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Clitocybe

Clitocybe is a genus of several hundred species of gilled mushrooms belonging to the family Clitocybaceae in the order Agaricales, characterized by white to cream or pale yellowish spore prints, decurrent gills that run down the stem, and caps that are often convex becoming funnel- or trumpet-shaped, lacking partial veils or rings.^[1]^[2] These primarily saprotrophic fungi decompose organic matter in terrestrial habitats such as grasslands, woodlands, and leaf litter, with a cosmopolitan distribution across temperate and subtropical regions worldwide.^[1]^[3] Established as a genus by Friedrich Staude in 1857 from Elias Fries' earlier tribe, Clitocybe has undergone significant taxonomic revisions due to molecular phylogenetic studies revealing its polyphyletic nature, including a 2024 proposal to conserve the name by designating a new type species; this has resulted in the transfer of numerous species to newly described genera including Infundibulicybe, Atractosporocybe, Leucocybe, and Ampulloclitocybe.^[2]^[4]^[5] Despite these changes, the core Clitocybe retains a diverse array of species, many of which are medium to large with smooth, dry to moist caps in shades of white, gray, brown, or lilac.^[2]^[6] Edibility varies widely: species like Clitocybe odora (anise mushroom) are valued edibles for their mild flavor, while others such as Clitocybe dealbata produce the neurotoxin muscarine, causing severe cholinergic poisoning symptoms including sweating, salivation, and bradycardia.^[3]^[7] The genus's ecological role as decomposers underscores its importance in nutrient cycling, and some species form fairy rings in lawns and pastures.^[1]

Taxonomy and Etymology

Etymology

The genus name Clitocybe derives from the Greek words klitós (κλιτός), meaning "sloping" or "inclined," and kubē (κυβή), meaning "head," alluding to the often sloped or funnel-like cap morphology observed in many species.^[8]^[9] Elias Magnus Fries introduced the name Clitocybe in 1821 as a tribe (tribus) within the genus Agaricus in his foundational taxonomic work Systema Mycologicum, volume 1, pages 9 and 78, establishing its initial use in mycological nomenclature to denote fungi with such distinctive pileus features.^[10]

Classification History

The genus Clitocybe was proposed by the Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in 1821 as a tribe (tribus Clitocybe) within the broad genus Agaricus, encompassing fungi with decurrent gills and a central stipe.^[11] This grouping highlighted morphological similarities among certain agarics, but it was not formally recognized as a distinct genus until 1857, when German mycologist Friedrich Staude elevated it to generic status in his work on South African fungi. In 1871, Paul Kummer further refined the taxonomy by designating Clitocybe nebularis (originally described as Agaricus nebularis by Batsch in 1789) as the lectotype species, providing a stable nomenclatural anchor for the genus. Subsequent morphological studies expanded the genus, but molecular phylogenetics in the late 20th and early 21st centuries demonstrated its polyphyletic nature, with species scattered across multiple clades in the Agaricales.^[12] This led to significant revisions, including the 2003 separation of 13 funnel-shaped species (such as Clitocybe gibba) into the new genus Infundibulicybe by Czech mycologist Vladimír Antonín and Dutch mycologist Machiel E. Noordeloos, based on combined morphological and early molecular evidence.^[13] Further DNA-based studies, such as the multilocus analysis by Matheny et al. in 2006, confirmed the non-monophyly of Clitocybe and facilitated transfers of species to genera like Ampulloclitocybe (proposed by Redhead et al. in 2002 for bulbous-stiped taxa), Atractosporocybe, Leucocybe, and Rhizocybe (established by Alvarado et al. in 2014 for clades distinguished by spore shape, rhizomorphs, and phylogenetic placement).^[12]^[14] Today, the circumscribed Clitocybe (centered on the type C. nebularis) is placed in the family Clitocybaceae, following the dismantling of the traditional polyphyletic Tricholomataceae through phylogenetic revisions. A 2023 multilocus study further refined the family Clitocybaceae into six genera, including the core Clitocybe. The genus now includes approximately 300 described species, primarily saprotrophic agarics with white to pale spores and decurrent gills, though ongoing molecular work continues to refine boundaries.^[15]^[16]

Morphology

Macroscopic Features

Clitocybe species exhibit a range of macroscopic features that contribute to their identification in the field, primarily through the shape and attachment of their fruiting body components. The cap, or pileus, is typically convex to plane when young, often developing a central depression or becoming distinctly funnel-shaped (infundibuliform) with maturity, with diameters generally spanning 2–15 cm across species. The cap surface is smooth to fibrillose, sometimes pruinose or tomentose, and dry to slightly moist, though rarely viscid or strongly hygrophanous; colors vary widely but are usually dull, ranging from white and pale yellow to gray-brown, beige, or lilac in certain taxa.^[17]^[2]^[18] The gills are a defining trait, characteristically decurrent—extending down the stem—and arranged closely to crowded, with broad to narrow spacing; they appear white to cream or pale yellow, often unchanging with age. The stem is central, cylindrical, and measures 3–10 cm in length by 0.5–2 cm in thickness, typically equal or slightly tapered toward the base, solid when young but becoming hollow; it is usually concolorous with the cap or paler, with a fibrillose to tomentose texture, and lacks any annular remnants from a partial veil. The flesh is white or whitish, thin at the margins but moderately thick toward the cap center, providing a soft to somewhat firm consistency.^[17]^[2] Many Clitocybe species are inodorous, though some emit a faint mealy or farinaceous scent, which can aid differentiation from look-alikes. The spore print, obtained by placing the cap gills-down on paper overnight, is consistently white to pale yellow, a key macroscopic character that separates the genus from those with darker prints like rusty-brown or pink.^[17]^[19]^[2]

Microscopic Features

The microscopic features of Clitocybe are essential for accurate taxonomic identification within the genus, particularly as macroscopic traits can overlap with related genera like Lepista or Infundibulicybe. These structures, observed via light microscopy after preparation with stains such as KOH or Melzer's reagent, reveal consistent patterns across species in Clitocybe sensu stricto.^[20] Basidiospores in Clitocybe are typically smooth, hyaline, and thin-walled, measuring 5–8 × 3–5 µm, with shapes ranging from elliptical to subglobose; they are non-amyloid, meaning they do not turn blue-black in Melzer's reagent, and lack a germ pore. Basidia are club-shaped (clavate), 20–30 µm long by 6–8 µm wide, and predominantly four-spored, each bearing slender sterigmata up to 5 µm long that support spore development on the hymenium. These spore and basidial characteristics distinguish Clitocybe from genera with ornamented or amyloid spores, such as some Hygrophorus species.^[20]^[21] Cystidia are generally absent or rare in Clitocybe, though some species may exhibit inconspicuous cheilocystidia along the gill edges, which are cylindrical or slightly inflated cells up to 40 µm long that do not project significantly. The pileipellis, the outer layer of the cap, forms a cutis or trichodermium structure consisting of interwoven, repent to erect hyphae 3–10 µm in diameter, often with cylindrical elements parallel to the surface in a cutis arrangement. This hyphal organization contrasts with the more disorganized trama in related genera. Clamp connections are present at septal junctions throughout the basidiome tissues, a reliable microscopic trait aiding in confirming Clitocybe affiliation, though their absence in certain segregate genera like Clitocella highlights ongoing taxonomic refinements.^[20]^[21]^[22]

Habitat and Distribution

Preferred Habitats

Clitocybe species are primarily terrestrial fungi inhabiting grasslands, woodlands, and forest edges, where they thrive on soils enriched with organic matter such as humus and decaying plant material. These mushrooms often emerge from nutrient-rich substrates, including bare soil in open grassy areas like lawns, meadows, and pastures, as well as disturbed ground along paths or verges.^[23] They commonly associate with leaf litter from deciduous trees, wood chips, and grassy swards, displaying a noted preference for deciduous and mixed forests compared to purely coniferous ones, though some species adapt to conifer-dominated sites. Fruiting bodies typically develop in clusters or troops, facilitating efficient spore dispersal in these microhabitats. In temperate regions, growth is triggered by cool, moist conditions, with peak fruiting occurring in autumn (August to November in the Northern Hemisphere; March to May in the Southern Hemisphere).^[15]^[24] Clitocybe exhibits broad soil pH tolerance, favoring neutral to slightly acidic conditions in most cases, while certain species, such as Clitocybe geotropa, occur on calcareous soils. This adaptability to varying soil chemistry, combined with their saprotrophic lifestyle, allows the genus to occupy diverse terrestrial niches without strict dependencies on specific host plants.

Global Distribution

Clitocybe species are predominantly native to the temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere, where they thrive in forested ecosystems associated with leaf litter and woody debris. The genus exhibits its highest diversity in Europe and North America, with numerous species documented across a range of climates from coastal woodlands to high-elevation coniferous forests. For instance, in Europe, over 100 species in the broad sense (Clitocybe s.l.) have been recorded, particularly in central and northern areas, though taxonomic revisions have reduced the number in the strict sense, while North America hosts a comparable richness, especially in the Pacific Northwest and eastern deciduous forests.^[13]^[25] In Asia, Clitocybe maintains a notable presence, though species diversity is generally lower than in Europe or North America. Endemic or regionally restricted taxa, such as the formerly classified Clitocybe acromelalga (now Paralepistopsis acromelalga), are confined to Japan, where they occur in subtropical to temperate zones. Broader Asian distributions include reports from Pakistan and China, often in mixed woodlands. In Australasia, the genus is represented by a smaller number of species, such as Clitocybe australiana in Australia and several in New Zealand, some of which are native (e.g., Clitocybe australiana), while others reflect introductions via human-mediated dispersal.^[26] Certain Clitocybe species demonstrate extensive natural ranges across Eurasia, with some extending to North America without evidence of introduction. Clitocybe nebularis, for example, is widespread from Europe through Asia and is also native to North American temperate forests, particularly in the Pacific Northwest and eastern regions, likely due to post-glacial recolonization patterns. Recent discoveries include Clitocybe cedrelae in the subtropical Yungas of Argentina (described 2024), highlighting occasional native presence in southern subtropical regions.^[27]^[20]^[28] The overall distribution of the genus is heavily influenced by historical glacial cycles, which shaped Northern Hemisphere refugia, and to a lesser extent by human activities such as forestry practices that facilitate spread. No Clitocybe species are truly pantropical, with occurrences in tropical regions being exceedingly rare and typically limited to subtropical fringes or introduced populations.

Ecology

Saprotrophic Decomposition

Clitocybe species primarily function as saprotrophic fungi, deriving nutrients by decomposing dead organic matter such as leaf litter, wood, and grass in forest ecosystems. They achieve this through the secretion of extracellular enzymes that target complex polymers like lignin and cellulose. For lignin degradation, Clitocybe produces laccases, multi-copper oxidases that oxidize phenolic compounds and facilitate the breakdown of lignocellulosic structures, as demonstrated in the edible species Infundibulicybe gibba (formerly Clitocybe maxima). Cellulose decomposition is supported by cellobiohydrolases, key enzymes isolated from litter-decomposing Clitocybe species that hydrolyze cellulose chains into glucose units. These enzymatic activities are particularly effective on partly decomposed substrates, where Clitocybe causes selective removal of acid-unhydrolyzable residues (AUR), leading to bleaching of litter materials.^[29]^[30] In nutrient cycling, Clitocybe plays a crucial role by mineralizing essential elements from decomposed litter, releasing nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon back into the soil to enhance fertility. Colonized bleached litter shows elevated levels of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg compared to non-bleached material, with net nitrogen mineralization rates significantly higher due to the fungus's selective lignin removal. This process contributes to humus formation on woodland floors by transforming recalcitrant organic matter into stable soil organic compounds, supporting long-term soil structure and microbial diversity. Clitocybe's hyphal networks in such substrates can be over five times denser than in undecomposed litter, amplifying decomposition efficiency.^[30]^[30]^[31] Fruiting bodies of Clitocybe emerge seasonally in autumn within preferred habitats like deciduous forest leaf litter, aiding spore dispersal to colonize new substrates. Compared to aggressive primary decomposers like Armillaria species, which rapidly rot fresh wood, Clitocybe acts as a secondary colonizer with slower initial rates but greater specificity for advanced-stage lignin-rich residues, resulting in higher mass loss of partly decomposed leaves.^[31]^[30]^[30]

Interactions with Fauna and Flora

While most species in the genus Clitocybe are saprotrophic and do not form mycorrhizal associations, certain taxa exhibit rare weakly parasitic interactions with plant roots, such as the fungus formerly classified as Clitocybe tabescens (now Desarmillaria tabescens or Armillaria tabescens), which causes root rot in trees including apple, peach, and oak by invading healthy root tissues and facilitating decay.^[32] These parasitic behaviors can indirectly compete with established mycorrhizal fungi by damaging host roots and altering nutrient availability in the rhizosphere, though direct antagonism is not well-documented. Additionally, some Clitocybe species, like Clitocybe sclerotoidea, act as parasites on other fungi, such as Helvella lacunosa, by colonizing and sterilizing their sclerotia, which may influence fungal community dynamics in forest soils.^[33] Interactions with fauna primarily involve spore dispersal and consumption. Spores of Clitocybe species are dispersed by small mammals and insects through mycophagy, where animals ingest fruiting bodies and excrete viable spores, aiding long-distance propagation in forest ecosystems; this is particularly noted for epigeous basidiomycetes like Clitocybe, complementing wind dispersal.^[34] Slugs may consume some Clitocybe species, potentially leading to bioaccumulation of toxins like muscarine in slug tissues, though certain species produce antifeedants that deter gastropod feeding. These interactions can facilitate spore transport, with slugs carrying and depositing spores of saprotrophic fungi, including Clitocybe, via their feces, promoting fungal colonization in new microsites.^[35] Certain Clitocybe species produce antifungal compounds that deter microbial competitors, enhancing their ecological niche. For example, Clitocybe nebularis contains nebularine and phenylacetic acid, which exhibit potent inhibitory effects against plant pathogenic fungi like Magnaporthe grisea and dermatophytes such as Trichophyton mentagrophytes.^[36] Similarly, culture filtrates from Lepista nuda (formerly Clitocybe nuda) demonstrate antimicrobial activity against various fungal pathogens, suggesting a role in suppressing rival mycelia during substrate colonization.^[37] These compounds contribute to antagonistic interactions within soil fungal communities, potentially reducing competition from other decomposers. Clitocybe species occasionally facilitate mycoheterotrophy in associated plants, though such roles are infrequent and poorly characterized. No species of Clitocybe are widely cultivated or domesticated, limiting human-mediated propagation. However, wild harvesting of edible or medicinal Clitocybe taxa can impact local ecosystems by depleting fruiting body populations, potentially reducing spore dispersal and altering fungal diversity in forests; overharvesting disrupts the balance of saprotrophic communities reliant on these fungi for nutrient cycling.^[38] Sustainable practices are essential to mitigate these effects, as excessive collection may exacerbate habitat pressures in regions with high foraging activity.^[39]

Toxicity and Edibility

Poisonous Toxins and Symptoms

Several species of Clitocybe contain muscarine, a potent cholinergic toxin that primarily affects the parasympathetic nervous system. Notable examples include C. dealbata and C. rivulosa, where ingestion leads to symptoms such as excessive sweating, salivation, lacrimation, urination, defecation, gastrointestinal upset, bradycardia, and hypotension, typically onsetting within 30 minutes to 2 hours after consumption.^[40]^[41] In severe cases, high doses can cause respiratory distress, convulsions, and coma, with rare but recorded fatalities due to cardiovascular collapse.^[42]^[43] Other species, such as Paralepistopsis acromelalga (formerly Clitocybe acromelalga) and P. amoenolens (formerly C. amoenolens), produce acromelic acids, neurotoxic compounds that mimic kainic acid and target glutamate receptors.^[44] These toxins induce erythromelalgia, characterized by intense burning pain, redness, swelling, and increased temperature in the extremities, often without initial gastrointestinal symptoms.^[45] The onset is notably delayed, ranging from a few days to several weeks post-ingestion, with symptoms persisting for weeks to months and potentially leading to chronic neuropathy.^[46]^[47] Some Clitocybe species may cause mild to moderate gastrointestinal distress due to unknown irritants including nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, typically appearing within 2-6 hours.^[48] Unlike amatoxins found in genera like Amanita or orellanine in Cortinarius, no Clitocybe species are known to produce these deadly hepatotoxic or nephrotoxic agents.^[49]^[50] Treatment for muscarine poisoning involves prompt administration of atropine to counteract cholinergic effects, alongside supportive measures such as fluid replacement and monitoring for cardiac complications.^[51] For acromelic acid-induced erythromelalgia, management is primarily supportive, focusing on pain relief, anti-inflammatory agents, and in some cases, nicotinic acid infusions, though no specific antidote exists and symptoms often resolve gradually with time.^[40]^[52]

Edible and Culinary Uses

Several species within the genus Clitocybe are considered edible and have been utilized in culinary traditions, particularly in Europe, though identification and preparation are crucial to avoid toxic look-alikes. However, many species in the genus have unknown edibility, and accurate identification is essential to avoid confusion with toxic species. Clitocybe nebularis, commonly known as the clouded funnel, is one of the most frequently foraged edible species, featuring a mild to slightly sweet flavor with nutty undertones when properly cooked. It is often used in soups, stews, sautés, or fried in butter, and can be pickled for preservation, providing a meaty texture suitable for vegetarian dishes. Similarly, Infundibulicybe squamulosa (formerly Clitocybe squamulosa) offers a rich umami profile enhanced by cooking, making it ideal for stir-fries or as a flavor base in broths.^[53]^[54]^[55] Nutritionally, edible Clitocybe species are low in calories, typically comprising 85–90% water content, and provide significant protein levels, ranging from 20–40% on a dry weight basis, comparable to some animal sources. For instance, I. squamulosa contains approximately 39.6 g of protein and 29.3 g of carbohydrates per 100 g dry weight, along with essential amino acids like glutamic and aspartic acid, dietary fiber, and bioactive compounds such as polysaccharides and phenolics that contribute to antioxidant activity. These mushrooms are also sources of B-complex vitamins and minerals like iron and magnesium, supporting their role as a nutrient-dense, low-fat addition to diets.^[56]^[57]^[54] Culinary preparation emphasizes thorough cooking to improve digestibility and flavor while mitigating potential mild gastrointestinal irritants present in some species. Steaming or microwaving I. squamulosa preserves nutrients and enhances volatile compounds like 1-octen-3-ol for a mushroomy aroma, whereas boiling followed by discarding the water is recommended for C. nebularis to reduce toughness and any subtle toxins. Parboiling is advised for sensitive individuals, and small test portions should be consumed initially to assess tolerance.^[54]^[53] In European cultures, particularly in central and eastern regions, Clitocybe species like C. nebularis have been traditionally foraged for autumn dishes, adding earthy depth to local cuisines and serving as a seasonal protein source during historical food shortages. However, overharvesting of wild edible fungi, including Clitocybe, has contributed to population declines and habitat pressures across Europe, prompting calls for sustainable foraging practices.^[58]^[38]^[59]

Selected Species

Notable Species Descriptions

Clitocybe nebularis, commonly known as the clouded agaric, is a large species characterized by a cap measuring 4–30 cm in diameter, which is convex to nearly flat, dry or moist, and gray to brownish gray with silky whitish fuzz at the center and an inrolled margin.^[27] The gills are broadly attached or slightly decurrent, close or nearly crowded, and creamy, while the stem is 4–9 cm long and 1.5–3 cm thick, whitish with a prominent white basal mycelium that darkens to brownish when handled.^[27] It exhibits a strongly foul, coal tar-like odor or sometimes a sickly sweetish scent, and produces a whitish spore print.^[27] This saprobic fungus grows alone, scattered, or gregariously under conifers or occasionally hardwoods in summer and fall, commonly found in Europe and North America.^[27] Clitocybe odora, the aniseed toadstool, features a blue-green cap 2.5–7 cm across, convex with an inrolled margin becoming flat, dry, and bald or finely fibrillose, fading to brownish or whitish with age.^[60] Its gills are attached or slightly decurrent, close to crowded, and whitish to faintly pinkish, attached to a stem 3–7 cm long and 5–12 mm thick, whitish to brownish with white basal mycelium.^[60] Notable for its strong anise odor when fresh, which fades over time, it yields a whitish to creamy spore print.^[60] Saprobic on litter from hardwoods or conifers, it appears scattered or gregariously in summer and fall across Europe, northern North America, and parts of Asia.^[60] Clitocybe robusta is distinguished by its robust, white fruiting body, with a cap 6–20 cm wide that is convex to flat or shallowly depressed, dry, and white to dirty buff with an inrolled margin.^[61] The gills are broadly attached, close, whitish to pale brownish, and easily separable, while the stem measures 4–15 cm long and up to 3 cm thick, often with an enlarged base up to 5 cm, discoloring brownish.^[61] It has a sickly sweetish and foul odor, sometimes indistinct, and a pale yellowish spore print.^[61] This species grows in dense clusters under hardwoods or conifers, frequently on disturbed ground like road banks, during summer and fall in North America.^[61] Clitocybe rivulosa, known as the false champignon, is a small to medium-sized species with a cap 2–7 cm in diameter, convex to flat, white to cream, dry or slightly silky, often with a faint central depression. The gills are decurrent, crowded, and white, attached to a slender stem 3–7 cm long and 0.3–0.8 cm thick, also white. It lacks a distinctive odor and produces a white spore print. This saprobic fungus grows gregariously in grasslands, lawns, and pastures in late summer to fall, primarily in Europe and North America.^[23] Basic identification of Clitocybe species relies on key morphological traits such as decurrent gills, often funnel-shaped or convex caps with inrolled margins, central stems without rings, and white to pale spore prints, typically in saprobic clusters on forest litter.^[62]

Taxonomic Reclassifications

One significant reclassification within the former Clitocybe involved the transfer of Clitocybe geotropa to the new genus Infundibulicybe in 2003. This move, proposed by Harmaja, was based on morphological distinctions, particularly in spore characteristics and the absence of cystidia, which differentiated it from the type species Clitocybe nebularis. Specifically, the spores of Infundibulicybe geotropa do not adhere in tetrads, exhibit confluent bases and a predominantly lacrymoid shape (broadest above the middle), and possess a cyanophobic wall lacking a myxosporium, contrasting with the cyanophilic spores of Clitocybe; additionally, the mycelium cannot reduce nitrate, and cystidia are absent.^[63] Another key transfer occurred with Clitocybe clavipes, which was reclassified as Ampulloclitocybe clavipes in 2002 by Redhead et al., following phylogenetic analyses that placed it within the Hygrophoraceae rather than the Tricholomataceae. This decision was driven by DNA sequence data showing clustering with other species featuring ampulliform (bulbous-based) stems, such as those in the former Clitocybe lateritia group, emphasizing molecular evidence over traditional morphological placement in Clitocybe. The genus name Ampulloclitocybe took precedence over an earlier proposal (Clavicybe by Harmaja), reflecting the species' distinctive club-footed stipe and phylogenetic affinity to waxcap relatives. The bioluminescent jack-o'-lantern mushroom, previously known as Clitocybe illudens, was transferred to the genus Omphalotus, with the North American form recognized as Omphalotus illudens since the late 20th century. This reclassification stemmed from shared traits with Omphalotus, including strong bioluminescence in the gills due to luciferin-luciferase reactions, decurrent gills, wood-inhabiting saprotrophic habit, and phylogenetic placement in the distinct family Omphalotaceae, separate from the clitocyboid clade. The move highlighted the polyphyletic nature of Clitocybe s.l., as Omphalotus species produce unique sesquiterpenoid toxins like illudins, absent in core Clitocybe. Several Clitocybe species retain unclear taxonomic status pending further DNA confirmation, such as Clitocybe irina, now accepted as Lepista irina following molecular phylogenetic studies. Other examples include taxa like Clitocybe candicans, now placed in Leucocybe as Leucocybe candicans following phylogenetic studies, as multilocus studies continue to reveal scattered evolutionary lineages across Agaricales clades. These uncertainties arise from Clitocybe's historical catch-all use for funnel-shaped agarics, necessitating ongoing revisions through ITS and multi-gene phylogenies.^[13]^[64]^[65] These reclassifications have critical implications for field guides and mycological identification, as outdated nomenclature can lead to misidentification of toxic or edible species; for instance, retaining old Clitocybe names risks confusing users about toxicity profiles, such as mistaking Ampulloclitocybe clavipes (potentially coprine-producing) for safer Clitocybe. Updated guides incorporating molecular data are essential to reflect the fragmented phylogeny, reducing errors in foraging and ecological studies.^[15]

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Nov 16, 2021 · Heart rot of trees is often due to weakly aggressive Armillaria species, for instance A. borealis or A. cepistipes on conifers in northern ...
[31]
Clitocybe parasitica - Wikipedia
Clitocybe parasitica is classified as a plant pathogen, because in the United States it causes Clitocybe Root Rot, affecting apple, peach, cherry, and oak ...
[32]
Parasitism of Helvella Lacunosa by Clitocybe Sclerotoidea
Sep 12, 2018 · (1972). Parasitism of Helvella Lacunosa by Clitocybe Sclerotoidea. Mycologia: Vol. 64, No. 6, pp. 1337-1340.
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Spore dispersal of basidiomycete fungi at the landscape scale is ...
Jun 30, 2014 · We observed a number of taxa with agaricoid fruiting bodies, such as Suillus, Armillaria, Clitocybe and Mycena, but they were less common.
[34]
Fungal spore transport by omnivorous mycophagous slug in ...
Feb 17, 2022 · Our results suggest that slugs could carry spores of ectomycorrhizal, saprophytic, and wood‐decaying fungi to appropriate sites for these fungi ...
[35]
Chemical Constituents of the Fruiting Bodies of Clitocybe nebularis ...
The chemical constituents of C. nebularis were first investigated by Ehrenberg, who identified its characteristic metabolites (Ehrenberg et al., 1946).
[36]
Control of plant diseases with secondary metabolite of Clitocybe nuda
Oct 31, 2009 · Culture filtrates of five strains of Clitocybe nuda displayed various degrees of antimicrobial activity against plant pathogenic fungi ...
[37]
(PDF) Mycorrhizal specificity and function in myco-heterotrophic plants
Jan 22, 2016 · ... Clitocybe squamulosa Parasitic +. ecto-mycorrhizal. Martin (1985) ... mycoheterotrophy in the Apostasioideae, this study focused on ...
[38]
Wild Mushrooms as a Source of Protein - PubMed Central - NIH
Feb 22, 2023 · Over-harvesting can deplete populations of certain species, disrupting the delicate balance of the ecosystem. It is crucial to follow guidelines ...
[39]
Underutilized wild edible fungi and their undervalued ecosystem ...
Mar 2, 2023 · While wild harvesting may be sustainable for local consumption and sale, there is a danger of overharvesting (Hall et al. 2003) if it is ...
[40]
Mushroom Toxicity - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Aug 7, 2023 · Mushroom poisonings may range from benign symptoms of generalized gastrointestinal upset to potentially devastating manifestations.
[41]
Mushroom poisoning: overview | MedLink Neurology
Clitocybe dealbata (Sowerby) Gillet (“ivory funnel”) Clitocybe rivulosa ... Cholinergic (muscarinic) mushroom poisoning should be treated with atropine.
[42]
Mushroom Toxicity Clinical Presentation - Medscape Reference
Apr 26, 2023 · With large doses, patients may experience abdominal pain, severe nausea, diarrhea, blurred vision, and labored breathing. Intoxication generally ...
[43]
Death Following Ingestion of Clitocybe Species Mushroom
Conclusion. While rare, poisoning from muscarine toxicity after ingestion of Clitocybe mushrooms may be fatal. Avoidance of ingestion of these mushrooms as ...
[44]
Three Cases of Food Poisoning Due to Paralepistopsis acromelalga ...
Dec 22, 2020 · The presentation of Paralepistopsis acromelalga intoxication is characterized by erythromelalgia without gastrointestinal symptoms after a few days' incubation.
[45]
Erythromelalgia associated with Clitocybe acromelalga intoxication
May 3, 2013 · Context: Erythromelalgia is a rare disorder characterized by reddening, severe burning pain, and swelling of the extremities.Missing: acromelic amoenolens
[46]
[PDF] Mushroom Poisoning Syndromes - Michigan Mushroom Hunters Club
Onset of symptoms is about 1 week after ingestion of the mushrooms and appears to be caused by acromelic acids, compounds that structurally mimic the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
Mushroom Poisoning Syndromes
The symptoms usually appear within 20 minutes to 4 hours of ingesting the mushrooms, and include nausea, vomiting, cramps, and diarrhea, which normally pass ...
[48]
Toxicological Profiles of Poisonous, Edible, and Medicinal Mushrooms
Affected patients may show hypersecretion, miosis, and gastrointestinal disturbance. Bradycardia and even collapse may occur in severe cases of intoxication ...Missing: distress | Show results with:distress
[49]
Mushroom Toxicity: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
Apr 26, 2023 · Amatoxins, gyromitrins, and orellanine are the toxins most commonly implicated in fatal mushroom poisonings worldwide. The amatoxins, and to a ...
[50]
Mushroom Toxicity Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference
Apr 26, 2023 · Severe muscarinic symptoms may be treated with the infusion of small doses of atropine. In muscarine poisoning, the entire episode usually ...
[51]
Nicotinic acid treatment for Paralepistopsis acromelalga intoxication
May 24, 2016 · acromelalga poisoning was made by detailed interview and mushroom identification. She was treated with intravenous nicotinic acid for 17 days ...Missing: acromelalgia | Show results with:acromelalgia
[52]
Clouded agaric – identification, distribution, edibility
Dec 1, 2011 · Habitat: Under almost any tree type, growing on fallen leaf/needle litter or rich soil. I have also found it growing in grass well removed ...
[53]
Effects of different cooking methods on volatile flavor compounds ...
Effects of cooking methods on the hydrolytic amino acids in Clitocybe squamulosa. The nutritional value and flavor of edible fungi are closely related to the ...
[54]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9635447/
[55]
Proteins from Edible Mushrooms: Nutritional Role and Contribution ...
Edible mushrooms have a high protein content (between 19% and 40%), similar to that in animal proteins (pork or beef) and soybeans and higher than the protein ...
[56]
https://zombiemyco.com/pages/clitocybe-fragrans
[57]
Sustainable Cultivation of Edible Mushrooms: Preserving ... - MDPI
Oct 13, 2023 · Overharvesting wild mushrooms can disrupt these delicate ecosystems, leading to imbalances and biodiversity loss. Sustainable cultivation ...
[58]
Clitocybe odora (MushroomExpert.Com)
Clitocybe odora is a gorgeous shade of bluish green and smells strongly of anise (like black licorice or ouzo), making it fairly easy to recognize.
[59]
Clitocybe robusta (MushroomExpert.Com)
Clitocybe robusta is a medium-sized to large white species with a cap that does not become deeply vase-shaped; in fact the caps are often distorted.
[60]
Clitocybe geotropa, Trooping Funnel mushroom - First Nature
Clitocybe geotropa is very common throughout Britain and Ireland and is also found across mainland Europe. This species also occurs in North America. Taxonomic ...Missing: morphology | Show results with:morphology
[61]
https://www.mushroomexpert.com/clitocybe_robusta.html
[62]
[PDF] Notes on Clitocybe s. lato (Agaricales)
Jun 19, 2003 · Agaricus nebularis Batsch : Fr. is approved as the lectotype of the genus Clitocybe. (Fr.) Staude (Agaricales: Tricholomataceae).
[63]
Jack-O-Lantern Fungus - Purdue Agriculture
Oct 18, 2022 · The poisonous Jack-O-Lantern fungus, Omphalotus olearius (formerly known as either Omphalotus illudens or Clitocybe illudens) is most often found growing in ...
[64]
[PDF] Atractosporocybe, Leucocybe and Rhizocybe - IRIS-AperTO - UniTo
Clitocybe candicans formerly was classified in Clitocybe subsection Candicantes (Quél.) Singer, along with other taxa whose taxonomic status is unclear.
[65]
[PDF] Major clades of Agaricales: a multilocus phylogenetic overview
Abstract: An overview of the phylogeny of the. Agaricales is presented based on a multilocus analysis of a six-gene region supermatrix. Bayesian analyses of.<|control11|><|separator|>