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Chindits

The Chindits were a British-led special operations force, officially known as the Long Range Penetration Groups, that conducted deep raids behind Japanese lines in Burma during the Second World War to disrupt enemy supply lines and communications.^[1]^[2] Formed in 1942 as the 77th Indian Infantry Brigade under the command of Brigadier Orde Wingate, the force comprised around 3,000 British, Indian, Gurkha, and Burmese troops trained for jungle guerrilla warfare, drawing inspiration from Wingate's earlier successes with irregular units like Gideon Force in Ethiopia.^[3]^[1] Their name derived from the Burmese mythological creature "chinthe," a lion-like guardian figure, symbolizing their role as protectors against the Japanese invasion.^[2]^[4] The Chindits launched their first major operation, codenamed Longcloth, on 8 February 1943, when columns crossed the Chindwin River into Japanese-occupied territory, covering over 1,500 miles on foot while sabotaging railways, bridges, and roads, which killed more than 200 Japanese soldiers and forced the diversion of several enemy divisions.^[3]^[2] Despite achieving partial success in disrupting logistics, the expedition resulted in heavy casualties—about one-third of the force—due to combat, exhaustion, and tropical diseases, with many troops returning via arduous routes or local resistance networks.^[1]^[3] Wingate, promoted to major-general, expanded the force into a larger Special Force for Operation Thursday in March 1944, involving airborne insertions by glider and parachute to establish fortified bases like "Broadway" and "Piccadilly," supported by RAF air supply drops that sustained the troops in isolated positions.^[2]^[4] Under Wingate's initial leadership—until his death in a plane crash on 24 March 1944—the Chindits, now numbering up to 20,000 in 44 columns, tied down tens of thousands of Japanese troops, captured key strongholds such as Mogaung in June 1944 under Brigadier Mike Calvert, and facilitated Allied advances by the US-led Merrill's Marauders and Chinese forces.^[1]^[2] Command passed to Major-General Walter Lentaigne after Wingate's death, but the operation faced criticism for high attrition rates, with over half the force becoming casualties from battle wounds, malnutrition, and "Chindit syndrome"—a debilitating mix of malaria, dysentery, and scrub typhus—leading to the unit's withdrawal and disbandment in February 1945.^[2]^[1] Overall, the Chindits' innovative tactics in jungle warfare boosted Allied morale, demonstrated the viability of long-range special operations with air support, and influenced the development of modern special forces doctrines, though at a tremendous human cost.^[4]^[1]

Origins and Formation

Historical Context

The Japanese invasion of Burma commenced in January 1942, exploiting Allied underestimation of a land assault, which had led to neglected defenses and inadequate preparations. Japanese forces, advancing rapidly through the jungles, overwhelmed British and Commonwealth troops, capturing the capital Rangoon by early March and severing key supply routes. The Burma Corps (comprising the 7th Armoured and 17th Indian Divisions) suffered a catastrophic retreat, covering nearly 1,000 miles to the Indian border while abandoning most equipment and vehicles to the enemy, marking one of the most humiliating Allied defeats of the early war. This debacle underscored the Japanese mastery of infiltration and envelopment tactics in dense terrain, where Allied conventional forces proved ill-equipped for mobile jungle warfare.^[5]^[6] Orde Wingate's earlier command of Gideon Force during the East African Campaign of 1941 provided a foundational model for irregular operations against superior foes. Formed in Sudan as a multinational irregular unit of British officers, Sudanese regulars, and Ethiopian fighters, Gideon Force employed hit-and-run raids, night attacks, and psychological bluff to sever Italian supply lines and communications across vast, rugged landscapes. These tactics, emphasizing mobility and surprise over direct confrontation, forced Italian retreats and culminated in the liberation of Addis Ababa on 6 April 1941 and the restoration of Emperor Haile Selassie to the throne on 5 May 1941, with Wingate leading the emperor's reentry into the capital.^[7]^[1]^[8] Wingate's success in disrupting enemy logistics with minimal forces demonstrated the viability of deep-raiding strategies in challenging environments.^[7]^[1] The conquest of Burma isolated China from overland Allied aid, closing the vital Burma Road and intensifying the strategic demands of the China-Burma-India (CBI) Theater, established in March 1942 to sustain Chinese Nationalist forces under Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek against Japanese aggression. With Japanese troops threatening India and controlling key passes, the Allies urgently needed to reopen supply corridors, leading to the construction of the Ledo Road from northern India to link with remnants of the Burma Road and bypass enemy-held territory. Initial efforts relied on hazardous airlifts over the Himalayas (the "Hump"), but these proved insufficient, highlighting the imperative for operations that could penetrate Japanese lines to secure rear-area dominance and protect emerging infrastructure. Allied reconnaissance and guerrilla actions became essential to counter Japanese jungle superiority and enable sustained support for Chiang's armies.^[9]^[10] The 1942 failures exposed profound Allied vulnerabilities in jungle combat, where Japanese troops excelled at rapid movement, ambushes, and living off the land, while British and Chinese units struggled with extended supply lines, disease, and unfamiliar terrain. Conventional advances faltered against these tactics, prompting a doctrinal shift toward long-range penetration groups to operate behind enemy lines, disrupt rail and road networks, and force Japanese resource diversion without requiring full frontal assaults. This approach aimed to exploit the theater's geography for asymmetric warfare, setting the stage for specialized units to reclaim initiative in the CBI.^[6]

Leadership and Organization

In 1942, Brigadier Orde Wingate was appointed commander of the newly formed 77th Indian Infantry Brigade by General Archibald Wavell, with the mandate to develop innovative "long-range penetration groups" capable of operating deep behind enemy lines through highly mobile columns designed to disrupt Japanese supply lines in Burma.^[11] Wingate's vision emphasized unconventional warfare tactics, drawing from his prior experiences in guerrilla operations, to create a force that could harass and interdict enemy communications without relying on conventional supply lines.^[11] The brigade was established at Jhansi in central India during the summer of 1942, assembling an initial force of approximately 3,000 men recruited from a mix of British, Indian, and Gurkha units, including battalions such as the 13th King's Liverpool Regiment, 3rd/2nd Gurkha Rifles, and 2nd Burma Rifles.^[11] This multinational composition reflected the diverse makeup of the British Indian Army and was intended to leverage the strengths of each group in jungle terrain, with the total strength providing sufficient manpower for sustained operations while maintaining operational secrecy during formation.^[11] Organizationally, the 77th Brigade was structured into eight columns, each comprising around 300 to 400 men, subdivided into smaller groups for flexibility; these columns were supported by pack mules for transport, light mortars for fire support, and integrated reconnaissance and signals elements to enable coordinated movements and communications in remote areas.^[11] The column design prioritized mobility and self-sufficiency, with each unit equipped to operate independently for extended periods, incorporating engineers for obstacle clearance and medical personnel for casualty care.^[11] Key subordinate leaders included Brigadier Joseph "Joe" Lentaigne, who served as Wingate's deputy and later succeeded him as overall Chindit commander following Wingate's death in 1944, providing crucial administrative and operational expertise.^[11] Non-commissioned officers (NCOs) played a pivotal role in column leadership, often commanding smaller sections and proving essential in sustaining unit cohesion, morale, and tactical execution under the grueling conditions of long-range penetration.^[11]

Training Regimen

The training of the Chindits, officially designated as the 77th Indian Infantry Brigade, commenced in October 1942 at the Central India Horse depot near Saugor in the Central Provinces of India.^[12] This remote location was selected to simulate the harsh conditions of Burmese jungle warfare, with the brigade undergoing a rigorous program designed by Brigadier Orde Wingate to build endurance and operational proficiency. The regimen emphasized physical hardening through forced marches across arid plains and scrublands, often carrying heavy loads to mimic expeditionary demands, alongside live-fire exercises to hone combat skills under simulated combat stress.^[13] Mule handling was a core component, as pack animals were essential for transporting supplies in long-range operations; soldiers learned to manage and care for these animals during extended treks, ensuring logistical self-reliance in isolated environments.^[14] A key focus was fostering self-sufficiency, with troops instructed to live off the land by foraging for food and water while minimizing reliance on resupply. Navigation training relied heavily on compasses and maps, preparing columns for independent movement through dense, unmapped terrain without modern aids. Guerrilla tactics formed the tactical backbone, including ambushes, hit-and-run raids, and sabotage techniques to disrupt enemy lines, drawing from Wingate's prior experiences in irregular warfare.^[15] Psychological preparation was integral, led by Wingate through lengthy lectures on maintaining high morale amid isolation and hardship, transforming initial skepticism into unit cohesion. The adoption of the "Chindit" name, a corruption of the Burmese "Chinthe"—a mythical lion-like creature symbolizing steadfast guardianship—served as a motivational emblem, worn on badges to evoke endurance and ferocity.^[16] To counter tropical diseases prevalent in Burma, such as malaria, the training incorporated mandatory inoculations against common infections and strict anti-malarial routines, including daily doses of quinine and mosquito netting drills, treated with the same discipline as tactical exercises.^[17] The entire preparation spanned approximately three months, culminating in the brigade's readiness for deep penetration missions by early 1943.^[18]

Operation Longcloth

Planning and Launch

In late 1942, Brigadier Orde Wingate developed the concept for Operation Longcloth as the inaugural test of his long-range penetration tactics, aiming to insert a mobile brigade deep behind Japanese lines in Burma to sever supply lines and sow disruption.^[19] The plan was presented to General Archibald Wavell, Commander-in-Chief of the India Command, who approved it despite initial skepticism, viewing it as a high-risk experiment to harass Japanese communications during the broader Allied efforts in the Burma theater.^[20] Wingate's objectives centered on sabotaging key infrastructure, particularly the vital Mandalay-Myitkyina railway, while forcing Japanese troops to divert resources from frontline defenses to hunt the raiders, thereby easing pressure on Allied coastal operations in Arakan.^[3] Logistical preparations highlighted the operation's improvisational nature, with the 77th Indian Infantry Brigade relying on pack mules for transport—each column equipped with around 200 animals to carry ammunition, rations, and equipment through unmapped jungle terrain—while air resupply was constrained by limited aircraft availability and the challenges of precise drops in dense forest cover.^[21] Detailed topographic maps were scarce, compelling planners to depend on rudimentary sketches and local intelligence for the deep incursion into Japanese-held territory, which exacerbated risks of disorientation and supply shortages.^[22] These constraints underscored Wingate's emphasis on speed and surprise over heavy armament, with the force organized into seven self-contained columns totaling approximately 3,000 men, including British, Indian, and Gurkha troops supported by a small air liaison section.^[23] The operation launched on 8 February 1943, when the columns departed from Imphal in Manipur, India, marching eastward through hilly terrain toward the Burmese border under cover of secrecy to avoid alerting Japanese patrols.^[19] By 13 February, after navigating initial river crossings and jungle paths, the main body reached and forded the Chindwin River—the natural frontier between India and Japanese-occupied Burma—using improvised rafts and rope lines, marking the irreversible entry into enemy territory and the start of the deep penetration phase.^[3] Wingate accompanied the advance, issuing his famous Order of the Day to rally the troops as they crossed, emphasizing the mission's audacity and the psychological impact intended on Japanese forces.^[20]

Incursions and Disruptions

Following the initial penetration into Japanese-held Burma, the Chindits divided into northern and southern groups comprising seven mobile columns, which advanced to target key rail and road infrastructure in the Mu Valley during March 1943.^[24] These columns focused on disrupting Japanese logistics by sabotaging the Wuntho-Indaw railway, a critical segment of the broader Mandalay-Myitkyina line, through coordinated demolitions of bridges and track sections.^[25] Overall, the force demolished several railway bridges and severed the line in dozens of places between Indaw and Mandalay, severely hampering enemy transport.^[26] Chindit units employed hit-and-run tactics to engage Japanese patrols and outposts, minimizing direct confrontations while maximizing disruption.^[19] For example, near Pinlebu on 6 March, columns under Major Michael Calvert assaulted a small garrison, destroying rail infrastructure after an air strike softened defenses, and then withdrew to evade reinforcements.^[24] Similarly, on 3 March, No. 4 Column from the northern group was ambushed by Japanese troops northeast of Pinlebu but repelled the attack, continuing sabotage operations despite losses.^[24] These skirmishes inflicted minor casualties on the enemy—killing dozens in ambushes—while preserving Chindit mobility through rapid dispersal.^[25] The operations encountered mounting challenges, including acute supply shortages that reduced rations to half the required amount, leading to widespread malnutrition and exhaustion.^[19] Japanese counterattacks intensified by mid-March, with patrols and larger formations pursuing the columns, forcing them to scatter into smaller groups to avoid encirclement.^[24] Adverse weather, including early seasonal rains, compounded these issues by hindering movement and air resupply drops.^[19] The sabotage efforts delayed Japanese reinforcements along the railway by approximately four weeks and diverted an estimated 6 to 8 battalions to defensive duties, though they yielded no fundamental strategic alteration in the Burma theater.^[19]

Withdrawal and Immediate Outcomes

Following the order issued on 24 March 1943, the Chindit columns initiated their withdrawal after approximately six weeks of deep penetration into Japanese-occupied northern Burma, having disrupted supply lines and communications as per their incursion tactics. The retreat proved grueling, with the seven columns—totaling around 3,000 men at the outset—navigating flooded rivers like the Irrawaddy and Chindwin under constant threat of Japanese ambushes and aerial attacks, while abandoning excess equipment and releasing pack animals to lighten their load. Many relied on improvised means, such as rubber dinghies or lifebelts, to cross the waterways, and some groups even constructed temporary airstrips for partial air evacuation amid relentless pursuit.^[19]^[27] Casualties during Operation Longcloth were severe, totaling 818 men—approximately 27 percent of the force—encompassing those killed, wounded, or missing, compounded by rampant disease, exhaustion, and malnutrition that rendered the majority unfit for immediate combat. Of the 2,182 who eventually crossed back into India, only about 600 were deemed fit for further duty, highlighting the toll of jungle warfare without sustained resupply. Non-combat losses from malaria, dysentery, and starvation far outweighed battle injuries, as the Chindits' prolonged exposure to harsh conditions eroded their fighting capacity.^[28]^[19]^[3] In immediate postwar assessments, Brigadier Orde Wingate hailed the operation as a triumph, arguing it validated his long-range penetration doctrine and provided a vital morale boost to British and Indian forces reeling from earlier defeats in Burma. Yet, senior commanders offered a more tempered view; General William Slim, then leading XIV Army, critiqued Longcloth for its limited strategic disruption of Japanese operations, labeling it an "expensive failure" that yielded tactical harassment but no decisive blow against enemy logistics. This divergence underscored the operation's psychological value against its high human cost.^[19]^[26]^[29] By May 1943, the surviving Chindits had fully returned to bases in India, where the depleted units were dispersed for medical treatment, recuperation, and initial reorganization to prepare for future engagements.^[30]

Interlude and Expansion

Reorganization Efforts

Following the heavy casualties and logistical challenges of Operation Longcloth, which resulted in approximately 818 killed, wounded, or missing out of 3,000 participants, British commanders critiqued the expedition's small-scale raiding tactics as insufficient for broader strategic impact in Burma. This assessment prompted a significant expansion of the Chindit forces, leading to the formal establishment of the 3rd Indian Infantry Division—officially designated as Special Force—on 18 September 1943 at Jhansi, India. This 'paper' division was formally redesignated on 12 March 1944 to further the deception. Under Major-General Orde Wingate's command, the division was structured as a deceptive "paper" formation to mislead Japanese intelligence, comprising six brigades: the 77th and 111th Indian Infantry Brigades, the 14th, 16th, and 23rd British Infantry Brigades, and the 3rd West African Brigade. These units totaled around 20,000 men, enabling a shift from isolated guerrilla actions to coordinated, division-scale operations.^[12]^[31]^[32]^[33] To support this enlarged force, the reorganization integrated substantial U.S. assistance, particularly through the formation of the 1st Air Commando Group under Colonel Philip Cochran and Colonel John Alison, which provided dedicated transport via C-47 Dakotas, close air support with P-51 Mustangs and B-25 Mitchells, and glider operations for rapid troop insertion and supply. Additional engineering units were incorporated to construct and maintain forward airstrips, addressing the air resupply limitations exposed in Longcloth. This collaboration marked a pivotal enhancement in mobility and firepower for deep-penetration missions.^[28]^[34]^[35] Surviving personnel from Longcloth underwent essential rest and recovery in various locations across India, including hospitals and hill stations, where efforts focused on rehabilitating troops debilitated by jungle warfare. Health crises, including outbreaks of scrub typhus—a mite-borne disease causing severe fever and organ failure—were prioritized through improved sanitation, medical screening, and quarantine measures, though it continued to claim lives into 1944. Recruitment drives bolstered the ranks with experienced fighters, notably increasing the intake of Gurkha battalions such as the 3rd/6th and 3rd/9th Gurkha Rifles for their endurance in rugged terrain, alongside Chin Hill and Kachin levies from the Burma Rifles to leverage local knowledge.^[18]^[34]^[36] The reorganization emphasized a doctrinal evolution toward larger-scale engagements, incorporating fortified bases with defended airstrips—such as those planned for Broadway and White City—to serve as sustained operational hubs rather than transient raid points. This approach aimed to prolong Chindit presence behind enemy lines, facilitating prolonged disruption of Japanese supply lines while minimizing the exhaustion that plagued the 1943 expedition.^[12]^[37]^[38]

Strategic Planning for Thursday

In September 1943, Major-General Orde Wingate proposed an ambitious expansion of long-range penetration operations, envisioning the establishment of air-supplied bases deep within Japanese-occupied Burma to enable sustained Chindit strongholds far behind enemy lines.^[38] This plan built on the lessons from Operation Longcloth and aimed to deploy a larger force, incorporating American air support for unprecedented logistical reach.^[39] The proposal received high-level approval from Prime Minister Winston Churchill and President Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Sextant Conference in Cairo from November 22 to 26, 1943, where it was integrated into broader Allied strategy for the Burma campaign.^[40] The primary objectives included creating fortified strongholds to impede the Japanese 18th Division's movements, provide direct support to impending Allied offensives at Imphal and Kohima, and sever supply lines leading to the vital rail hub at Myitkyina, thereby disrupting Japanese reinforcements and logistics across northern Burma.^[41] These goals were designed to complement General Joseph Stilwell's advance from the north and facilitate the eventual linkage of Allied forces with China.^[38] Logistical preparations emphasized innovative air resupply, with the Royal Air Force (RAF) and United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) tasked to conduct over 500 sorties for dropping essential supplies, ammunition, and reinforcements to the isolated strongholds.^[38] Central to this were detailed plans for constructing temporary landing strips at sites codenamed Broadway and Piccadilly, which would allow glider landings and the rapid deployment of engineering units to extend operational runways, ensuring the strongholds could function as self-sustaining bases rather than transient raiding parties.^[39] This approach marked a shift toward semi-permanent positions supported entirely by air, addressing previous limitations in overland supply.^[41] Following the expansion of Special Force in late 1943, training intensified from November, focusing on airborne insertion techniques, mule handling for rough terrain, and coordination with air units under No. 1 Air Commando.^[39] Training intensified from November 1943, with the operation commencing in early 1944—its main airborne phase on 5 March—to align with mounting Japanese threats to Imphal, allowing earlier disruption of enemy concentrations and tighter integration with broader South East Asia Command objectives.^[41]

Operation Thursday

Air Operations and Landings

Operation Thursday's airborne phase commenced on 5 March 1944, with the launch of approximately 9,000 Chindit troops from Hailakandi airfield in India, utilizing C-47 Dakota aircraft towing gliders from the 1st Air Commando Group.^[38]^[42] The operation involved 67 gliders dispatched to the Broadway landing zone, located 130 miles behind Japanese lines in northern Burma, where pathfinders had marked the site with flares despite poor weather conditions including fog and low cloud.^[38]^[43] Of these, 32 gliders successfully landed starting at 18:12 hours, delivering initial assault elements including engineers and equipment to clear and secure the strip.^[43]^[44] The following day, 6 March 1944, glider landings occurred at the secondary Chowringhee site, about 60 miles south of Broadway, deploying elements of the 111th Brigade headquarters and Morris Force, totaling around 1,200 men by 8 March.^[45]^[42] However, reconnaissance had revealed the planned Piccadilly site obstructed by Japanese activity, forcing a pivot to Broadway and Chowringhee.^[44] At Broadway, chaotic conditions arose from hidden ditches, ruts, and trees, leading to crashes and collisions that resulted in 30 men killed and 28 wounded during the initial landings.^[45]^[38] By mid-March, columns from Broadway had marched to the Mawlu area near Indaw, where the 111th Brigade established the fortified stronghold known as "White City," named for the white supply parachutes visible from the air.^[38]^[42] This base was rapidly strengthened with barbed wire, mortars, and anti-tank guns delivered via a major air drop on 18 March, enabling it to repel initial Japanese probes and infantry attacks in the following days.^[38]^[45] Air supply operations proved highly effective, with C-47s conducting over 579 sorties in the first week alone, including daily drops that sustained the Chindits' presence by delivering rations, ammunition, and engineering materials to both Broadway and White City.^[45]^[44] Light aircraft facilitated casualty evacuations, achieving a near-100% rate for wounded personnel in the early phase.^[44] Significant challenges marked the airborne insertion, including a 30% loss rate among gliders en route to Broadway due to overloaded dual tows, mechanical failures, and adverse weather, with 20 of 67 gliders crashing, though half of the occupants from lost craft managed to evade capture and return.^[43]^[38] These incidents, combined with landing accidents, contributed to early casualties and delayed full operational readiness, yet the surviving forces quickly adapted to secure their footholds.^[45]

Northern Advance and Engagements

Following the successful establishment of strongholds like White City and Broadway, the 14th Brigade, comprising elements of the Bedfordshire and Hertfordshire Regiment, York and Lancaster Regiment, and 7th Leicesters, was airlifted into the operational area between April 1 and 4, 1944, to block Japanese southern approaches to Indaw and reinforce the northern sector.^[46] The brigade's columns advanced northward from their landing zone at Aberdeen, aiming to disrupt Japanese reinforcements and support Allied forces pushing toward Mogaung and Myitkyina.^[47] On April 15, 1944, units including the Black Watch and 7th Leicesters assaulted the Bonchaung railway station and gorge bridges south of Indaw, destroying the main rail bridge and two girder spans in fierce close-quarters combat that killed over 40 Japanese defenders, though the Chindits endured severe thirst and enemy fire during the operation.^[46] These actions along the railway line severed key supply routes, compelling Japanese troops to rely on bypassed tracks and complicating their logistics in northern Burma.^[47] The 14th Brigade's northward push facilitated indirect coordination with U.S. Merrill's Marauders and Chinese forces under General Joseph Stilwell, as Chindit operations diverted Japanese attention southward, easing pressure on the Allied advance toward Myitkyina.^[48] By late April, the brigade had damaged the railway in 16 locations and destroyed over 20 supply dumps between April 22 and 26, including an ambush on a Japanese train south of Indaw that further hampered enemy mobility.^[47] This positioning allowed the Chindits to aid in the evacuation of wounded near Indawgyi Lake, aligning with Merrill's Marauders' efforts in the region without a direct physical link-up.^[49] Meanwhile, the 77th Brigade at White City, a fortified position near Henu established in early March 1944, repelled multiple Japanese assaults from elements of the 18th, 56th, and 15th Divisions, holding the perimeter against waves of attacks between March 21-23 and April 5-15.^[38] Close air support from the U.S. 1st Air Commando Group proved decisive, with strikes on Japanese concentrations and supply lines enabling the defenders to inflict heavy losses, estimated at over 3,000 Japanese casualties during the April assaults alone.^[46] "Floater" columns from the brigade conducted sabotage operations, disrupting more than 100 miles of railway north and south of Mawlu by mining tracks, derailing trains, and destroying bridges, which denied the Japanese effective use of the line for weeks.^[38] Coordination with Chinese and U.S. forces intensified as the 14th Brigade's elements, including 35 Column of the 7th Leicesters, ambushed Japanese convoys near Mawlu in late March 1944, killing 41 troops massing for an attack on White City and destroying a lorry convoy of about 30 vehicles with its full personnel of 50 men.^[47] These ambushes, supported by intelligence from local Kachin Rangers, targeted reinforcements from the Japanese 53rd Division, buying time for Stilwell's Chinese 38th Division to advance along the Kamaing Road.^[48] By mid-April, such actions had forced Japanese commanders to divert troops from the Imphal front, contributing to broader Allied momentum in northern Burma.^[49] Throughout these engagements in March and April 1944, the Chindits experienced mounting attrition from combat wounds, exhaustion, and tropical diseases such as malaria, scrub typhus, and amoebic dysentery, with non-battle casualties often exceeding battle ones due to the 90-day operational limit and harsh jungle conditions.^[48] Some forward columns reported casualty rates approaching 50 percent by late April, as relentless marches and supply shortages compounded the toll, forcing reliance on air evacuation for over 2,000 affected personnel.^[50] Despite these losses, the brigade maintained offensive pressure, with Japanese casualties far outpacing Allied ones in key fights like Bonchaung and White City.^[46]

Command Transition

On 24 March 1944, Major-General Orde Wingate, the charismatic leader of the Chindits, perished in a plane crash deep in the Burmese jungle while returning from inspecting forward positions during Operation Thursday.^[51]^[52] The B-25 Mitchell bomber carrying Wingate, several aides, and war correspondents struck a hillside near Imphal amid adverse weather conditions, with the exact cause attributed to bad weather, possibly compounded by engine malfunction.^[53]^[52] This sudden loss stunned the force, as Wingate's inspirational presence had been central to its aggressive ethos and morale, though operations continued without immediate disruption due to established command structures.^[54] Brigadier Walter Lentaigne, who had served as deputy commander and participated in the planning and acting command roles during the preparations for the first Chindit expedition (Operation Longcloth), was appointed to succeed Wingate as overall commander of Special Force on 30 March 1944 by Lieutenant-General William Slim, head of the Fourteenth Army.^[55]^[54] Lentaigne's elevation, despite some field commanders' preferences for alternatives closer to Wingate's inner circle, brought a shift in leadership style from Wingate's high-risk, mobile deep penetrations to a more cautious approach emphasizing defensive consolidation around established strongholds.^[54]^[56] The transition initially caused a morale dip among troops accustomed to Wingate's fervor, with expressions of concern over future direction, but Lentaigne's familiarity with Chindit tactics from his Longcloth-era involvement helped maintain operational continuity amid ongoing engagements.^[52]^[55] Strategically, Lentaigne reduced the focus on wide-ranging incursions, prioritizing the reinforcement and retention of key positions like Blackpool to support broader Allied objectives, such as aiding the advance toward Myitkyina, thereby adapting the force to its mounting attrition and logistical strains.^[56]^[54]

Final Phases and Kohima Support

As the monsoon season intensified in mid-May 1944, the Chindits began withdrawing from their forward positions due to severe flooding, deteriorating supply lines, and mounting exhaustion among the troops. The heavy rains, starting around May 15, disrupted air resupply efforts, making it nearly impossible to maintain the strongholds amid swollen rivers and mud-choked terrain.^[47] Major-General Walter Lentaigne, who had assumed command following Orde Wingate's death earlier that month, ordered the phased evacuation to mitigate further losses from disease and attrition.^[57] Throughout this period, the Chindits played a crucial role in supporting the Allied defenses during the Siege of Imphal and the Battle of Kohima by forcing the Japanese to divert significant forces northward to counter the penetration raids. The 23rd Brigade, in particular, conducted disruptive operations that intercepted retreating Japanese supply columns, contributing to the relief of Kohima on April 18, 1944, and easing pressure on Imphal by drawing away elements of the Japanese 15th Army.^[58] This indirect support helped blunt the Japanese U-Go offensive, as the Chindits' presence tied down troops that might otherwise have reinforced the assaults on these key positions.^[47] By late May, key strongholds were abandoned under intense pressure; for instance, Blackpool, held by the 111th Brigade south of Mogaung, was evacuated on May 25 after 20 days of fierce fighting and unsustainable supply shortages exacerbated by Japanese anti-aircraft fire and monsoon conditions.^[40] Remaining positions, such as those near Mogaung, held until July, when the capture of the town on 26 June allowed further withdrawals, marking the operational wind-down.^[57] Operation Thursday formally concluded on August 27, 1944, with the last Chindit columns extracted from Burma.^[59] The campaign's strategic outcomes included the mauling of the Japanese 18th Division, which suffered heavy losses from interdicted supplies and engagements, aiding broader Allied counteroffensives in Burma during 1944.^[60] Overall, the Chindits' efforts contributed to the turning point victories at Imphal and Kohima, weakening Japanese logistics and morale across the theater.^[58] Evacuation primarily occurred by air, using Dakotas, light liaison aircraft, and even early helicopter trials for the wounded, though approximately half of the returning force—around 50%—was deemed unfit for further service due to malaria, malnutrition, and injuries.^[57]^[54]

Disbandment and Impact

Dissolution of Units

In February 1945, Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten, Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia, issued the order to disband the Chindits, officially known as Special Force, marking the end of their role as a specialized long-range penetration unit.^[61] This decision was driven by the exceptionally high casualties sustained during Operations Longcloth and Thursday, which had depleted the force's manpower and raised questions about the sustainability of such deep-penetration tactics, alongside the broader strategic shift toward conventional warfare as the Allied advance in Burma gained momentum with the 14th Army's adoption of Chindit-inspired methods across conventional units.^[61]^[62] Mountbatten described the disbandment as the most distasteful decision of his career, confiding in Brigadier Mike Calvert that the entire 14th Army had become "Chindit-minded," rendering a dedicated special force redundant as its innovative tactics—originally pioneered by the late Major-General Orde Wingate—were integrated into standard operations.^[61] Wingate's enduring legacy influenced Mountbatten's operational philosophy, even after his death in March 1944, while Major-General Walter Lentaigne, who had succeeded Wingate as commander, provided input during the transition, emphasizing that no further special operations were feasible given the force's exhaustion and the evolving campaign dynamics.^[61]^[62] Surviving personnel were reassigned to bolster other formations, with many integrated into regular Indian Army units to share their combat experience, while select elements, such as the 14th Airlanding Brigade, were reformed under the newly established 44th Indian Airborne Division starting in November 1945, transitioning from jungle warfare to airborne roles in preparation for potential operations in Malaya.^[63]^[62] Administrative processes included the systematic evacuation of remaining troops from forward areas, such as the final flights from Myitkyina in late August 1944, followed by demobilization procedures that involved medical assessments, repatriation for the unfit, and the return of specialized equipment like mules and air-droppable supplies to general supply depots for redistribution across the theater.^[62] Though no large-scale formal ceremonies were recorded, unit-level acknowledgments and briefings underscored the Chindits' contributions before dispersal, ensuring their expertise informed ongoing training.^[61]

Casualties and Losses

The Chindits endured severe casualties across their two major operations, with combat, exhaustion, and disease taking a heavy toll on the force. The Chindits suffered heavy casualties across both operations, with approximately 4,600 battle casualties (killed, wounded, or missing) out of a total force of around 23,000, and over half the force debilitated by illness, exhaustion, and disease, rendering many unfit for further service. In Operation Longcloth, the 77th Indian Infantry Brigade of 3,000 men suffered 818 total casualties, representing about 27 percent of the force; this included 450 killed in action, with the remainder wounded, captured, or died of disease (around 430 taken prisoner), primarily due to intense jungle combat and physical exhaustion from marching over 1,000 miles with limited supplies.^[24]^[64]^[28] Operation Thursday saw far greater scale and losses for Special Force, with 1,396 killed and 2,434 wounded among the penetrating columns; approximately 40 percent of these casualties stemmed from non-combat causes, including malaria, typhus, dysentery, and malnutrition exacerbated by the monsoon conditions and supply challenges. Unit-specific rates were stark, as exemplified by the 111th Brigade, which incurred around 60 percent overall casualties from a combination of battle and disease.^[40]^[65]^[66] The long-term effects were profound, with many surviving veterans experiencing lifelong health complications from chronic diseases, nutritional deficiencies, and psychological trauma sustained in the Burmese jungles. In contrast, the Chindits inflicted an estimated 5,000-6,000 casualties on Japanese forces through ambushes, disruptions, and diversions that tied down enemy divisions.^[62]

Legacy

Memorials and Recognition

The primary memorial to the Chindits is located in Victoria Embankment Gardens, London, and was unveiled on 16 October 1990 by HRH Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh.^[67] This Grade II-listed structure features a bronze statue of a Chinthe—a mythical Burmese guardian lion—atop a Portland stone plinth, with a portrait relief of Major General Orde Wingate and inscriptions honoring the special forces' role in the Burma Campaign.^[68] It specifically commemorates Wingate alongside four Victoria Cross recipients from the Chindits: Lieutenant George Albert Cairns of the Somerset Light Infantry (attached South Staffordshire Regiment), Captain Michael John Nears Allmand of the Indian Armoured Corps (attached 6th Gurkha Rifles), Major Frank Gerald Blaker of the Highland Light Infantry (attached 9th Gurkha Rifles), and Rifleman Tul Bahadur Pun of the 6th Gurkha Rifles.^[69] A secondary memorial exists at the National Memorial Arboretum in Staffordshire, consisting of a granite block with a bronze plaque dedicated to all Chindit personnel.^[70] The Chindit Society, successor to the original Chindits Old Comrades Association, organizes annual commemorations, such as those held on VJ Day at the London memorial, involving wreath-laying ceremonies and gatherings for descendants and historians to preserve the units' legacy.^[71] In 2025, for the 80th anniversary of VJ Day, one of the last surviving Chindits, Charlie Richards, attended the national commemoration service.^[72] In terms of awards, the Burma Campaign saw 28 Victoria Crosses awarded overall, with Chindit personnel receiving at least four during Operation Thursday alone, recognizing acts of extraordinary valor in long-range penetration missions.^[73] These honors, including those to Indian and Gurkha troops within Chindit columns, underscore the multinational composition of the force. The Chindits' contributions are also acknowledged in official Indian military histories, which highlight their integration with Indian Army units, and in U.S. Army records, where their tactics influenced American special operations planning in the Pacific theater. In the 2020s, efforts to honor the Chindits have included digital archives like the comprehensive online repository at chindits.info, which digitizes veteran accounts, photographs, and operational documents for public access. Veteran reunions and commemorative events persist, such as the 80th anniversary gathering at the National Memorial Arboretum in 2023, where surviving Chindit veterans and families paid tribute to the fallen.^[74] These initiatives ensure ongoing recognition of the Chindits' sacrifices amid dwindling numbers of firsthand witnesses.^[12]

Strategic and Military Influence

The Chindits pioneered the concept of air-mobile special forces operations, utilizing gliders and transport aircraft to insert troops deep behind enemy lines, establishing fortified strongholds for sustained operations in hostile terrain. This approach, exemplified in Operation Thursday in 1944, integrated close air support from units like the U.S. 1st Air Commando Group, which provided resupply, evacuation, and fire support, serving as a prototype for future special operations reliant on aviation.^[75]^[76] Their tactics of long-range penetration and guerrilla disruption influenced the development of modern elite units, including the British Special Air Service (SAS) and U.S. Army Rangers, by demonstrating the viability of unconventional warfare in jungle environments.^[77] During Operation Thursday, the Chindits achieved tangible logistical impacts, with the 77th Indian Brigade destroying more than 75 sections of the vital Mandalay-Myitkyina railroad, a key Japanese supply artery supporting forces in northern Burma. This sabotage, combined with ambushes on convoys and depots, contributed to broader disruptions in Japanese logistics, forcing the diversion of troops to protect rear areas and weakening their offensive capabilities by an estimated significant portion in affected sectors.^[76]^[28] The effectiveness of the Chindits remains debated among military historians, with General William Slim, commander of the British Fourteenth Army, praising their courage and jungle-fighting prowess but questioning the operations' overall value due to the high casualties—over 50% in some units—and limited strategic gains relative to the resources expended.^[78] In contrast, Orde Wingate emphasized the psychological and morale-boosting dimensions, arguing that the Chindits' daring raids restored Allied confidence after early defeats in Burma and demonstrated that Japanese forces could be challenged unconventionally, providing an inspirational lift to broader theater morale.^[26] Despite these costs, the Chindits played a pivotal role in the eventual Japanese defeat in Burma by 1945, tying down enemy divisions through persistent interdiction of supply lines and communications, which complemented conventional advances and prevented full Japanese concentration against Allied offensives.^[28] Their emphasis on mobility, deception, and deep strikes informed later special operations doctrines, influencing tactics employed by U.S. forces in Vietnam, such as long-range reconnaissance patrols that mirrored Chindit-style infiltration and sabotage.^[79] In contemporary terms, the Chindits' legacy endures in the British Army's 77th Brigade, formed in 2014 as a hybrid unit for information operations and psychological warfare, explicitly inspired by the original Chindits' unconventional methods and symbolized by a redesigned Chinthe emblem on its insignia.^[80] This brigade adapts Chindit principles of disruption and influence to modern hybrid threats, while their operational model has shaped special forces approaches in conflicts like Afghanistan, where small-team raids and supply interdiction echoed long-range penetration strategies.^[81]

References

[1]
Origins of the Special Forces | National Army Museum
The Chindits were founded and led by Brigadier Orde Wingate. He had earlier successfully commanded Gideon Force - an irregular army inspired by the Special ...
[2]
The Chindits: Unique Burma Jungle Force - Historic UK
Apr 14, 2025 · The Chindits were a British special operations force, trained for long-range raids behind Japanese lines in Burma, disrupting supply routes.Missing: WWII | Show results with:WWII
[3]
Behind enemy lines: The story of the Chindits & Operation Longcloth
Feb 8, 2023 · Operation Longcloth was a Chindits mission to disrupt Japanese communication lines in Burma, with the Chindits being the Long Range Penetration ...Missing: sources - - | Show results with:sources - -
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REME History: The Chindits
May 10, 2023 · This was the special force in Burma operating between 1943 - 1944 with the objectives of attacking Japanese troops, facilities and lines of communication deep ...Missing: sources - - | Show results with:sources - -
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The Far East campaign | National Army Museum
Retreat from Burma. As a land invasion had long been thought unlikely, the defences of Burma (now Myanmar) had been neglected. When the Japanese attack began in ...
[6]
[PDF] NORTHERN BURMA, 1942-1945 A thesis presented to the Faculty of
Jun 18, 2021 · The failure of Operation U-Go, to which Allied special operations units contributed substantially, also affected Japanese national strategy.
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Great Contemporaries: Orde Wingate - "A Man of the Highest Quality"
Oct 8, 2020 · Arriving in Khartoum in November 1940, Wingate organized an irregular force to invade Abyssinia, accompanied by Emperor Haile Selassie. The ...
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[PDF] Time Runs Out in CBI - GovInfo
This volume, third of a subseries, carries the story of the Army's anomalous mission in China-Burma-India from the recall of General.
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The China-Burma-India theater was established on 4 March 1942 to transport supplies to the forces of the Chinese Central Government.
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[PDF] BRITISH ARMY REVIEW
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Formed and lead by Major-General Orde Wingate DSO, they fought behind enemy lines in Northern Burma during 1943 and 1944 in the War against Japan.Order of Battle · Chindits Old Comrades... · Military Awards · Chindit BadgeMissing: sources - - | Show results with:sources - -
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Training for the potential Chindit operations comprised of continuous marches across the arid plains and scrublands in Central India. The marches were arduous ...
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Rating 5.0 (10) Wavell agrees to test Long Range Penetration, and 77th Indian Infantry Brigade is formed. It begins training at Saugor in the. Central Provinces. Operation ...
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CHINDITS' FINEST HOUR - Key Military
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1st Chindit Expedition, Operation Longcloth 1943
In January 1942, when the Japanese invaded Burma, the British War Office offered the services of Lieutenant-Colonel Orde Wingate, DSO, to General Wavell, ...Missing: Mountbatten | Show results with:Mountbatten
[19]
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... attack roads, railways, bridges and supply dumps. They were to suffer terrible casualties, from sickness, savage battles with the enemy, slow starvation and ...Missing: incursions disruptions sabotage Maingkwan
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[26]
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Jan 31, 2018 · The campaign was given the code name Operation Longcloth and on the 8th February 1943, 3,000 Chindits advance into Burma from Imphal. “Today we ...
[27]
VJ Day 75: Role of the Chindits in the Burma campaign
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[28]
Major-General Orde Wingate, the 'Chindits' and the battle to retake ...
... strategic errors. These resulted in a relatively high casualty rate; of the ... The failed attack on Indaw in Operation Thursday 1944 was not a failure ...
[29]
The Chindits in 1943 - Achilles the Heel
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badge, formation, Indian, 3rd Indian Infantry Division (The Chindits)
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Chindit Order of Battle – Achilles the Heel
Meantime, the 70th Division began to reorganize for the role of “long range penetration” on 6 September 1943, relinquishing its units to the 3rd Indian Division ...Missing: expansion | Show results with:expansion
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None
### Summary of Chindits Reorganization After Longcloth
[33]
Chindits Order of Battle 1943 and 1944
Air Support. 1st Air Commandos. Colonel P. Cochran. Colonel J.R. Alison. United States Army Air Force. 3rd West African Brigade. Commander. Brigadier A.H. ...Missing: formation | Show results with:formation
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The Gurkhas of 1943 - Chindit Chasing, Operation Longcloth 1943
The 3rd Gurkha battalion, young and raw, performed well on Operation Longcloth in 1943, despite being inexperienced and short of officers.
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[36]
The Chindits - Operation Thursday
Operation Longcloth, Major-General Orde Wingate's initial, Brigade-strength incursion into Japanese-held North Burma during 1943, drew much criticism.
[37]
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Wingate's proposals won American support and the conference agreed to a second Chindit operation. To show their support the Americans offered to form an ...Missing: September Sextant
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2nd Chindit Expedition 1944 - Operation Thursday
The plan was for a first wave of gilders to land troops to secure the site. A second wave would land more troops and American engineers with their equipment to ...
[44]
The Chindits - Operation Thursday
Other Chindit operations included the attack by 14 Brigade elements on Bonchaung railway station and the Bonchaung Gorge bridges, south of Indaw, between ...
[45]
The Chindits - Operation Thursday
Together with other 14 Brigade columns, the Chindits destroyed over 20 dumps and damaged the railway in 16 places, ambushed a train and attacked two villages ...
[46]
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[47]
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[48]
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[49]
British Army officer Orde Wingate killed in plane crash - History.com
Maj. Gen. Orde Wingate, leader of the 77th Indian Brigade, also called the Chindits, dies in a transport plane crash. He was 41 years old.
[50]
2nd Chindit Expedition 1944 - Death of Major-General Orde Wingate
On 24th March 1944 Wingate flew into Broadway in a B-25 Mitchell bomber from 1st Air Commandos. From there he visited the White City and Aberdeen Strongholds.
[51]
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[57]
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[58]
Wingate's Operation Thursday: Genius or Ineffectual?
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[59]
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[60]
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On reaching Pahok he fell dangerously ill: “Scrub typhus was diagnosed. I had a very high temperature and a severe headache – there was no chance of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[61]
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[63]
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A bomber raid on 5 March 1943 on nearby garrisons ensured minimal interference with the two columns the next day as they demolished three railway bridges and ...
[64]
Return of the Chindits, Part 3 - Achilles the Heel
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[65]
[PDF] Journal of Military and Veterans' Health
Apr 2, 2022 · Casualties of 111 Brigade at the beginning of June. 1944 (82 dead, 206 wounded, 49 missing) were nearly matched by those evacuated with ...
[66]
Chindit Memorial: WW2 'forgotten army' tribute given listed status
Aug 12, 2020 · The Duke of Edinburgh unveiled the memorial, a bronze Chinthe statue supported on a stone plinth, in 1990. On the front plinth of the memorial ...
[67]
Second World War Memorial to Chindit Special Forces Listed at ...
Aug 13, 2020 · It was designed by architect David Price, with the sculpture of the Chinthe designed by Frank Forster, and was unveiled on 16 October 1990 by ...
[68]
Chindits - London Remembers
Victory was hastened by the Chindits' daring exploits behind enemy lines. His Majesty King George VI graciously awarded the Victoria Cross to: {list of 4 ...<|separator|>
[69]
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... unveiled on the 16th October 1990 by the Duke of Edinburgh. ... The next general Chindit Memorial can be found in the grounds of the National Arboretum in ...
[70]
Chindit Memorial, London
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[71]
[PDF] Chindit Column
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[72]
Victoria Cross recipients - Burma Star Memorial Fund
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[73]
National Memorial Arboretum marks 80th anniversary of war operation
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[74]
Air Support for Special Forces Operations in Burma The Chindits ...
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[75]
[PDF] The US Army Air Forces in World War II - Operation THURSDAY
Japan began the invasion of Burma on December 23, 1941, with air raids on Rangoon. Seventy days later, on February 15,. 1942, Imperial forces captured Singapore ...
[76]
5 Special Forces Groups of World War II - SOF Support Foundation
Feb 27, 2025 · The legacy of the SAS is carried on today by its modern counterpart, which continues to execute special missions worldwide. 4. US Army Rangers: ...
[77]
Irregular Warfare: Strength of Weakness - HistoryNet
Mar 27, 2017 · While Wingate's superior, William Slim, British Fourteenth Army Commander, commended the spirit and courage of the Chindits, he found the ...
[78]
Long Range Patrol in Vietnam War| K75 Rangers
After December 1953, it was known as the Groupement Mixte d'Intervention, or GMI, and it directly influenced the operations of the American 1st Special Forces ...
[79]
Army sets up new brigade 'for information age' - BBC News
Jan 31, 2015 · It has been inspired by the Chindits who fought in Burma in World War Two. 'Bespoke skills'. An Army spokesman said the unit would "play a ...
[80]
British army creates team of Facebook warriors - The Guardian
Jan 30, 2015 · The new brigade is being named the 77th in tribute to the Chindits, the British guerrilla force led by Maj Gen Orde Wingate against the Japanese ...