguous compound identification.^[77] This standardization has enabled the development of comprehensive databases, such as the NIST/EPA/NIH EI library, which contains over 394,000 spectra for more than 347,000 compounds as of 2023.^[21] As a hard ionization technique, EI imparts sufficient energy to molecules to cause extensive bond cleavage, generating characteristic fragment ions that provide rich structural information essential for elucidating the identity of unknown compounds.^[78] These fragment patterns reveal molecular substructures and functional groups, making EI particularly valuable for detailed qualitative analysis in mass spectrometry.^[79] EI operates under high vacuum conditions without the need for chemical reagents, offering simplicity, robustness, and low operational costs that make it suitable for routine laboratory use. The absence of reagents minimizes contamination risks and maintenance requirements, while its compatibility with vacuum systems ensures reliable performance in standard mass spectrometer configurations.^[1] In selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode, EI delivers quantitative accuracy when paired with internal standards, supporting precise measurements across varying analyte concentrations.^[80] This capability enhances its utility for targeted quantification in analytical workflows.^[81] Recent advancements include the integration of artificial intelligence for automated spectral matching, such as the FastEI method introduced in 2023, which leverages embedding techniques to rapidly and accurately identify compounds against large in-silico libraries.^[82]

Disadvantages

Electron ionization (EI) exhibits low ionization efficiency, typically on the order of 0.001% to 0.1% of analyte molecules, which results in poor sensitivity for detecting trace-level analytes at nanogram quantities, in contrast to picogram-level detection achievable with electrospray ionization (ESI). This limited efficiency arises from the sparse interaction between the high-energy electron beam and gas-phase molecules under high-vacuum conditions, where only a small fraction of molecules are ionized before being pumped away.^[11]^[83] EI requires samples to be volatile and thermally stable to facilitate vaporization and introduction into the ion source without decomposition, restricting its use to low-molecular-weight compounds that can withstand temperatures up to 250–300°C. Non-volatile or thermally labile analytes necessitate prior derivatization to enhance volatility or pyrolysis to generate volatile fragments, adding complexity and potential artifacts to the analysis.^[84]^[85] The high-energy electron bombardment (typically 70 eV) in EI induces extensive fragmentation of the molecular ion, often resulting in its low abundance—below 5% relative intensity for approximately 40% of compounds in standard spectral libraries—which complicates accurate molecular weight determination. This fragmentation pattern, while informative for structure elucidation, frequently obscures the parent ion signal, making EI less reliable for identifying unknowns without complementary techniques.^[86] Operation under high vacuum (approximately 10^{-5} Torr) is essential to minimize ion-molecule collisions and maintain spectral reproducibility, but it exacerbates source contamination when non-volatile residues deposit on ion optics, necessitating frequent cleaning—often every few weeks to months depending on sample throughput—to restore performance.^[11]^[87] EI is particularly unsuitable for large biomolecules, such as proteins or peptides, due to their poor vaporization, extensive fragmentation, and low transmission efficiency through the mass analyzer, rendering it outdated for quantitative bioanalysis where softer ionization methods like atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization (APCI) or ESI provide better intact ion yields. As a hard ionization technique, EI contrasts with soft methods that minimize fragmentation to preserve molecular information.^[85]

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Jun 5, 2023 · Mass spectrometry has made profound contributions to the criminal justice system by providing an instrumental method of analysis that ...
[27]
Electron Ionization - Creative Proteomics
Electron ionization is an ionization method in which energetic electrons interact with solid or gas phase atoms or molecules to produce ions.
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https://www.mks.com/docs/R/GP-354QuickStart-354079.pdf
[29]
[PDF] Quick Start Guide for Series 354 Micro-Ion® Gauge Modules w ...
The setpoint relay in the RS-485 version (354005) can be used to control various devices such as a safety interlock, valve, digital input for a scanner, or.
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https://pubs.aip.org/aip/rsi/article/92/7/073305/1030828/Low-energy-electron-ionization-mass-spectrometer
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Low-energy electron ionization mass spectrometer for efficient ...
Jul 20, 2021 · In general, ionization efficiency can be improved by increasing the size of the ionizer, the electron density inside, and the duration that gas ...
[32]
Ion Source - Shimadzu
Ionization Voltage Typically, 70eV electrons from the filament are used for EI. This energy is determined by voltage deference between the filament and the ...
[33]
Ionization Technique - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The applied repeller voltage of 1–5 V is high enough to force the ions to ... Electron ionization can produce reproducible fragmentation spectra. This ...
[34]
[PDF] Comparative analysis of mass spectral matching for confident ...
Single quadrupole GC-MS operated in electron ionization (EI) mode has long ... Emission current: 50 µA. Mass range: 35–500 Da for SVOC and pesticides. 35 ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
None
### Summary of Operational Configuration of Electron Ionization Source (4000 MS Users Guide)
[36]
Oxidation of Cholesterol in Commercially Processed Cow's Milk
The electron energy was. 70 eV and the ion source pressure was less than 5 x 10"6 torr for the electron ionization experiments. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.
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https://www.agilent.com/cs/library/technicaloverviews/public/te-filament-lifetime-5994-4719en-agilent.pdf
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The LCGC Blog: Useful Tips for GC-MS
Mar 19, 2015 · We use a stream of electrons to ionize our analytes and these electrons are produced by heating a metal filament using a current which results ...
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GC-MS Filament Failure: Common Causes and How to Prevent Them
Aug 14, 2025 · In a clean, well-maintained system running relatively clean samples, a filament can last from 6 to 12 months or even longer. In high-throughput ...
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Article - A High Temperature Direct Probe for a Mass Spectrometer
Most mass spectrometer direct probes have a temperature limitation of 400 degrees C. This low temperature limits the usefulness of the technique. In many ...
[41]
[PDF] An Introduction to Mass Spectrometry Ionization
With the electron capture ionization method (Scheme 6), a net negative charge of 1- is achieved with the absorption. or capture of an electron.
[42]
Mass Spectrometry
7.2. Batch inlets ... The batch inlet system is considered the most common and simplest inlet system. Normally, the inside of the system is lined with glass to ...Missing: manifold | Show results with:manifold
[43]
[PDF] Discover the next generation of Quantitative Gas MS
The all-new batch inlet system features a 2 liter inert volume equipped with a 1000 μbar Baratron gauge and a precision machined 400 μL pipette.
[44]
Chemical study of triterpenoid resinous materials in ... - PubMed
Chemical study of triterpenoid resinous materials in archaeological findings by means of direct exposure electron ionisation mass spectrometry and gas ...Missing: pyrolysis probe artifacts<|control11|><|separator|>
[45]
[PDF] Molecular Studies of Organic Residues Preserved in Ancient Vessels
... direct insertion probe, which is resistively heated at 1. A/min in vacuo to a maximum temperature of ca. 800 ºC. Ions were generated under low voltage EI ...
[46]
Ionization and Fragmentation of C60: An Electron Impact Ionization ...
Electron impact ionization of C 60 and C 70 : production and properties of parent and fragment ions studied with a two-sector field mass spectrometer.Missing: patterns | Show results with:patterns
[47]
[PDF] NIST Standard Reference Database 1A
The 2014 version of the NIST/EPA/NIH Mass Spectral Library (NIST 14) contains four mass spectral libraries and a Library of retention index (RI)/GC Method.
[48]
Mass Spectral Libraries - Reproducibility in EI, API and Tandem ...
Apr 14, 2009 · This short essay attempts to answer the question of why this difference should occur, what is it about EI spectra which are so reproducible over ...
[49]
GC/MS Technology: Improving Sensitivity and Results - Labcompare
May 11, 2015 · Capillary GC columns significantly slow sample flow rates, allowing the GC column to interface directly with the mass spectrometer.
[50]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0958166923000757
[51]
The overshadowed role of electron ionization–mass spectrometry in ...
Electron ionization–mass spectrometry (EI–MS) is a widely employed technique for the analysis of molecular structure and composition in organic compounds. It ...Missing: seminal paper
[52]
The overshadowed role of electron ionization-mass spectrometry in ...
Jun 30, 2023 · Gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is widely used for volatile and thermally stable compounds. In this case, the electron ...
[53]
Detection of Exposure to Environmental Pesticides During ... - NIH
Gas chromatography electron impact mass spectrometry was used to detect and quantify the pesticides and metabolites. Recovery of parent compounds and ...
[54]
Highly sensitive and selective analysis of urinary steroids by ... - NIH
These data show a benchtop GC×GC-qMS system has the sensitivity, specificity, and resolution to analyze urinary steroids at normal urine concentrations, and ...
[55]
Modern Instrumental Methods in Forensic Toxicology - PMC
GC–MS–MS procedures are becoming more common in forensic toxicology laboratories following improvements in vacuum engineering, ion sources, instrument size, and ...Gc--Ion Trap Ms (gc--Itms)... · Magnetic Sector Ms And... · Cyclic Voltammetry And...
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Combined organic biomarker and use-wear analyses of stone ...
Nov 26, 2019 · This study aims to assess the potential of combining both methods to analyse stone artefacts, using a set of 69 stones excavated from the cave site of Liang ...Missing: artifacts | Show results with:artifacts
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https://documents.thermofisher.com/TFS-Assets/CMD/Application-Notes/Fast-GC-MS-MS-for-High-Throughput-Pesticides-Analysis.pdf
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[PDF] Fast GC-MS/MS for High Throughput Pesticides Analysis
The analytical setup and results for the screening and quantitation of 233 pesticides in one Fast GC run is described. For each pesticides compound 2 SRM ...
[59]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27082834/
[60]
Is particle beam an up-to-date LC-MS interface? State of the art and ...
The particle beam liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry interface, developed more than ten years ago, has withstood the assault of several new soft ...
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https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-33647-5
[62]
Extractive-liquid sampling electron ionization-mass spectrometry (E ...
Apr 20, 2023 · E-LEI-MS represents a different analytical strategy that allows coupling ambient sampling with electron ionization (EI), avoiding any sample preparation step.Missing: seminal | Show results with:seminal
[63]
Liquid electron ionization-mass spectrometry as a novel strategy for ...
Feb 16, 2024 · However, these devices have limited identification capabilities and lower sensitivity compared to mass spectrometric detectors. ... This poses ...Missing: duty cycle<|control11|><|separator|>
[64]
The Benefits of a Liquid-Electron Ionization Liquid Chromatography ...
May 1, 2019 · From its development in 2016, the liquid-electron ionization (LEI) LC–MS interface has demonstrated a high versatility, offering the ...
[65]
Extractive-liquid sampling electron ionization-mass spectrometry (E ...
Apr 20, 2023 · These applications demonstrate E-LEI-MS potential to identify different types of pharmaceuticals, underlining its utility in quality control ...
[66]
Electron Ionization LC-MS: What Is It and Why Use It? - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · Electron ionization (EI) is a unique and advantageous ionization technique typically employed in gas chromatography-mass spectrometry ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[67]
and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances via a Liquid Electron Ionization LC ...
Apr 8, 2024 · The liquid electron ionization (LEI) interface is an efficient mechanism developed to robustly couple a liquid flow rate from an LC system to ...
[68]
Evaluation of a liquid electron ionization liquid chromatography ...
Apr 26, 2019 · Adsorption and thermal degradation on the metal surface of the ion source of non-vaporized molecules can cause peak tailing and reduce the ...
[69]
High Resolution GC-Orbitrap-MS Metabolomics Using Both Electron ...
This study uses high-resolution GC-Orbitrap-MS with electron ionization (EI) and chemical ionization (CI) to analyze human plasma for metabolomics.
[70]
Mass Spectrometry Strategies in Metabolomics - PMC - NIH
GC-TOF-MS technology offers high mass resolution, high mass accuracy, and fast scan speeds. The relatively faster scan rates associated with TOF-MS are ...
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Mass-correlated pulsed extraction: theoretical analysis and ...
The pulsed extraction (PE) of ions produced by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization in time-of-flight mass spectrometers greatly improves mass ...Missing: speed | Show results with:speed
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Ultra-High Mass Resolving Power, Mass Accuracy, and Dynamic ...
Jan 19, 2020 · FT-ICR mass spectrometers provide the highest mass resolving power and mass accuracy of any mass analyzer, with up to parts-per-billion (ppb) ...Missing: EI | Show results with:EI
[73]
[PDF] Isomer Differentiation of Novel Psychoactive Substances Using Gas ...
Forensic drug chemists rely heavily on gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) that provides low-resolution, electron ionization (EI) mass spectra.
[74]
Mass-Spectrometry-Based Identification of Synthetic Drug Isomers ...
Apr 14, 2020 · Identification of the precise isomeric forms of NPS is of significant forensic relevance since legal controls are dependent on even minor ...
[75]
https://jordilabs.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Whitepaper_EI-CI_Comparison_in_QTOF-GCMS-1.pdf
[76]
[PDF] Jordi Labs - Comparison of EI-CI in QTOF-GCMS
EI uses high energy causing more fragmentation, while CI uses less energy, resulting in less fragmentation and a cleaner background.
[77]
Hybrid quadrupole mass filter/quadrupole ion trap/time-of-flight ...
The setup also includes an electron ionization (EI) source, perpendicular to the line connecting the hexapole and detector 1, which allows generation of ...Missing: configurations | Show results with:configurations
[78]
3.1: Electron Ionization - Chemistry LibreTexts
Jul 3, 2022 · Electron Ionization (EI) is the most common ionization technique used for mass spectrometry. EI works well for many gas phase molecules, but it does have some ...
[79]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6384780/
[80]
An Organic Chemist's Guide to Electrospray Mass Spectrometric ...
Feb 10, 2019 · As its name implies, the technique involves ionization by electrons with ~70 eV energy. This energy is high enough to yield very reproducible ...
[81]
Electron Ionization - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Narrower mass ranges in SIM mode enhance detection sensitivity as the mass ... This mode is used to record quantitative data with high sensitivity ...
[82]
Single Quadrupole Multiple Fragment Ion Monitoring Quantitative ...
The dynamic range for these quantitative analyses was comparable to triple quadrupole multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) analyses at up to 5 orders of magnitude ...
[83]
Ultra-fast and accurate electron ionization mass spectrum matching ...
Jun 22, 2023 · An ultra-fast and accurate spectrum matching (FastEI) method is proposed to substantially improve accuracy using Word2vec spectral embedding and boost the ...Missing: AI spectra
[84]
Everything that comes out of your column goes into the mass ...
Mar 24, 2023 · For an electron ionization source, it is frequently stated that only about 0.1% of the molecules are ionized and not all of those ions make it ...
[85]
Ionization Source Technology Overview | Thermo Fisher Scientific - US
EI is an ionization method used for samples amenable to gas-phase analysis due to their thermally stable and relatively low molecular weight. For this reason, ...
[86]
Electron Impact Ionization - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Conventional electron impact (EI) ionization techniques are unsuitable for the present purpose, but the development of “soft” ionization modes such as field ...
[87]
Intensity of molecular ion peak in electron ionization mass spectra
Aug 5, 2025 · About 40% of the compounds in the NIST 08 library have a molecular ion abundance below 5% [7] . Without the molecular ion, it is challenging ...
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https://www.restek.com/articles/agilent-gc-ms-maintenance-resteks-quick-reference-guide