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Cilento

Cilento is a coastal and mountainous geographical region in southern Campania, Italy, comprising the central and southern parts of Salerno province and extending along the Tyrrhenian Sea coastline.^[1] It forms the core of the Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park, established in 1991 and covering approximately 181,000 hectares of diverse terrain including rugged Apennine ridges, river valleys, and karst formations.^[1] The region is distinguished by its ancient human occupation dating back 250,000 years, with successive layers of prehistoric, Greek, and medieval settlements illustrating cultural evolution and interactions between indigenous Italic peoples and Mediterranean colonizers.^[1] Key archaeological sites include the Greek colonies of Paestum (founded in the 7th century BCE) and Velia (6th century BCE), alongside the Renaissance-era Certosa di Padula monastery, all contributing to its designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1998 under criteria (iii) and (iv) for bearing exceptional testimony to cultural traditions and architectural ensembles.^[1] Cilento's biosphere reserve status, granted by UNESCO in 1997, underscores its biodiversity, encompassing Mediterranean maquis, beech forests, and endemic species, while local practices in olive cultivation and fishing underpin the Mediterranean diet, recognized as UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage with Cilento communities like Pollica serving as emblematic exemplars.^[1]^[2]

Geography

Physical Features and Topography

Cilento's topography encompasses a varied landscape transitioning from low-lying coastal plains and rolling hills to steep inland mountains forming part of the southern Apennines. The region features dramatic limestone karst formations, deep valleys, and plateaus, with elevations ranging from sea level to peaks exceeding 1,800 meters. Inland relief is shaped by tectonic activity and erosion, resulting in rugged terrains including fault-controlled slopes and mountain ridges primarily carved from Mesozoic carbonate and sedimentary rocks.^[3]^[4] The highest elevation in Cilento is Monte Cervati at 1,899 meters, the tallest peak in Campania, located within the Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park. Other prominent summits include Monte Gelbison (1,705 m), Faiatella (1,710 m), and the Alburni massif's Panormo (1,742 m), contributing to over 49 peaks surpassing 1,000 meters. These mountains host dense woodlands and support diverse hydrological features such as springs and seasonal streams.^[5]^[6] Along the Tyrrhenian Sea coastline, spanning roughly 100 kilometers from the Gulf of Salerno to the Gulf of Policastro, the terrain includes sheer cliffs plunging into the sea, headlands, sea caves, and interspersed sandy beaches with crystal-clear waters. Geomorphological evidence of Quaternary sea-level changes appears in terraced landforms and wave-cut platforms, particularly evident on the Cilento Promontory. Fluvial and slope processes have deposited sediments in river valleys and coastal plains, while marine features offshore include banks, ridges, and boulder fields.^[7]^[8]^[9] The interior includes the Vallo di Diano tectonic valley, flanked by the Alburni and Maddalena Mountains, which contrasts with the coastal karstic plateaus and gorges like that of the Bussento River. This diversity arises from a combination of uplift, faulting, and differential erosion on heterogeneous bedrock.^[4]^[9]

Climate and Environmental Conditions

Cilento features a Mediterranean climate with mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers, influenced by its proximity to the Tyrrhenian Sea and varied topography ranging from coastal plains to inland mountains.^[10] Annual average temperatures hover around 16.4°C in coastal areas like Agropoli, with highs reaching 30°C and lows of 22°C in August at inland sites such as Castelnuovo Cilento.^[10]^[11] Precipitation totals approximately 1,217 mm yearly, concentrated in autumn and winter, while summers remain arid with minimal rainfall.^[10] The hot season spans late June to mid-September, with average daily highs exceeding 27°C, transitioning to a cool period from November to March where lows dip below 10°C in higher elevations.^[11] Topographic diversity generates microclimates, from the warmer, drier coastal zones to cooler, more humid montane interiors, enhancing ecological variability across the Cilento, Vallo di Diano, and Alburni National Park. This gradient supports a range of habitats, including maquis shrublands on slopes and deciduous forests in valleys, with dolomite mountains and river systems like the Bussento fostering riparian ecosystems.^[1] The marine environment off the coast includes biodiverse underwater forests dominated by Fucales algae, forming dense canopies that serve as hotspots for Mediterranean endemic species.^[12] As a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve, Cilento's environmental conditions emphasize conservation of its karst landscapes, coastal dunes, and wetlands, which sustain high amphibian and reptile diversity alongside avian and mammalian populations adapted to the seasonal climate.^[13] Human influences, such as agriculture and tourism, occur amid these natural features, but the park's protected status maintains relatively low pollution levels and intact hydrological cycles driven by seasonal rains.^[1]

Administrative Subdivisions and Communes

Cilento lacks a unified administrative entity and is instead composed of multiple communes (municipalities) within the Province of Salerno in the Campania region. These 80 communes, primarily rural and coastal, form the core of the area's local governance, handling functions such as public services, land use planning, and cultural preservation under Italian municipal law. Many are fully or partially encompassed by the Cilento, Vallo di Diano, and Alburni National Park, established by decree on December 6, 1991, which coordinates supra-communal environmental and developmental policies without overriding communal autonomy.^[14]^[15] For enhanced coordination in mountainous and peripheral zones, communes are grouped into eight mountain communities (comunità montane), consortia that manage shared challenges like forestry, rural infrastructure, and economic revitalization as delegated by regional authorities. The Comunità Montana Alento-Monte Stella, for instance, integrates 16 communes including Laureana Cilento, Lustra, and Ogliastro Cilento, emphasizing watershed management and agritourism in the Alento valley and Monte Stella highlands. Similarly, the Comunità Montana Bussento-Lambro-Mingardo oversees southern territories with communes such as Camerota and Centola-Palinuro, focusing on coastal protection and inland connectivity. Other communities, including those in the Alburni mountains and Vallo di Diano valley, address seismic risk mitigation and habitat restoration, drawing on EU and national funding.^[16]^[17]^[18]^[19] Communes vary in size and function, with coastal ones like Agropoli (serving as a provincial transport hub) and Castellabate (featuring fortified hilltop settlements) supporting tourism and fisheries, while inland examples such as Aquara and Bellosguardo prioritize agriculture and small-scale manufacturing. Vallo della Lucania functions as a sub-regional center with historical ecclesiastical significance. This decentralized structure reflects Italy's post-1948 constitutional emphasis on local autonomy, though it can lead to fragmented service delivery in sparsely populated areas averaging under 2,000 residents per commune.^[20]^[21]

History

Ancient and Prehistoric Periods

Evidence of human occupation in Cilento dates to the Paleolithic era, with significant cave sites in areas such as Camerota-Scario and Castelcivita, including Cala Bianca, Cala d'Arconte, and caves like Cala, Poggio, and Serratura, recognized among Europe's key prehistoric locations.^[22] These sites indicate early hunter-gatherer activities in the region's karstic landscapes, though detailed Neolithic evidence remains less documented compared to later periods.^[23] The ancient period saw Greek colonization transform Cilento's coastal areas. Poseidonia, now Paestum, was established by Greek settlers from Sybaris and Troezen around the late 7th to early 6th century BC, developing into a major city with Doric temples dedicated to Hera, Athena, and Poseidon.^[1] Further south, Velia (ancient Elea or Hyele) was founded circa 540 BC by Phocaean Greeks fleeing Persian conquest in Asia Minor, serving as a key port on Tyrrhenian trade routes.^[1]^[24] Velia gained philosophical prominence through the Eleatic School, founded by Parmenides (born c. 515 BC) and Zeno, emphasizing monism and rational inquiry.^[25] Inland, pre-Greek Italic peoples like the Oenotrians and later Lucanians inhabited the territory, with sites such as Roccagloriosa revealing fortified settlements from the 5th-4th centuries BC. Roman expansion incorporated Cilento after the Pyrrhic War, with Paestum renamed and refortified in 273 BC, and Velia featuring preserved Roman baths and the Porta Rosa gate.^[26]^[22] The region formed part of the Augustan Regio III Lucania et Bruttium, with archaeological remains including villas, amphitheaters, and roads attesting to agricultural and urban development until late antiquity.^[1]

Medieval and Early Modern Eras

After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, Cilento initially remained under Byzantine control amid the fragmentation of authority in southern Italy. By the late 6th century, Lombard invaders incorporated the region into their domains, establishing it as part of the gastaldato of Lucania within the Principality of Salerno. Lombard administration focused on fortification and defense, leading to the construction of castles and strongholds in locations such as Novi Velia, Capaccio, Laurino, Rocca Cilento, Gioi, Felitto, Cuccaro Vetere, and Agropoli to protect against external threats and consolidate territorial control.^[27]^[22] The 9th and 10th centuries saw Cilento exposed to Saracen raids from coastal bases, prompting further defensive measures and the settlement of Basilian monks fleeing Byzantine iconoclasm, who contributed to agricultural revival in inland areas. The Norman conquest of southern Italy, culminating in the subjugation of Lombard principalities by the mid-11th century, brought Cilento under Norman rule. The Normans reorganized the territory into feudal baronies, with Rocca Cilento and Novi Velia emerging as key administrative centers under families like the Sanseverino, who built or expanded castles such as Rocca Cilento to enforce feudal authority and safeguard trade routes. Benedictine monks, supported by Norman lords, reclaimed lands and constructed fortresses against persistent Saracen incursions, integrating monastic estates into the feudal economy.^[28]^[29] Subsequent dynasties—Swabian under Frederick II (1194–1250), Angevin (1266–1282), and Aragonese (1282 onward)—maintained the feudal structure, with Cilento's barons participating in regional power struggles, including revolts against central authority. Feudal castles dotted the landscape, serving as both military outposts and symbols of baronial power along revived medieval communication routes.^[1] In the Early Modern period, Cilento formed part of the Kingdom of Naples under Spanish Habsburg (1504–1713) and later Bourbon rule (1734–1806), where feudalism persisted amid ongoing disputes between barons and the crown. The Sanseverino family commissioned the Certosa di San Lorenzo at Padula in the early 16th century, though major Baroque expansions occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries, reflecting monastic patronage within the feudal order. Agricultural production, centered on feudal estates, sustained local economies, while coastal vulnerabilities led to sporadic defensive reinforcements against Ottoman threats.^[1]^[29]^[30]

Modern Period and Regional Integration

Following the unification of Italy in 1861, Cilento, previously part of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies' Principato Citra district, experienced significant resistance to the imposition of Piedmontese institutions, manifesting in brigandage that persisted intensely from 1861 to 1865. This unrest, driven by cultural and institutional distances between northern reformers and southern agrarian societies, involved armed bands rejecting centralized authority, taxation, and land policies, with episodes documented across southern provinces including Salerno. Suppression efforts, including military expeditions and legal repressions under the Pica Law of 1863, quelled the violence but exacerbated local grievances, contributing to a legacy of southern alienation from the new state.^[31]^[32] Economic stagnation in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, rooted in latifundia systems and limited industrialization, prompted mass emigration from Cilento communes, mirroring broader southern Italian outflows totaling over 27 million departures between 1861 and the 1970s. Towns such as Centola saw transatlantic migrations peaking around 1892–1924, with emigrants seeking opportunities in the United States amid rural poverty and agricultural inefficiencies. This depopulation intensified social fragmentation, reducing local populations by up to 50% in inland areas by the interwar period, while remittances provided modest economic relief but failed to reverse structural underdevelopment.^[33]^[34] Under the Kingdom of Italy through 1946, Cilento remained administratively within Salerno province, enduring fascist-era policies that emphasized autarky and rural modernization but yielded limited infrastructure gains amid ongoing emigration. Post-World War II, the 1950 Agrarian Reform, funded by the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, redistributed over 700,000 hectares in southern Italy, including Cilento lands, to smallholders, aiming to boost productivity through mechanization and irrigation, though implementation faced delays and uneven impacts due to fragmented holdings. The establishment of the Campania region in 1970 under Italy's regional autonomy framework integrated Cilento into decentralized governance, fostering targeted development via EU-aligned funds for agriculture and conservation, marking a shift toward balanced regional cohesion despite persistent demographic pressures.^[35]^[36]

Natural Heritage and Conservation

Cilento National Park Establishment

The Cilento National Park, officially the Parco Nazionale del Cilento e Vallo di Diano, was instituted on December 6, 1991, through Italian Law No. 394, the framework legislation on protected areas that simultaneously established several national parks to safeguard diverse ecosystems, geological features, and cultural heritage across Italy.^[37] ^[38] This law designated the park's core territory to include the Cilento coastal and inland regions along with the Vallo di Diano valley, encompassing prominent features such as Mount Cervati, Mount Gelbison, the Alburni Mountains, Monte Stella, and Monte Bulgheria, with an initial perimeter spanning approximately 181,000 hectares across 36 municipalities in the province of Salerno.^[39] ^[40] The establishment aimed to counter deforestation, unregulated urbanization, and agricultural intensification that had threatened the area's Mediterranean maquis, karst landscapes, and archaeological sites since the post-World War II era, drawing on prior regional conservation efforts like the 1985 UNESCO Biosphere Reserve candidacy for Cilento.^[1] Subsequent decrees refined the park's operational framework, including Ministerial Decree No. 5 August 1993, which updated boundaries and zoning to balance protection with local economic activities such as sustainable farming and forestry.^[40] The managing entity, Ente Parco Nazionale del Cilento e Vallo di Diano (later expanded to include Alburni), was formally created by Presidential Decree (D.P.R.) No. 5 June 1995, granting it public law status under the oversight of the Ministry of Environment to enforce regulations, develop management plans, and coordinate with regional authorities per Law No. 394's provisions.^[41] ^[42] This body assumed responsibilities for zoning into integral reserves (strict no-access zones), general protection areas, and artisan-economic zones, while integrating the park into Italy's national network of 24 protected areas by the late 1990s.^[15] The park's creation reflected broader European environmental policy influences, including the 1980s push for habitat directives, but faced initial local resistance from agrarian communities concerned over land use restrictions; nonetheless, it preserved over 1,800 vascular plant species and key endemic fauna habitats from further encroachment.^[39] In 1997, the park achieved UNESCO Biosphere Reserve status, affirming its establishment's role in global conservation, followed by Geopark designation in 2010 for its geological significance.^[1]

Biodiversity and Ecosystems

The Cilento region, encompassing the Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni National Park, features diverse ecosystems including sclerophyllous evergreen forests of holm oak (Quercus ilex) and cork oak (Quercus suber), deciduous downy oak (Quercus pubescens) woodlands, beech forests at higher elevations, Mediterranean maquis shrublands, karstic caves, coastal cliffs, and inland wetlands such as the Bussento River gorge and Alento River oasis.^[43] ^[44] ^[13] These habitats support approximately 1,800 species of native vascular plants across 25 distinct types, with around 10% classified as endemic or rare, reflecting the area's role as a biodiversity hotspot within a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve designated in 1997.^[45] ^[46] ^[1] Flora includes notable endemics like Primula palinuri, a cliff-dwelling primrose restricted to calcareous coastal outcrops in the Palinuro area and listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List since 1997, symbolizing the park's unique botanical heritage.^[47] ^[48] Coastal vertical cliffs act as refuges for additional endemic vascular plants and bryophytes, preserving species adapted to harsh, exposed conditions amid surrounding habitat fragmentation.^[49] Higher-altitude old-growth forests, including persistent beech stands, harbor specialized communities of lichens, mosses, and fungi indicative of minimal human disturbance.^[50] Faunal diversity encompasses 254 of Italy's approximately 319 bird species, including birds of prey such as the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) and peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), alongside mammals like the Apennine wolf (Canis lupus italicus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), European otter (Lutra lutra), and porcupine (Hystrix cristata).^[45] ^[51] Reptiles and amphibians exhibit varied distributions tied to specific microhabitats, with recent surveys documenting community structures influenced by elevation and vegetation cover.^[52] Wetlands and riverine systems sustain aquatic species, while offshore areas feature dense Fucales algal forests forming underwater canopies that enhance benthic biodiversity.^[53] This ecological richness underscores the park's conservation priority, with protected status aiding the persistence of rare taxa amid regional pressures.^[54]

Conservation Challenges and Human Impacts

Human activities pose significant threats to the biodiversity and integrity of Cilento National Park, despite its UNESCO World Heritage status and establishment in 1991 covering 1,810.48 km² across 80 municipalities.^[55] ^[1] Illegal constructions within the park boundaries undermine landscape preservation and cultural heritage integrity, often resulting from unregulated development pressures.^[1] Land degradation in areas like the Alento river basin stems from combined human land-use practices—such as agriculture and urbanization—and natural factors, leading to soil erosion and reduced ecosystem resilience.^[56] Tourism, a primary economic driver, exacerbates environmental degradation through water pollution, biodiversity loss, excessive energy consumption, CO₂ emissions, and overexploitation of natural resources, with empirical surveys of local operators revealing insufficient adoption of sustainable practices.^[55] Poor governance and lack of integrated management hinder mitigation, amplifying risks in this high-visitation area.^[55] Natural hazards like landslides and flooding, intensified by anthropogenic alterations to terrain, further challenge conservation efforts across the park's vast 159,110 ha.^[1] Marine ecosystems face acute pressures from coastal development, which has destroyed Fucales underwater forests since the 1970s in sites like Pagliarola between Agropoli and Santa Maria di Castellabate, alongside eutrophication, sedimentation, maritime traffic, aquaculture, and intensive fishing that promote overgrazing by sea urchins and habitat conversion to barrens.^[12] These activities threaten extensive forests spanning 129.45 ha with over 70% cover and hosting 10 Cystoseira s.l. taxa, diminishing carbon sequestration and coastal protection services.^[12] Loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta), nesting along Cilento coasts, are endangered by unspecified human disturbances to breeding sites, necessitating ongoing nest protection.^[57] A 2021 incident at San Nicola port involved dredging that dumped tons of Posidonia oceanica, sludge, plastics, and pollutants onto Porcelli beach in Montecorice, dispersing contaminants into award-winning clean waters and prompting investigations into improper waste handling.^[58] Riparian and freshwater habitats suffer from habitat destruction and ongoing human pressures, including vegetation removal and pollution, which endanger endemic species and require detailed mapping for effective planning.^[59] Ocean warming compounds these issues, potentially shifting deep-water Fucales distributions and long-term biodiversity.^[12] Coordinated monitoring, stricter enforcement in marine protected areas like Santa Maria di Castellabate, and restoration initiatives are recommended to counter these cumulative impacts.^[12]

Economy

Agricultural Production and Cilento DOC

Agriculture in Cilento centers on traditional Mediterranean crops and livestock, with olives, grapes, figs, and sheep farming as primary activities. The region's fertile soils and mild climate support the production of extra virgin olive oil, often certified organic through cooperatives like Nuovo Cilento, which processes member olives without chemical inputs to preserve ecosystem health. Figs from the Dottato cultivar are dried to create PDO Cilento white figs, valued for their phenolic compounds and traditional processing methods. Other outputs include citrus fruits, vegetables, and seed crops, comprising about 22% of usable agricultural land in the bio-district, alongside fruit trees (32%) and grasslands (46%) used for grazing.^[60]^[61]^[62]^[13]^[63] The Cilento Bio-District, encompassing 37 municipalities and over 400 organic farms, promotes sustainable practices, biodiversity, and short supply chains, with 95% of produce sold locally through farmers' markets and on-farm outlets. Livestock activities, mainly sheep husbandry, focus on self-consumption, with surplus contributing to local dairy and meat products, though commercial scale remains limited in inland areas. These efforts align with regenerative agriculture initiatives, enhancing soil health and community resilience amid broader economic pressures.^[64]^[65]^[66] Viticulture plays a key role, regulated under the Cilento DOC designation, which covers wines from 14 communes in Salerno province. Red and rosato wines predominantly feature Aglianico and Sangiovese, with rosato requiring 70-80% Sangiovese, 10-15% Aglianico, and up to 15% Primitivo or Piedirosso, plus minor approved varieties. White wines highlight Fiano, while blends may incorporate local grapes like Piedirosso. Average annual production stands at 2,000 hectoliters, reflecting the denomination's focus on terroir-driven styles from coastal and inland vineyards.^[67]^[68]^[69]^[70]

Tourism and Economic Growth

Tourism constitutes the principal catalyst for economic development in Cilento, capitalizing on the area's pristine coastlines, mountainous terrain, and archaeological treasures encompassed by the Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park. The park's creation in 1991 has spurred expansion in hospitality, dining, and recreational services, drawing domestic and international visitors to sites such as Paestum's ancient temples and Palinuro's sea caves. This influx has diversified the local economy beyond traditional agriculture, fostering ancillary businesses and infrastructure improvements.^[71] Empirical analyses of Italian national parks, including Cilento, reveal positive socioeconomic outcomes from park establishment, notably heightened employment in tourism-related occupations and augmented inflows of work commuters to park municipalities. These effects, measured from 1991 through 2011, intensified over time, supporting local economic vitality through visitor expenditures. Nonetheless, such benefits manifest more modestly in southern parks like Cilento relative to northern counterparts, attributable to regional disparities in baseline development and accessibility.^[71] Beyond direct job creation in accommodations and guiding services, tourism bolsters resident livelihoods by sustaining small enterprises and elevating household incomes via multiplier effects in supply chains. In Cilento specifically, the sector mitigates depopulation pressures in rural interiors by incentivizing investments in eco-tourism and cultural experiences, though unchecked expansion risks straining resources without robust governance. Peer-reviewed assessments underscore tourism's role in regional growth while cautioning against environmental externalities like habitat disruption if sustainability protocols falter.^[55]^[71] Recent provincial trends in Salerno, encompassing Cilento, signal sustained momentum, with year-round tourism gains reported into 2025, enhancing revenue stability beyond peak summer seasons. This evolution underscores tourism's transformative influence, positioning Cilento as a burgeoning destination amid Italy's southern economic landscape.^[72]

Demographic and Developmental Pressures

Cilento faces significant demographic challenges characterized by depopulation in internal rural areas and an aging population structure. Internal zones have recorded a population decline of approximately 9.61%, driven primarily by youth outmigration seeking employment opportunities elsewhere and a negative natural balance with more deaths than births.^[73] Overall, while the broader Cilento territory saw a slight population increase from 128,364 residents in 2001 to higher figures by 2019, small communes—particularly those with fewer than 600 inhabitants—continue to experience accelerated shrinkage, exacerbating service provision strains in remote villages.^[74] This trend mirrors regional patterns in Campania, where the population declined by 1.9% from 2000 to 2023 due to sustained net outmigration and low fertility rates.^[75] The aging demographic is pronounced, with indices of old-age dependency reaching 51.4 in sample municipalities like Stella Cilento and old-age ratios exceeding 212 elderly persons per 100 youth, reflecting low birth rates and high longevity.^[76] Cilento boasts exceptional longevity, qualifying as a "Blue Zone" with 183 centenarians reported in Cilento and Vallo di Diano territories as of recent ISTAT-linked data, and average life expectancies of 92 years for women and 85 for men in select villages.^[77] However, this longevity contributes to pressures on healthcare and social services, as the region's median age aligns with Campania's rising 44.2 years, amplifying dependency ratios amid youth exodus.^[78] Developmental pressures arise from the tension between economic growth imperatives and environmental conservation within Cilento National Park. Tourism, a key economic driver, has concentrated development along the coast, neglecting internal areas and straining infrastructure like inadequate transportation networks that hinder accessibility to secondary sites.^[79] Recent data indicate a 67.6% drop in foreign tourist presences since 2014, underscoring challenges in sustaining growth without enhanced connectivity, yet unchecked expansion risks overburdening marine and terrestrial ecosystems through seasonal overcrowding and habitat fragmentation.^[80] Efforts to promote sustainable low-carbon tourism, such as greenways in inner zones, aim to counter depopulation by integrating rural economies, but persistent infrastructural deficits and policy inefficiencies—manifesting in unfinished projects—perpetuate marginality and limit balanced development.^[81]^[82]

Culture and Society

Language and Linguistic Heritage

The primary vernacular in Cilento is the Cilentano dialect, a member of the Neapolitan subgroup within the Italo-Dalmatian branch of Romance languages, spoken alongside standard Italian.^[83] This dialect continuum prevails across the Cilento region in Salerno province, encompassing roughly 250,000 speakers who employ it in informal and rural contexts.^[83] Cilentano varieties demonstrate internal diversity, with northern forms aligning closely with broader Campanian-Neapolitan phonetics and lexicon—such as metaphonetic vowel shifts common to the region—while southern variants exhibit transitional traits toward extreme southern Italian patterns, including enhanced vowel harmony and syntactic alignments with Calabrian or Sicilian influences.^[84] Linguistically, Cilentano retains prosodic features like secondary prominences in stressed syllables, distinguishing it from northern Italian varieties and reflecting conserved southern intonational rhythms.^[85] These characteristics underscore its embedding within Campania's dialectal mosaic, where regional Italian spoken in Cilento and adjacent Salerno areas preserves dialectal phonetic markers, such as lenition patterns and vowel quality reductions not fully mirrored in standard Italian.^[84] Dialect use persists amid modernization, though intergenerational transmission faces pressures from education and media favoring Italian, with Cilentano functioning as a marker of local identity in agricultural communities.^[86] Pre-Roman linguistic heritage in Cilento derives from Italic substrates, notably Oscan, the language of Samnite-Lucanian tribes dominant inland before the 4th century BCE Roman incursions.^[87] Coastal areas bore Greek imprints from Magna Graecia settlements, including Poseidonia (Paestum, founded circa 600 BCE) and Elea (Velia, circa 540 BCE), where Doric Greek dialects coexisted with indigenous tongues until Latinization post-273 BCE conquest of Lucania.^[88] These layers contributed to Vulgar Latin's local evolution, evident in Cilentano's retention of Oscan-derived toponyms (e.g., place names ending in -anum) and sporadic Greek lexical borrowings in agrarian terms, though the dialect's core morphology remains Latin-derived without direct continuity of pre-Romance syntax.^[89] Post-medieval Norman and Aragonese administrations reinforced Romance consolidation, marginalizing earlier substrates by the 13th century.

Culinary Traditions and Local Products

The cuisine of Cilento reflects the Mediterranean diet's emphasis on fresh, seasonal ingredients such as olive oil, legumes, vegetables, fish, and limited red meat, with traditions tracing back to ancient practices documented in local agronomic texts and preserved through family recipes.^[90]^[91] Dishes often feature simple preparations highlighting local produce, including lagane e ceci—hand-rolled pasta with chickpeas, garlic, and rosemary—and cavatelli alla cilentana, served with meat ragù or wild greens, which utilize heirloom grains and foraged elements for nutritional density.^[92]^[93] Extra virgin olive oil holds a central role, produced from cultivars like Salella, Caiazzana, and Pisciarella under the Cilento DOP designation, which mandates traceability, cold extraction, and yields not exceeding 22% from olives harvested at a maximum of 11,000 kg per hectare in specialized groves across 62 municipalities.^[94]^[95] This oil, with its fruity, peppery profile, underpins dishes like ammaccate olives—lightly crushed green olives dressed simply—and supports the region's low incidence of diet-related diseases, as observed in longitudinal studies of Cilento's centenarian populations.^[96]^[97] Cheeses such as cacioricotta, made from raw goat or mixed goat-sheep milk and aged briefly for a tangy flavor, and caciocavallo podolico from semi-wild Podolica cows, exemplify pastoral traditions, often paired with local honeys or in preparations like stuffed maracuoccio legumes.^[98]^[93] Preserved seafood, notably menaiaca anchovies caught in traditional lampara nets and cured under salt—a Slow Food Presidium since the early 2000s—provides protein-rich staples, while the White Fig of Cilento DOP, a 'dottato' variety with amber pulp dried since at least the 6th century BC, offers a sweet counterpoint in desserts or ciambotta vegetable stews.^[97]^[99] Wines under the Cilento DOC, established in 1989, feature reds blending 60-75% Aglianico with Piedirosso or Primitivo for robust, berry-inflected profiles suitable for aging, alongside whites from Greco or Fiano that complement seafood; production occurs on diverse clay-limestone soils, yielding at least 12% alcohol by volume.^[67]^[70] These elements, certified through EU protections like DOP and IGP, sustain small-scale producers amid tourism pressures, preserving authenticity against industrialized alternatives.^[100] The social structures of Cilento are characterized by tight-knit kinship networks shaped by historical isolation in its rural villages, where genetic studies have identified high levels of endogamy and shared ancestry among inhabitants. In villages such as those studied in the Alburni and Cervati areas, nearly all residents trace descent from a single extended pedigree with multiple inbreeding loops, fostering communal solidarity and localized decision-making through family elders and village councils.^[101] This endogamous structure, documented through whole-exome sequencing of 245 individuals across isolated populations, reflects limited external migration until recent decades, preserving patrilineal inheritance patterns common in southern Italian agrarian societies.^[102] Nuclear families predominate, yet extended kin ties remain strong, with multi-generational households supporting agricultural labor and elder care amid depopulation pressures from emigration.^[103] Community organization revolves around parish-based associations and cooperatives, which manage shared resources like olive groves and water rights, often led by local notabili (notable families) in a semi-feudal holdover from medieval times. These groups enforce social norms through informal mediation, prioritizing collective welfare over individualism, as evidenced by low rates of formal legal disputes in rural Cilento municipalities compared to urban Campania. Religious confraternities, or congreghe, play a central role in governance, organizing mutual aid during harvests and emergencies, reinforcing hierarchical roles where men dominate public spheres and women focus on domestic and kin networks.^[104] Traditions in Cilento emphasize agrarian and Catholic rituals that bind communities, including annual sagre (food festivals) celebrating local produce to honor patron saints and mark seasonal cycles. The Festa del Fico Bianco in Sinisgalli, held in late summer, features processions and communal feasts of white figs, symbolizing abundance and drawing villagers for ritual dances and vows.^[105] Similarly, the Sagra della Cipolla in Futani and the Fusillo di Felitto festival in Felitto involve collective pasta-making and storytelling sessions, transmitting oral histories of resistance to feudal lords. Religious customs, such as the Rituale delle Congreghe in coastal towns like Agropoli, include torchlit processions for the Virgin Mary on August 15, blending Marian devotion with folk dances that exclude outsiders to maintain purity of lineage.^[106] These practices, sustained despite tourism's influence, underscore causal links between land tenure and social cohesion, with participation rates exceeding 80% in small villages per local ethnographic records.^[107]

Coastline and Marine Environment

Coastal Geography and Beaches

The Cilento coastline extends approximately 118 km along the Tyrrhenian Sea, from the Gulf of Salerno in the north to the Gulf of Policastro in the south, featuring a diverse geomorphology shaped by Mesozoic carbonate platforms, Miocene flysch sequences, and Quaternary marine deposits including beach sands.^[108] This rugged terrain results in steep limestone cliffs interspersed with karstic caves, promontories such as Capo Palinuro, and sheltered bays formed through tectonic uplift and marine erosion over millennia.^[108] Beaches in Cilento vary from expansive sandy shores to pebbly coves, with the northern sector near Paestum and Agropoli dominated by finer, golden sands backed by dunes and Mediterranean maquis, while the southern areas around Palinuro and Marina di Camerota exhibit more fragmented, rocky-pebbly beaches amid dramatic sea stacks and arches.^[109] Notable examples include Le Saline beach, a 5 km stretch of fine sand near Ascea, and Cala Bianca, characterized by white pebbles and crystalline waters accessible primarily by sea or trail.^[109]^[110] Many of these beaches receive Blue Flag certifications for environmental quality and water purity, reflecting low pollution levels and effective coastal management within the Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni National Park.^[111] The interplay of coastal currents and sediment transport maintains dynamic beach profiles, with seasonal accretion in summer and erosion risks heightened by storms and human interventions like breakwaters, underscoring the area's vulnerability to landslides in flysch-dominated sections.^[108] Hidden coves such as Cala degli Infreschi, reachable only by boat or foot, preserve pristine conditions with minimal accessibility, preserving biodiversity in adjacent marine protected areas.^[112]

Marine Resources and Protected Areas

The Cilento coastline along the Tyrrhenian Sea supports diverse marine ecosystems, including underwater forests of brown algae such as Cystoseira species, which form a biodiversity hotspot essential for habitat provision and coastal protection.^[12] These habitats link geological features like rocky substrata to high benthic diversity, with geophysical data revealing multiscalar patterns in marine landscapes.^[113] Artisanal fisheries dominate marine resource exploitation in Cilento, employing traditional methods like those preserved in Marina di Pisciotta, where ancient techniques target species such as anchovies and sardines.^[114] However, over recent decades, fishing yields have declined amid rising effort, reflecting pressures from habitat degradation and overexploitation in the Mediterranean context.^[115] Conservation initiatives, including the REEForest project, aim to restore Cystoseira populations in protected zones to bolster ecosystem resilience and support sustainable yields.^[116] Key protected areas include the Marine Protected Area (MPA) of Santa Maria di Castellabate, established in 2009 and spanning 7,094 hectares entirely within the Cilento National Park, divided into integral reserve (Zone A), general reserve (Zone B covering 4,000 hectares), and partial reserve zones to regulate human activities.^[117] ^[118] To the south, the MPA of Costa degli Infreschi e della Masseta protects over 2,000 hectares of sea and adjacent coastline from the Tower of Cala Bianca to the Tower of Infreschi, segmented into Zones A (integral no-access), B (regulated), and C (sustainable use) for biodiversity preservation amid high ecological value.^[119] ^[120] These MPAs, integrated with the Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni National Park—a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve—enforce restrictions on fishing and tourism to safeguard marine life, including seabirds and endemic species, while permitting monitored artisanal practices.^[1] ^[13]

Archaeological and Historical Sites

Key Prehistoric and Ancient Sites

The Cilento region preserves evidence of early human occupation dating back over 250,000 years, with Lower Paleolithic artifacts indicating sporadic use of coastal and karstic environments.^[121] Key prehistoric sites include the Grotta della Cala near Marina di Camerota, a cave system documenting continuous human presence from the Middle Paleolithic through the Upper Paleolithic (including Aurignacian and Early Epigravettian layers with backed lithic tools) and into the Mesolithic, as revealed by stratigraphic analysis of clastic sediments and faunal remains.^[122] ^[123] This site, part of a broader complex of caves in the Poggio spur, yields insights into techno-cultural transitions, such as shifts in lithic production around volcanic events like the Campanian Ignimbrite eruption circa 40,000 years ago.^[124] Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements further attest to agricultural and metallurgical advancements in upland areas.^[1] Among ancient sites, Paestum—originally Poseidonia—stands as a premier example of Magna Graecia architecture, founded around 600 BCE by Greek colonists from Sybaris at the end of the 7th century BCE.^[1] The site's three well-preserved Doric temples, constructed between 550 and 450 BCE (dedicated to Hera, Athena, and possibly Poseidon or Apollo), feature innovative metope decorations and early experimentation with stone entablatures over wooden prototypes.^[1] Roman conquest in 273 BCE integrated the city into the ager Paestanus, adding a forum, amphitheater, and defensive walls spanning 5 kilometers, though malaria contributed to its decline by the 9th century CE.^[125] Designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1998 alongside Velia, Paestum's excavations since the 18th century have uncovered over 500 painted tomb slabs depicting daily life and banquets from the 5th-3rd centuries BCE.^[1] Velia, known anciently as Elea or Hyele, was established circa 540 BCE by Phocaean Greeks fleeing Persian threats, evolving into a philosophical hub associated with the Eleatic school founded by Parmenides around 500 BCE.^[1] ^[126] Prominent remains include the Porta Rosa, a 4th-century BCE Hellenistic tuff gate with ashlar masonry and rainwater drainage, alongside Roman-era baths, a theater, and an acropolis fortified in medieval times.^[1] The site's coastal defenses and urban layout reflect adaptation to the rugged Tyrrhenian terrain, with Lucanian influences evident in 4th-century BCE necropolises before Roman incorporation in the 3rd century BCE.^[127] Additional ancient settlements, such as the Lucanian hilltop site of Roccagloriosa (4th-3rd centuries BCE) with fortified enclosures and sanctuaries, highlight indigenous Italic interactions with Greek colonists, evidenced by imported ceramics and local bronze hoards.^[128] These sites collectively underscore Cilento's role in Mediterranean cultural exchanges from prehistory through classical antiquity.^[1]

Medieval and Later Monuments

Cilento's medieval landscape features castles erected by Norman lords for territorial control and monasteries established by Byzantine monks, reflecting the region's strategic position amid feudal conflicts and religious influences from the 9th to 14th centuries.^[1] These structures, often integrated into hilltop settlements, served defensive and spiritual roles, with many surviving due to the area's relative isolation.^[29] The Castle of Rocca Cilento, perched on a hill in the municipality of Lustra, originated as a Lombard fortress in the 9th-10th centuries and was fortified by the Norman Sanseverino family in the 12th century.^[22] Documents attest to its existence by 963 and 994, with major reconstruction around 1119 under feudal lords.^[129] It controlled surrounding valleys, including hamlets like Rutino, and changed hands multiple times, including a 1553 sale to Michael Giovanni Gomez.^[129] Restored in modern times while preserving its medieval core, the castle exemplifies Cilento's baronial architecture.^[130] The Abbey of Santa Maria di Pattano, near Vallo della Lucania, stands as the most intact Italo-Greek monastery in southern Italy, founded by Byzantine Basilian monks in the late 8th century.^[131] The complex includes the Church of Santa Maria, dedicated to the Virgin Hodigitria, and the Church of San Filadelfo, enclosed by a perimeter wall with agricultural areas, evidencing early Eastern monastic traditions amid Lombard territories.^[131] It persisted through the Middle Ages, blending Greek rite elements with local customs.^[132] In Castellabate, the Castle of the Abbot (Castello dell'Abate), constructed in 1123 by Abbot Costabile Gentilcore of Cava de' Tirreni, defended against Saracen raids and anchored the medieval town founded that year.^[28] Its robust walls and towers overlook the Tyrrhenian coast, symbolizing ecclesiastical feudal power in Cilento.^[133] Later monuments include the Charterhouse of San Lorenzo in Padula, a Carthusian monastery founded in 1306 by Tommaso Sanseverino and expanded through the 18th century into one of Europe's largest.^[134] Featuring Baroque architecture with grand cloisters and gardens, it represents post-medieval monastic grandeur within the national park.^[1] Medieval towers, such as the restored one on Velia's acropolis, further illustrate defensive adaptations atop ancient sites.^[1]

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Typical products and dishes in Cilento Mediterranean diet
Typical products include Menaica Anchovies, Caciocavallo cheese, and Cicerale chickpeas. Typical dishes include Cavatelli with meat sauce and Ciambotta.Missing: DOP IGP<|separator|>
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Italian extra virgin olive oil made in Campania
The area of production and processing of oil Cilento DOP comprises 62 municipalities, located to the south of the province of Salerno, all included in the ...
[95]
Cilento (Cilento olive oil) - Cookipedia
The per hectare yield of olives may not exceed 11,000 kg/ha in the specialized olive groves, with a maximum oil yield of 22%.
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The Must Try Local Products from Cilento - La Cucina Italiana
Sep 9, 2020 · From olive ammaccate to the cacioricotta, from Menaica anchovies to the white artichoke, here are the must know local products from Cilento to taste and buy.Missing: traditions DOP IGP
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This Italian region has found the secret to a long life | Visititaly.eu
Jun 16, 2022 · ... DOP, DOC, and IGP products and the fifteen Slow Food Presidia. Here are Slow Food Presidia sustained by the Park: - Menaica anchovies. - ...
[98]
Parco Nazionale del Cilento, Vallo di Diano e Alburni: Products
Cacioricotta is a characteristic cheese of Cilento e Vallo di Diano National Park. It is obtained from mixed goat and sheep milk or only from goat ...Missing: culinary | Show results with:culinary
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White Fig of Cilento DOP - Summer in Italy
The White Fig of Cilento has a sweet, light yellow peel when dried, soft, sweet, amber pulp, and is a 'dottato' variety, with origins in the VI century BC.
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DOP and IGP products in Campania - Italy By Events
DOP products in Campania include Caciocavallo cheese, Cilento oil, and Nocerino spring onion. IGP products include Central Apennine White Calf, Paestum ...Missing: culinary local
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Comparing population structure as inferred from genealogical ...
Jun 24, 2009 · We found that nearly all living individuals were included in a single pedigree, with multiple inbreeding loops. Despite Fst between villages ...
[102]
Whole-Exome Sequencing in the Isolated Populations of Cilento ...
Mar 11, 2019 · The present study describes the genetic architecture of the isolated populations of Cilento, through the analysis of exome sequence data of ...
[103]
Italian - Family - Cultural Atlas
Jan 1, 2017 · Nuclear family structures are most common throughout Italy, and there is an increasing preference for a smaller number of children. The family ...
[104]
More Than a Meal: The People, Traditions, and Flavours That Made ...
This love for the produce of Cilento is something I carry with me to this day, and my family continues to send me homemade cheese and preserved olives—gifts ...
[105]
Cilento Coast: A hidden gem south of Naples - Walks of Italy
Oct 6, 2025 · This coastal area boasts stunning beaches along the Tyrrhenian Sea, where crystal-clear waters meet rugged cliffs and secluded coves. The ...
[106]
Delicious dishes, music and culture in Cilento
Delicious dishes, music and culture in Cilento · RITUALE DELLE CONGREGHE · SEGRETI D'AUTORE · MOJOCA FESTIVAL · FESTA DELLA CIPOLLA · SLOW FESTIVAL VIVIAMOCILENTO.Missing: customs | Show results with:customs
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Campania: a journey through the flavours, colours and scents of ...
Jun 30, 2021 · The Fusillo di Felitto is a type of pasta, a sort of hollow cylinder of pasta that can be tasted during the famous Fusillo Festival which takes ...Missing: customs | Show results with:customs<|separator|>
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Landslide hazard mapping along the coastline of the Cilento region ...
This sector of coastline (about 118 km in length) is formed mainly of Mesozoic carbonates and Miocene flysch; Quaternary marine sandstones together with beach ...
[109]
14 Best Beaches on the Cilento Coast, Italy: Map, Photos & Tips
Sep 23, 2025 · Find the best beaches on Cilento Coast are known for their crystal-clear water their fine golden sand, secluded pebbly bays and dramatic ...
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Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park – UNESCO Site in Italy
The establishment of the park in 1991 marked a fundamental step in the protection of this precious territory, aimed at preserving both its natural beauty and ...Missing: law | Show results with:law
[111]
The Cilento Coast: a guide to the best beaches - Places to visit in ...
The beaches of Cilento are famous for their crystal-clear water and their fine golden sand. Many of them have been awarded the Blue Flag.
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The Best Beaches in Cilento - Exquisite Coasts
The best beach in the bay, Cala degli Infreschi, is regularly voted as the most pristine and beautiful in Italy.
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Marine landscapes and habitats of Cilento Geopark (Italy). Linking ...
If marine environments are to be protected from the adverse effects of human activities, then identification of types of marine habitats and delineation of ...
[114]
The Insider's Cilento - Insiders Italy
those designated of ...Missing: per | Show results with:per
[115]
Structure and evolution of the artisanal fishery in a southern Italian ...
In Cilento many changes have occurred during the last decades, in particular a decrease of fishing yield followed by an increase of fishing effort, a growing ...Missing: biodiversity | Show results with:biodiversity
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Sea gardeners in action at Cilento's National Park - REEForest
The REEForest project aims to restore the presence of Cystoseira is the Marine Protected Area of Santa Maria di Castellabate in Cilento.<|separator|>
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Marine Protected Areas - Il tuo Porto nel Cilento Costa Blu
2009 (OJ n. 82 of 04.09. 2010) the protected marine area of Santa Maria di Castellabate covers an area of 7,094 hectares at sea entirely falls within the ...
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CASTELLABATE - The Marine Protected Area of Santa Maria di ...
Outside zone A and in the stretch between Punta Torricella and Punta dell'Ogliastro is zone B of the general reserve, covering 4,000 hectares, the largest ...Missing: national | Show results with:national
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Protected Marine Area Costa degli Infreschi e della Masseta - Italia.it
This stretch of coastline and more than 2000 hectares of sea are under the protection of the Protected Marine Area Costa degli Infreschi e della Masseta.
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Coast of the Infreschi and Masseta: A Journey into the Enchantment ...
Nov 5, 2024 · The Infreschi and Masseta Coast is divided into three environmental protection zones (A, B and C) to preserve marine and terrestrial ...
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[PDF] Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park with the Archaeological ...
Jul 4, 1996 · During the. Middle Ages feudal castles and religious foundations were established within the pre-Roman framework, the. Greek and Lucanian ...
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Cave clastic sediments as a tool for refining the study of human ...
May 9, 2018 · La Cala (southern Italy) is an important prehistoric cave site containing a clastic sedimentary infill recording evidence of an almost ...
[123]
Revisiting the Early Aurignacian in Italy: New insights from Grotta ...
Grotta della Cala in southern Italy is a key archaeological site spanning from the Middle Paleolithic to the Bronze Age. In the stratigraphic sequence close to ...
[124]
The Mesolithic occupation at Grotta della Cala (Marina di Camerota ...
Aug 5, 2025 · La Cala is part of a wider prehistoric complex (including other caves and shelters) opening into the Poggio rock spur near the present-day ...
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Paestum: The Best Ancient Greek Ruins in Italy's Mainland
Jul 20, 2023 · Founded in 600 B.C. by the Greeks, Paestum was conquered by the Romans in 273 B.C. While you can still see the archaeological signs of their ...
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Excavations of Velia - Elea
The ancient acropolis of Elea (Velia) is home to an interesting medieval fortification, which now hosts captivating open-air theater performances.
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Parco Archeologico di Velia - Atlas Obscura
Aug 3, 2021 · The ancient Roman city of Velia, located on the Cilento coast in Southern Italy, was founded by Greeks from Phocaea during the 6th-century BCE as Hyele.
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Archaeological sites - Cilento for Travellers
Velia, but also little known places like Roccagloriosa, Civitella, Monte Pruno: each stone talks about a deep and ...Missing: ancient | Show results with:ancient
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ROCCA CILENTO
Villages of many within the ancient Lombard District (actus) of Cilento, county seat of brother of Prince Gisulf II, Guaimar. Both Ruggiero and his brother ...
[130]
Castle – Castello di Rocca Cilento
A charming mansion located in Rocca Cilento, a hamlet of the municipality of Lustra. Set on a hilltop overlooking a naturalistic landscape of rare beauty.
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Parco Nazionale del Cilento, Vallo di Diano e Alburni - Parks.it
Un'eccezionale testimonianza della presenza dei monaci greco-orientali nel Cilento è rappresentata dall'Abbazia di Santa Maria di Pattano, fra i più antichi ...<|separator|>
[132]
La Badia di Santa Maria a Pattano - Il Cilentano
May 29, 2023 · Questo complesso, un ex monastero (o cenobio) greco-bizantino, comprende la Chiesa di Santa Maria e la Chiesa di San Filadelfo. Spesso ...
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Castles in Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park - Tripadvisor
Castles in Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park ; 1. Castello dell'Abate. 4.2. (277) ; 2. Castello Macchiaroli. 4.3. (87) ; 3. Castello Feudale Filomarino. 4.3.
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Cilento, what to see: 10 places not to be missed
1. The Archaeological Park of Paestum. The Archaeological Park of Paestum preserves three Greek temples built between the 6th and 5th centuries BC that are, ...