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Coagulative necrosis

Coagulative necrosis is a form of cell death in which the basic outline of the dead cells and the overall tissue architecture are preserved for several days, despite the denaturation of structural proteins, primarily due to sudden cessation of blood flow (ischemia) in most organs except the brain.^[1] This type of necrosis is distinguished by its firm, pale appearance on gross examination and, microscopically, by anucleate cells with eosinophilic cytoplasm and preserved cellular contours, due to denaturation of lysosomal enzymes, which delays autolysis and tissue digestion.^[2] It commonly occurs in solid organs such as the heart, kidney, spleen, and liver, often as a result of arterial thrombosis, embolism, or other ischemic events like myocardial infarction.^[3] Unlike liquefactive necrosis, which leads to rapid tissue dissolution into a viscous liquid (as seen in the brain or bacterial infections), coagulative necrosis maintains structural integrity initially, allowing for potential demarcation and healing by fibrosis if the affected area is limited.^[1] The process is triggered by hypoxia-induced protein denaturation, which delays enzymatic autolysis while permitting nuclear changes like pyknosis, karyorrhexis, and karyolysis to occur.^[2] Clinically, it manifests through organ-specific symptoms, such as chest pain and shortness of breath in cardiac involvement, and diagnosis typically requires biopsy or imaging to assess the extent of ischemic damage.^[3] In therapeutic contexts, controlled coagulative necrosis is induced in cancer treatments via ablation techniques like radiofrequency or high-intensity focused ultrasound to destroy tumor tissue.^[3] Over time, the necrotic tissue is cleared by inflammatory cells, but extensive involvement can lead to organ dysfunction or infarction-related complications.^[1]

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

Coagulative necrosis represents a form of irreversible cell death primarily triggered by ischemia or hypoxia, in which the denaturation of cellular proteins results in a preserved tissue architecture despite the demise of individual cells.^[1]^[3] This process leads to a firm consistency of the affected tissue, as the coagulated proteins maintain the basic outline of the organ or structure, distinguishing it from other necrotic patterns where dissolution occurs more rapidly.^[1] The concept of coagulative necrosis was first described in the late 19th century, with Carl Weigert and Julius Cohnheim identifying it in 1877 as a key pathological feature in ischemic lesions, where dead cells retained their external form.^[4] The term "coagulative" specifically alludes to the coagulation-like denaturation of proteins, evoking a firm, opaque appearance akin to cooked egg white, which was observed in early microscopic examinations of infarcts.^[4]^[1] As the most prevalent type of necrosis, coagulative necrosis manifests in virtually all solid organs except the brain and spinal cord, where liquefactive necrosis predominates due to the high lipid content and enzymatic activity of neural tissue.^[1]^[3] This widespread occurrence underscores its role as the default response to hypoxic injury in mesenchymal and parenchymal tissues throughout the body.^[1]

Distinguishing Features

Coagulative necrosis is distinguished by its characteristic preservation of cellular and tissue architecture, where the outlines of dead cells remain intact for several days post-injury, often appearing as pale, eosinophilic "ghost cells" due to the denaturation and coagulation of cytoplasmic proteins.^[1] This morphological feature arises from the rapid onset of protein denaturation triggered by ischemia or hypoxia, which maintains the basic shape of organelles and tissue structures, such as renal tubules or hepatic plates, in contrast to more disruptive forms of cell death.^[2] The ghost cell appearance results from intense cytoplasmic eosinophilia and loss of nuclear detail, with cells retaining their volume and contours initially before gradual fragmentation.^[5] Biochemically, coagulative necrosis involves the denaturation of cytoplasmic proteins, leading to their coagulation and an opaque, eosinophilic staining pattern under light microscopy, while lysosomal enzymes are also denatured, minimizing early autolysis and proteolytic digestion.^[2] This process is mediated by cellular acidosis and disruption of ion homeostasis, including elevated intracellular calcium that activates proteases like calpains, but without significant release of hydrolytic enzymes that would cause immediate tissue liquefaction.^[2] Initially, there is no substantial inflammatory response, as microvascular damage limits leukocyte infiltration, allowing the necrotic tissue to persist in a relatively inert state for hours to days.^[5] This type of necrosis predominantly affects solid organs with substantial connective tissue stroma, including the heart (as in myocardial infarction), kidney (renal infarcts), spleen, liver, and adrenal glands, where ischemia leads to wedge-shaped areas of involvement.^[1] In these sites, the preserved architecture facilitates recognition of the underlying organ structure even after cell death, aiding pathological diagnosis.^[5] Coagulative necrosis differs from other necrosis types in its triggers, morphological outcome, and tissue response, as summarized below:

Necrosis Type	Primary Triggers	Key Appearance and Features
Coagulative	Hypoxia/ischemia (e.g., arterial occlusion)	Preserved cell outlines, eosinophilic ghost cells, firm pale tissue; minimal early autolysis or inflammation^[1]^[2]
Liquefactive	Enzymatic digestion (e.g., bacterial infection, brain ischemia)	Tissue liquefaction into viscous pus-like mass; rapid autolysis by hydrolases^[1]
Caseous	Granulomatous infections (e.g., tuberculosis, fungi)	Cheesy, friable debris with complete loss of architecture; amorphous eosinophilic material^[1]^[2]
Gangrenous	Ischemia with bacterial superinfection (e.g., limbs, bowel)	Dry (mummified, black) or wet (putrid, liquefied); combines coagulative base with secondary infection^[1]^[5]

Etiology and Pathogenesis

Primary Causes

The primary cause of coagulative necrosis is hypoxic or ischemic injury resulting from arterial occlusion, most commonly due to thrombosis or embolism, which deprives tissues of oxygen and nutrients.^[1] This form of necrosis predominates in solid organs with robust stromal support, where the lack of blood flow leads to rapid cell death while preserving tissue architecture initially.^[6] Specific examples include myocardial infarction, where coronary artery blockage from atherosclerotic plaque rupture or thrombus formation causes coagulative necrosis in cardiac muscle, serving as the prototype for this pathological process.^[7] In renal infarcts, embolism of the renal artery—often from cardiac sources like atrial fibrillation—results in wedge-shaped areas of coagulative necrosis in the kidney cortex.^[8] Splenic infarcts, frequently associated with trauma or sickle cell disease, also exhibit coagulative necrosis due to vascular occlusion in the splenic vasculature. Less commonly, venous occlusion can also lead to ischemia and coagulative necrosis.^[6]^[1] Less common etiologies include certain chemical toxins, such as mercury, which can induce ischemic-like injury and coagulative necrosis in renal tubules through vascular damage and direct cytotoxicity.^[9] Thermal injuries from burns cause localized coagulative necrosis via protein denaturation in affected tissues.^[10] Radiation exposure may lead to coagulative necrosis in irradiated tissues, particularly white matter, through endothelial damage and secondary ischemia.^[11] The prevalence of coagulative necrosis is closely linked to cardiovascular diseases, with higher incidence in populations prone to atherosclerosis, such as the elderly and those with diabetes mellitus, where accelerated vascular occlusion increases the risk of ischemic events.^[12]

Underlying Mechanisms

Coagulative necrosis is initiated by ischemia, which disrupts oxygen delivery to tissues, particularly in solid organs such as the heart and kidney, triggering a sequential cascade of cellular dysfunction.^[1] The process begins with rapid ATP depletion due to halted oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria, impairing energy production and leading to failure of ATP-dependent ion pumps like the Na+/K+-ATPase.^[2] This failure disrupts cellular ionic homeostasis, causing sodium and water influx that results in early cellular swelling and blebbing of the plasma membrane.^[1] As ischemia persists, mitochondrial damage intensifies from accumulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and calcium overload, further exacerbating ATP loss and initiating the release of lysosomal enzymes such as proteases and nucleases.^[2] These enzymes degrade cellular components, culminating in the denaturation and coagulation of structural proteins, which preserves the overall tissue architecture while rendering cells non-viable.^[1] Unlike apoptosis, this uncontrolled process does not involve organized caspase activation; it is primarily driven by ischemia-induced protein denaturation and ATP depletion.^[1] Key molecular pathways amplify this injury: oxidative stress from ROS generated during ischemia-reperfusion damages lipids, proteins, and DNA, while excessive calcium influx activates catabolic enzymes like phospholipases and endonucleases, accelerating mitochondrial permeability transition and energy failure.^[2] Acidosis, arising from anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid accumulation, contributes by inhibiting enzymatic activity and promoting protein denaturation, which helps maintain the coagulated structure observed in affected tissues.^[1] The timeline of injury progression is critical, with reversible changes—such as mild swelling and ATP recovery upon reperfusion—occurring within minutes to 30 minutes of severe ischemia in most tissues.^[2] Irreversible damage sets in after varying durations depending on the organ, such as ~20-30 minutes in the myocardium or longer (30-120 minutes) in the kidney and liver, marked by mitochondrial dysfunction and membrane rupture, leading to full necrosis within hours.^[2]^[13] Severity is primarily influenced by the duration and extent of blood flow interruption, with longer ischemic periods increasing the likelihood of widespread coagulation; initially, there is no significant involvement of immune responses, as necrosis precedes inflammatory recruitment.^[1]

Pathological Features

Gross Appearance

In the early stages of coagulative necrosis, affected tissue often appears pale and swollen due to interstitial edema and initial protein denaturation following ischemia.^[1] This pallor contrasts with surrounding viable tissue, reflecting the loss of blood flow while the overall architecture remains intact.^[6] As the process establishes, typically within hours to days, the necrotic area becomes a firm, pale tan to gray wedge-shaped region, sharply demarcated from adjacent hyperemic (reddened) borders indicative of reactive inflammation.^[6]^[14] The size and shape vary based on the occluded vessel; for instance, small peripheral wedges occur in the spleen from splenic artery branch occlusion, while larger cortical wedges affect the kidney from renal artery involvement.^[15]^[16] In the heart, a myocardial infarct presents as a pale, firm subendocardial or transmural patch in the ventricle, often with a hyperemic margin.^[14] Over the following days, the necrotic zone develops a yellowish hue from neutrophil and early macrophage infiltration, with softening occurring by 5-10 days due to ongoing phagocytosis, which may lead to tissue depression and, in vulnerable organs like the heart, potential rupture if the weakened wall fails.^[1]^[14] This evolution highlights the progressive breakdown while preserving the gross outline of the infarcted tissue.^[6]

Histological Characteristics

Coagulative necrosis is characterized microscopically by the preservation of basic cellular and tissue architecture despite cell death, distinguishing it from other forms of necrosis where structures disintegrate more rapidly. Under hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, affected cells appear as ghostly outlines with homogeneous, intensely eosinophilic (pink) cytoplasm due to protein denaturation and coagulation, giving the tissue a pale, cooked appearance.^[1]^[17]^[18] In muscle tissue, such as cardiac or skeletal myocytes, this manifests as swollen, hypereosinophilic fibers with loss of cross-striations, while non-muscle cells retain their general contours without fragmentation.^[19]^[20] The stroma and overall organelle framework remain intact for approximately 1-2 days post-injury, allowing recognition of the original tissue pattern even as cells die.^[1]^[8] Nuclear changes in coagulative necrosis follow a progressive sequence: initially, pyknosis with nuclear shrinkage and increased basophilia from chromatin condensation; followed by karyorrhexis, where the pyknotic nucleus fragments into small chromatin bits; and finally karyolysis, resulting in complete fading and dissolution of the nuclear material, often leaving cells appearing anucleate.^[18]^[1] This sequence typically becomes evident within hours of the ischemic insult, with eosinophilic cytoplasm dominating the histologic field on H&E.^[21] In cases involving vascular thrombosis as the underlying cause, special stains such as phosphotungstic acid-hematoxylin may highlight fibrin deposits within vessels, aiding in identifying the ischemic trigger, though H&E remains the primary diagnostic stain.^[22] Following the initial 24-48 hours, the preserved necrotic tissue begins to attract an inflammatory response, with neutrophils infiltrating from the periphery and gradually phagocytosing the dead cells, marking the transition toward resolution or further remodeling.^[21]^[23] This infiltration peaks around 1-3 days, contrasting with the early acellular phase where minimal inflammation is observed due to microvascular compromise.^[24]^[25]

Clinical Aspects

Presentation and Symptoms

Coagulative necrosis, resulting from ischemic injury in solid organs, manifests through symptoms tied to the affected tissue's function and the extent of the infarct. The presentation varies by organ, often reflecting acute vascular occlusion, with pain as a dominant feature due to tissue ischemia and subsequent inflammation. Systemic responses, such as fever and leukocytosis, arise from the release of cellular contents triggering an inflammatory cascade.^[1] In the heart, coagulative necrosis from myocardial infarction typically presents with sudden, severe chest pain radiating to the left arm, jaw, or back, accompanied by dyspnea, diaphoresis, and nausea or vomiting. These symptoms onset within minutes to hours of coronary artery occlusion and may peak over several hours as necrosis progresses. Large infarcts can lead to cardiogenic shock, characterized by hypotension, tachycardia, and altered mental status, while leukocytosis and low-grade fever develop within 24 to 48 hours due to secondary inflammation.^[26]^[26]^[26] Renal infarcts cause acute flank or abdominal pain, often sudden and severe, along with macroscopic or microscopic hematuria, nausea, vomiting, and occasional mild fever. Symptoms emerge rapidly following embolic or thrombotic occlusion, typically within hours, and may include elevated serum lactate dehydrogenase as an early marker, though reduced renal function like oliguria appears later if the infarct is extensive. Small or peripheral infarcts in the kidney are frequently asymptomatic and detected incidentally on imaging.^[27]^[27]^[27] Splenic infarcts commonly produce left upper quadrant abdominal pain, which can radiate to the left shoulder (Kehr's sign), along with nausea, vomiting, and fever. Leukocytosis is observed in more than 50% of patients, reflecting the inflammatory response. Pain typically begins abruptly with ischemia and resolves over 7 to 14 days in uncomplicated cases, but small infarcts, especially in patients with hematologic disorders, often remain asymptomatic and are found incidentally.^[28]^[28]^[28] Hepatic infarcts, being rare due to the liver's dual blood supply, present with right upper quadrant or epigastric pain, fever, nausea, and vomiting, sometimes mimicking other abdominal pathologies. Jaundice or elevated liver enzymes may occur if the infarct is large, with symptoms onset acutely post-ischemia and potentially worsening over days due to associated complications like ascites. Systemic signs such as fever and leukocytosis are common secondary to inflammation, similar to other visceral infarcts.^[29]^[29]^[1]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of coagulative necrosis begins with a thorough clinical evaluation, including a detailed patient history to identify risk factors such as atrial fibrillation, which predisposes to embolic events causing ischemic infarction in organs like the heart, kidneys, or spleen.^[30] Physical examination focuses on organ-specific signs, such as diminished pulses or organ enlargement, to suggest ischemic compromise without overt symptoms.^[3] Imaging modalities play a crucial role in detecting ischemic infarcts characteristic of coagulative necrosis. Computed tomography (CT) scans often reveal wedge-shaped areas of hypodensity in affected organs like the kidney or spleen, indicating infarction, while contrast-enhanced CT arteriography serves as the gold standard for confirming renal infarction by visualizing vascular occlusion.^[27] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides detailed assessment of tissue viability, showing hyperintense signals on T2-weighted images in evolving infarcts. For cardiac involvement, echocardiography evaluates wall motion abnormalities in myocardial infarction, and angiography identifies coronary or peripheral vessel occlusions.^[3] Laboratory tests support the diagnosis by indicating tissue damage from ischemia. In myocardial infarction, elevated cardiac troponins serve as highly specific biomarkers, with serial measurements confirming acute injury when levels rise and fall above the 99th percentile reference limit.^[31] Older markers like lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) may also rise in various ischemic events, reflecting general tissue necrosis. For renal cases, urinalysis can detect hematuria or proteinuria suggestive of infarction.^[27] Definitive diagnosis requires histopathological examination, typically via biopsy or autopsy, revealing characteristic features such as preserved tissue architecture with anucleate, eosinophilic cells on hematoxylin and eosin staining.^[1] In surgical settings, frozen section biopsies enable rapid intraoperative assessment of tissue viability, guiding decisions on resection extent in cases of suspected ischemic necrosis.^[32]

Management

Treatment Approaches

Treatment approaches for coagulative necrosis primarily target the underlying ischemic insult to restore blood flow, limit infarct expansion, and prevent further tissue damage. Reperfusion therapy is a cornerstone intervention, aimed at rapidly reestablishing perfusion to ischemic areas before irreversible necrosis sets in. This includes thrombolytic agents such as tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), which dissolve occlusive thrombi in conditions like acute myocardial infarction (MI), thereby salvaging viable myocardium and reducing infarct size.^[33] Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty and stenting provides mechanical reperfusion, often preferred over thrombolytics for its higher success rate in achieving timely vessel patency.^[34] Embolectomy, either surgical or catheter-based, is employed for acute arterial emboli causing infarction, such as in limb or organ ischemia, to directly remove the embolus and restore flow.^[35] Surgical options are indicated when necrotic tissue poses risks like rupture or ongoing embolization, or when revascularization is not feasible via less invasive means. Resection of infarcted tissue, such as splenectomy for a ruptured splenic infarct resulting from coagulative necrosis, is performed to eliminate the source of potential hemorrhage or infection.^[36] Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) addresses vascular occlusion by creating alternative pathways around blocked arteries, particularly in multi-vessel disease leading to myocardial necrosis, improving long-term perfusion and outcomes.^[37] Pharmacological strategies complement reperfusion by mitigating thrombus propagation and platelet activation. Anticoagulants like unfractionated heparin are administered intravenously to inhibit thrombin and prevent clot extension in arterial thrombosis, often as adjunctive therapy during acute ischemic events.^[38] Antiplatelet agents, including aspirin, inhibit cyclooxygenase-1 to reduce platelet aggregation, serving as a key component in preventing recurrent arterial thrombosis and associated necrosis.^[35] In organ-specific contexts, such as post-MI management, beta-blockers are initiated early to reduce myocardial oxygen demand and limit infarct expansion by decreasing heart rate and contractility. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are used concurrently to attenuate ventricular remodeling, preserving cardiac function by blocking the renin-angiotensin system and reducing fibrosis in the necrotic zone.^[39]^[40] These targeted therapies, when applied promptly, significantly improve survival and functional recovery in coagulative necrosis.

Supportive Measures

Supportive measures for coagulative necrosis focus on alleviating symptoms, maintaining physiological stability, and preventing complications while the body attempts to recover from ischemic tissue damage. Pain management is a cornerstone, particularly in cases involving solid organs like the heart or spleen. For severe pain associated with myocardial infarction (MI), where coagulative necrosis predominantly affects cardiac myocytes, intravenous opioids such as morphine are recommended to provide rapid relief and reduce sympathetic activation, though their use should be cautious due to potential delays in antiplatelet absorption.^[41] In localized infarcts, such as those in the spleen, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or narcotic analgesics are employed to control abdominal pain, with NSAIDs preferred when inflammation contributes to discomfort without contraindications like bleeding risk.^[36] Fluid and hemodynamic support are essential for patients with large infarcts that compromise organ perfusion, such as extensive MI or renal involvement. Intravenous fluids are administered to maintain euvolemia and support blood pressure in hypovolemic states, while in cardiogenic shock complicating MI, vasopressors like norepinephrine are used to stabilize hemodynamics by increasing mean arterial pressure and ensuring vital organ perfusion.^[42] For significant infarcts, intensive care unit (ICU) monitoring is indicated to track invasive hemodynamics and guide therapy, preventing further ischemic extension.^[41] Infection prevention is critical, as necrotic tissue can serve as a nidus for secondary bacterial invasion, particularly if the infarct involves accessible areas like the skin or if systemic compromise occurs. Antibiotics are initiated empirically if signs of secondary infection, such as fever or leukocytosis, are suspected, guided by culture results to target common pathogens.^[43] For superficial cases, such as cutaneous infarcts from vascular occlusion, meticulous wound care including debridement and dressings is employed to promote healing and reduce infection risk.^[44] Ongoing monitoring tailors supportive care to the affected organ and tracks recovery or complications. In cardiac coagulative necrosis post-MI, serial electrocardiograms (ECGs) and cardiac enzyme levels, including troponin, are measured to assess infarct evolution and reperfusion success.^[41] For renal involvement, serial assessments of renal function via serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) are performed to detect acute kidney injury progression. If AKI progresses severely, renal replacement therapy such as hemodialysis may be necessary to manage renal failure.^[27] These measures ensure timely adjustments to supportive interventions, minimizing long-term sequelae.

Repair and Outcomes

Regeneration Potential

Following coagulative necrosis, the repair process begins with the influx of inflammatory cells, primarily neutrophils and macrophages, which phagocytose necrotic debris to clear the damaged area.^[45] Macrophages play a central role in this initial phase by removing dead cells and releasing growth factors that promote the subsequent formation of granulation tissue, consisting of new blood vessels, fibroblasts, and extracellular matrix.^[21] Over time, this granulation tissue matures into fibrous scar tissue through collagen deposition and remodeling, replacing the necrotic zone with a non-functional but structurally stable matrix.^[45] The potential for tissue regeneration varies by organ type and cellular turnover rate. In tissues with permanent cells, such as cardiac myocytes in myocardial infarction, regeneration is absent, and the necrotic area is entirely replaced by scar tissue, leading to potential loss of contractile function.^[3] In contrast, labile tissues like the liver exhibit partial regenerative capacity; after ischemic or toxic coagulative necrosis, surviving hepatocytes can proliferate to restore architecture and function, though extensive damage may still result in fibrosis.^[46] Renal infarcts, involving stable cells in the tubular epithelium, show limited regeneration, with repair often culminating in scarring that impairs filtration.^[27] Several factors influence the efficacy of repair. Smaller infarct sizes allow for more complete resolution with minimal scarring, as the surrounding viable tissue can better support debris clearance and matrix remodeling.^[47] Timely reperfusion, such as in acute myocardial infarction, limits the extent of necrosis and enhances salvage of bordering tissue, thereby improving overall repair outcomes.^[48] Complications arising from incomplete or maladaptive repair include ventricular arrhythmias and aneurysm formation in cardiac infarcts, where the rigid scar disrupts electrical conduction or weakens the ventricular wall.^[49] In renal cases, persistent fibrosis contributes to chronic kidney disease, with up to 27% of patients developing reduced glomerular filtration rate post-infarction.^[50]

Prognosis

The prognosis of coagulative necrosis depends on the organ involved, the size of the infarct, and promptness of intervention, with outcomes ranging from full recovery in small, isolated events to high mortality in extensive cases. In large myocardial infarctions (MI), in-hospital mortality rates are approximately 5-7% as of 2025, driven by complications like ventricular arrhythmias and pump failure.^[51] For uncomplicated renal infarctions, mortality is lower at around 5-13%, though unfavorable outcomes (including death or renal impairment) can reach 38% in patients with significant comorbidities.^[52]^[53] Splenic infarctions similarly exhibit 5-10% mortality in uncomplicated scenarios, escalating to 20-34% with underlying hematologic or embolic conditions.^[54] In the liver, prognosis for ischemic coagulative necrosis is generally favorable due to regenerative capacity, with low mortality for limited infarcts but risk of acute liver failure and higher mortality in extensive cases.^[55] Morbidity remains a major concern for survivors, often leading to chronic conditions that impair quality of life. Following MI, heart failure develops in approximately 10% of patients within the first year, proportional to infarct size and contributing to elevated long-term mortality.^[56]^[57] Renal infarctions frequently result in renovascular hypertension and progression to chronic kidney disease in 20-50% of cases, depending on the extent of parenchymal loss.^[58] In patients with untreated underlying vascular disease, recurrent ischemic events occur at rates of approximately 15% within the first year post-infarct, underscoring the need for secondary prevention.^[59] Several factors influence prognosis, including advanced patient age, which independently doubles mortality risk in MI; comorbidities like diabetes, associated with 1.5-2-fold higher post-infarct mortality; and treatment timing, where reperfusion within the "golden hour" (first 60 minutes post-symptom onset) can reduce mortality by up to 50% compared to delays beyond 2 hours.^[60]^[61]^[62] As of 2025, experimental stem cell therapies for cardiac repair post-MI have demonstrated safety in phase II/III trials, with some showing modest improvements in ejection fraction and reduced remodeling, though long-term efficacy remains under investigation.^[63] Enhanced imaging modalities, including novel PET tracers for perfusion assessment, facilitate earlier detection of ischemic necrosis and refine risk stratification, potentially lowering morbidity through timely intervention.^[64]

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[45]
Molecular mechanisms in liver repair and regeneration - Nature
Feb 8, 2025 · Liver repair and regeneration are crucial physiological responses to hepatic injury and are orchestrated through intricate cellular and molecular networks.
[46]
Reperfused Myocardial Infarction: The Road to CCS Classification of ...
Feb 26, 2025 · The pattern and extent of myocardial necrosis and ultimate infarct size (IS) are dependent on several factors that include the duration and ...
[47]
The Inflammatory Response and Cardiac Repair After Myocardial ...
Oct 28, 2009 · In spite of the potential injury, reperfusion enhances cardiac repair; this may be related to the inflammatory response. Monocyte ...Missing: coagulative | Show results with:coagulative
[48]
Complications of Myocardial Infarction - Medscape Reference
Jul 21, 2022 · Complications of MI include arrhythmic, mechanical, and inflammatory (early pericarditis and post-MI syndrome) sequelae, as well as left ventricular mural ...
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Risk factors and outcomes of acute renal infarction - PMC - NIH
In conclusion, we found that 34.8% of patients diagnosed with RI also experienced AKI, and 27.1% experienced CKD during the follow-up period. Most patients had ...
[50]
Diagnosis and management of acute myocardial infarction
AMI accounts for the highest mortality rate of approximately 15% worldwide. The acute complications of AMI, including cardiac arrhythmias, tolls almost 50% ...
[51]
Acute renal infarction: Clinical characteristics and prognostic factors
The outcomes of 24 patients (39%) with ARI were unfavourable: 8 deaths, 5 end up with advanced renal failure and 14 cases had partially recovered renal function ...
[52]
Renal Infarction Incidence, Risk Factors, and Risk of Mortality and KRT
Among patients with a renal infarction, 12 (11%) died within 30 days. The median time to mortality after a renal infarction was 0.8 (interquartile range, 0.08– ...
[53]
Risk factors for mortality among patients with splenic infarction in the ...
The mortality rate of splenic infarction ranges from 5% to 34%, and its significant short-term mortality rate necessitates early diagnosis [1,5]. Moreover, ...
[54]
Acute Myocardial Infarction Pathology - Medscape Reference
Jun 11, 2025 · In these cases, mottled myocardium that gives the gross appearance of AMI may, upon histological examination, demonstrate only old fibrosis.
[55]
Mortality Associated With Heart Failure After Myocardial Infarction
Dec 23, 2015 · Heart failure (HF) is common after acute myocardial infarction (MI), which is considered to be one of its major precursors, and has been ...
[56]
Renal infarction - UpToDate
Depending upon the severity, renal infarction can lead to renovascular hypertension, chronic kidney disease, and end-stage kidney disease.
[57]
Event Rates and Risk Factors for Recurrent Cardiovascular Events ...
Apr 27, 2022 · Patients with ACS remain at very high risk of experiencing recurrent cardiovascular events, particularly early after discharge.Missing: untreated | Show results with:untreated
[58]
Predictors of 30-Day Mortality in the Era of Reperfusion for Acute ...
Much of the important prognostic information was contained in the patient's age, location of the infarction, and physiological characteristics representing the ...
[59]
Mortality after myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes mellitus
After a myocardial infarction (MI), patients with diabetes had an increased mortality rate compared with non‐diabetic patients.
[60]
Duration of Symptoms Is Not Always the Key Modulator of the ...
Mar 10, 2009 · The ACC/AHA STEMI guidelines highlight the time point of 3 hours of symptom duration in guiding the choice of reperfusion therapy.
[61]
Safety and efficacy of stem cell therapy in acute myocardial infarction
Jun 27, 2025 · Conclusion Stem cell therapy for acute myocardial infarction demonstrates a favourable safety profile. While overall efficacy remains uncertain, ...
[62]
SNMMI Abstract of the Year: New PET Imaging Method Simplifies ...
NEW ORLEANS (June 22, 2025)—A newly developed cardiac PET imaging technique offers a simpler way to detect significant coronary artery disease—eliminating ...