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Intensive care unit

An intensive care unit (ICU), also known as a critical care unit, is a specialized hospital department designed to provide advanced, continuous monitoring and life-supporting treatment to patients with severe, life-threatening conditions that require immediate and intensive intervention to stabilize vital functions and prevent further deterioration.^[1] These units are equipped with sophisticated technology to manage organ failure, support physiological processes such as breathing and circulation, and facilitate rapid response to clinical changes, serving patients with conditions like acute respiratory distress, sepsis, major trauma, or complications from surgery.^[2] The primary goal of an ICU is to reduce mortality and morbidity by delivering multidisciplinary care in a controlled environment that prioritizes patient safety and recovery potential.^[3] The origins of the ICU trace back to the 1952 Copenhagen polio epidemic, where Danish anesthesiologist Bjørn Ibsen pioneered an organized system of manual ventilation using medical students and nurses, which dramatically lowered the mortality rate among patients with respiratory failure from around 80-90% to 20-40% and laid the foundation for modern critical care.^[4] This approach evolved into the first dedicated ICU in 1953 in Copenhagen, with further early units established in Europe initially for managing respiratory failure in polio patients and later for postoperative recovery, and in the United States in the mid-1950s, though widespread adoption occurred in the 1960s alongside the development of mechanical ventilators and cardiac monitoring.^[5] By the 1970s, the specialty of intensive care medicine had formalized, with professional societies forming to standardize practices, and ICUs expanded to include specialized subtypes such as medical, surgical, neurological, and cardiac care units tailored to specific patient needs.^[6] ICUs operate as self-contained systems with high nurse-to-patient ratios—often 1:1 or 1:2 for the most critical cases—to ensure vigilant oversight, and they rely on a multidisciplinary team including intensivists, critical care nurses, respiratory therapists, pharmacists, and dietitians who collaborate to deliver evidence-based interventions.^[7] Essential equipment encompasses mechanical ventilators for respiratory support, continuous hemodynamic monitors for tracking blood pressure and cardiac output, infusion pumps for precise medication delivery, and renal replacement therapies like hemodialysis for organ support, all integrated to allow real-time data analysis and intervention.^[8] Admission criteria typically involve reversible life-threatening illnesses with a high risk of death, such as multi-organ failure or severe infections, and discharge occurs when patients stabilize sufficiently for lower-acuity care, though challenges like resource limitations and ethical decision-making around end-of-life care remain integral to ICU management.^[9]

Overview

Definition and Purpose

An intensive care unit (ICU) is a specialized hospital department designed to deliver comprehensive care to critically ill patients facing life-threatening conditions, utilizing advanced monitoring equipment and invasive interventions under the supervision of highly trained medical and nursing personnel.^[10] This organized system focuses on patients who require immediate and intensive support, such as those with severe organ dysfunction or acute physiological instability, to stabilize vital functions and promote recovery. ICUs employ sophisticated monitoring systems to track parameters like heart rate, blood pressure, and oxygenation in real time, enabling rapid detection and response to deteriorations.^[11] The primary purposes of an ICU include providing close, continuous observation to prevent complications, performing life-sustaining interventions such as mechanical ventilation or hemodialysis for organ failure, and facilitating multidisciplinary coordination for optimal patient outcomes.^[12] By offering a controlled environment separate from general hospital wards, ICUs minimize infection risks through features like isolation rooms and strict hygiene protocols, which help protect vulnerable patients from cross-contamination.^[13] Key operational characteristics encompass high nurse-to-patient ratios, typically 1:1 or 1:2 for the most critically ill, and round-the-clock availability of specialized staff and resources to ensure uninterrupted care.^[14] ICUs originated in the post-World War II era, with the first modern units emerging in the late 1950s to address the growing needs of complex postoperative and infectious disease cases.^[15] Globally, ICU availability varies significantly; high-income countries often have 20-30 beds per 100,000 population, enabling broader access to critical care, whereas many low-income countries have fewer than 5 beds per 100,000, limiting capacity during surges.^[16] These units vary by patient population, such as medical or surgical focuses, but share the core goal of intensive support for recovery.^[17]

Admission and Discharge Criteria

Admission to the intensive care unit (ICU) is guided by criteria designed to identify patients who require specialized monitoring, advanced life support, or interventions that cannot be provided on general wards, ensuring appropriate resource allocation for those likely to benefit. The Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) recommends admitting patients based on the need for frequent or continuous vital sign monitoring, support of multiple organ systems, or protection from life-threatening conditions. Some healthcare systems categorize levels of care from routine (Level 0) to full ICU support (Level III).^[18]^[19] Common triggers for admission include respiratory failure requiring mechanical ventilation, hemodynamic instability such as shock necessitating vasopressors, neurological impairment like altered consciousness or seizures, and recovery from major surgery with high risk of complications.^[18]^[20] Severity scoring systems assist in quantifying illness severity to support admission decisions. The Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) score, developed in 1996, evaluates dysfunction in six organ systems—respiratory, cardiovascular, hepatic, coagulation, renal, and neurological—assigning 0 to 4 points per system based on objective clinical and laboratory parameters, with a total score ranging from 0 (no dysfunction) to 24 (severe failure); scores above 15 are associated with high mortality and often justify ICU admission.^[21] The Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II) score, calculated within 24 hours of admission using 12 physiological variables, age, and chronic health status (range 0-71), predicts mortality risk and helps prioritize patients with scores indicating severe illness (e.g., >15).^[22] Triage processes prioritize patients during high demand, involving multidisciplinary teams that assess urgency using tools like the National Early Warning Score (NEWS), a standardized system scoring vital signs (respiration, oxygen saturation, systolic blood pressure, pulse, consciousness level, temperature) from 0-20, where scores ≥7 signal high risk of deterioration and potential ICU need, prompting rapid escalation.^[23] SCCM guidelines emphasize immediate admission for life-threatening conditions (e.g., cardiac arrest), urgent admission for potential rapid decline (e.g., acute respiratory distress), and elective for stable but high-risk cases (e.g., post-operative monitoring).^[18] Discharge criteria focus on physiological stability and the ability to transition to lower-intensity care without increased risk. Patients are typically considered for discharge when vital signs and organ function remain stable for 24-48 hours without intensive interventions, no active life support is required, and they can tolerate ward-level monitoring; SCCM suggests explicit institutional policies defining these thresholds to minimize readmissions.^[18]^[19] Step-down to intermediate care units is common for patients needing ongoing but less frequent monitoring, such as those recovering from sepsis or trauma.^[20] Ethical considerations arise during resource scarcity, as seen in the COVID-19 pandemic, where triage protocols prioritized patients based on likelihood of survival with ICU care, often using SOFA scores or similar to allocate scarce beds and ventilators to those with the greatest potential benefit, while excluding those with poor prognosis to maximize overall outcomes.^[24] Legal and policy frameworks, including SCCM guidelines, mandate transparent, equitable processes with appeals mechanisms, prohibiting discrimination and ensuring decisions align with principles of beneficence and justice.^[18]^[25]

History

Early Developments

The concept of intensive care began to take shape in the 19th century with early efforts to provide specialized monitoring for postoperative patients. During the Crimean War (1853–1856), Florence Nightingale implemented systematic nursing practices in British military hospitals, emphasizing constant observation, hygiene, and dedicated recovery wards to reduce mortality from infections and complications following surgery.^[26] Her reforms, which prioritized environmental control and vigilant patient surveillance, laid foundational principles for isolated care areas that influenced later hospital designs.^[27] World War II further advanced critical care through innovations in respiratory support, including the development of positive-pressure ventilators, which informed later responses to respiratory crises.^[5] The mid-20th century marked a pivotal shift driven by the polio epidemics of the 1940s and 1950s, which necessitated advanced respiratory support and centralized patient management. The Drinker respirator, an iron lung developed in 1928 by Philip Drinker and Louis Shaw, provided negative-pressure mechanical ventilation for patients with respiratory paralysis, initially for conditions like coal gas poisoning but widely adopted during polio outbreaks.^[28] In 1952, a severe polio epidemic in Copenhagen overwhelmed hospitals, prompting the use of these devices alongside innovative techniques that highlighted the need for dedicated units.^[29] A landmark milestone occurred in December 1953 when Danish anesthesiologist Bjørn Ibsen established the world's first intensive care unit at Kommunehospitalet, University of Copenhagen, to manage polio patients requiring prolonged ventilation.^[30] Ibsen organized teams of medical students to perform manual bag-valve-mask ventilation around the clock, a labor-intensive method that saved thousands of lives during the outbreak by preventing respiratory failure without relying solely on scarce mechanical respirators.^[31] This multidisciplinary approach, combining anesthesia, nursing, and physiology expertise, demonstrated the efficacy of concentrated monitoring and intervention in a single ward. In the United States, early ICU concepts evolved in the 1960s with the introduction of coronary care units (CCUs) for acute myocardial infarction patients. British cardiologist Desmond Julian described the first CCU in 1961 at the Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, advocating for continuous electrocardiographic monitoring and defibrillation in a specialized area to reduce sudden cardiac deaths.^[32] His Lancet publication spurred similar units worldwide, adapting the centralized care model from polio management to cardiac emergencies.^[33] Early ICUs faced significant challenges, including the absence of standardized protocols for patient care and equipment, which contributed to high mortality rates from nosocomial infections.^[4] Overcrowding, limited infection control measures, and variable staff training in the 1950s and 1960s often exacerbated risks, as invasive procedures like catheterization increased vulnerability to pathogens in these nascent, resource-strapped environments.^[15]

Modern Evolution

Building on innovations from the polio epidemics of the mid-20th century, the modern era of intensive care units (ICUs) began to take shape in the 1970s with the establishment of dedicated professional societies that promoted standardization and research. The Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) was founded in 1970 as an international, multidisciplinary organization to advance critical care practices through education, evidence-based guidelines, and advocacy.^[34] During the 1970s and 1980s, the field saw the emergence of evidence-based protocols for managing common ICU conditions, including the formal recognition and evolving management strategies for acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), first described in detail in 1967 but gaining widespread attention through subsequent studies and definitions in the following decades. By the 1990s, these efforts led to improved outcomes via standardized approaches to ventilation and multi-organ support, reducing mortality rates in ARDS from over 60% to around 40% in specialized units. The 2000s marked significant advancements in protocol-driven care and technological integration. The Surviving Sepsis Campaign, launched in 2002 by the SCCM and the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine, introduced sepsis bundles—structured sets of interventions such as early fluid resuscitation and antibiotic administration—that demonstrated a 20-30% reduction in mortality when implemented hospital-wide.^[35] Concurrently, the adoption of electronic health records (EHRs) in ICUs accelerated, enabling real-time data sharing, automated alerts for deteriorating patients, and integration with monitoring systems; this growth facilitated better coordination and reduced errors.^[36] The 21st century brought global challenges that reshaped ICU evolution, particularly the COVID-19 pandemic from 2020 to 2023, which caused massive surges in demand and exposed vulnerabilities like ventilator shortages, with the Strategic National Stockpile of around 20,000 units proving insufficient amid projections of demand exceeding available supply by tens of thousands, prompting rationing frameworks and rapid manufacturing scale-ups.^[37] Telehealth integration expanded dramatically during this period, allowing remote consultations and monitoring to alleviate ICU strain, with adoption increasing over 50-fold in critical care settings by 2021.^[38] Post-pandemic, attention shifted to long-term sequelae, including long COVID affecting up to 77% of ICU survivors with persistent symptoms like dyspnea and fatigue, alongside ICU-acquired weakness (ICUAW), a neuromuscular complication linked to prolonged ventilation and immobility that impacts 40-50% of severe cases and delays recovery.^[39]^[40] Efforts toward global standardization intensified, with organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizing ICU capacity building in low-resource settings, including tailored interventions like basic life support training and resource allocation strategies to address disparities exposed by the pandemic.^[41] Recent trends through 2025 have focused on technological and environmental innovations; artificial intelligence (AI) for predictive analytics has emerged as a key tool, using machine learning on EHR data to forecast deteriorations like sepsis onset with 85-90% accuracy, optimizing staffing and interventions.^[42] Simultaneously, sustainability initiatives have gained traction, targeting the high carbon footprint of ICUs—which accounts for 3-5 times more greenhouse gas emissions per patient than general wards—through measures like energy-efficient ventilators and waste reduction protocols that could cut emissions by 20-30% without compromising care.^[43]

Types of Intensive Care Units

General and Medical ICUs

General and Medical ICUs are specialized hospital units designed to provide comprehensive care for critically ill patients experiencing life-threatening medical conditions that do not involve recent surgical interventions, such as sepsis, pneumonia, or cardiac arrest.^[44] These units focus on stabilizing patients through intensive monitoring and intervention for acute medical crises, distinguishing them from other ICU types by their emphasis on non-operative etiologies.^[45] The patient population in general and medical ICUs primarily consists of adults with acute exacerbations of chronic diseases, including conditions like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) leading to respiratory failure, heart failure, or severe infections.^[46] Common admissions involve high-risk cases such as acute kidney injury, gastrointestinal bleeding, diabetic ketoacidosis, and neurological disorders, often requiring rapid assessment to address underlying systemic issues.^[47] Key operational features of these units include a strong emphasis on diagnostic workup to identify and treat the root cause of illness, alongside pharmacological management using agents like antibiotics for infections or vasopressors for hemodynamic instability.^[45] Non-invasive ventilation is frequently employed as a first-line respiratory support modality for conditions such as COPD exacerbations or cardiogenic pulmonary edema, aiming to avoid intubation when possible.^[48] This contrasts with surgical units, which primarily handle post-operative recovery. Examples of general and medical ICUs include the Medical ICU (MICU), which specializes in respiratory failure, sepsis, and infectious diseases, and the Coronary Care Unit (CCU), a subset focused on cardiac issues like acute myocardial infarction or arrhythmias without surgical needs.^[49]^[50] These units typically feature 10-20 beds to allow for close monitoring, with established protocols for isolating infectious cases using transmission-based precautions, such as airborne infection isolation rooms to prevent spread within the unit.^[51]^[52]

Surgical and Specialized ICUs

Surgical intensive care units (SICUs) are specialized areas dedicated to the continuous monitoring and management of patients recovering from major elective or emergency surgeries, such as cardiac, abdominal, or oncologic procedures.^[53] These units emphasize post-operative stabilization, with a primary focus on pain management through targeted analgesia protocols and wound care to prevent infection and promote healing.^[54]^[55] Unlike medical ICUs, which handle non-surgical conditions, SICUs prioritize surgical complications and recovery needs.^[56] Trauma intensive care units (TICUs) cater specifically to patients with severe injuries from accidents or violence, providing specialized care for multi-system trauma using standardized protocols like Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS).^[57] ATLS offers a systematic approach to initial assessment, resuscitation, and stabilization, which is integral to TICU management to reduce mortality in critically injured individuals.^[58] These units are often staffed by trauma surgeons and equipped for rapid intervention in life-threatening injuries. Burn intensive care units (BICUs) focus on patients with extensive thermal injuries, incorporating therapies such as hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) to enhance tissue oxygenation, reduce edema, and accelerate wound healing.^[59] HBOT involves breathing pure oxygen in a pressurized chamber, which has been shown to improve outcomes in severe burns by combating infection and supporting graft survival.^[60] Neurological intensive care units (neuro-ICUs) serve patients with acute brain injuries, including strokes and traumatic brain injuries (TBI), utilizing intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring to guide interventions and prevent secondary damage.^[61] ICP monitoring helps maintain cerebral perfusion by detecting elevations above 20 mm Hg, allowing timely treatments like osmotherapy or surgical decompression.^[62]^[63] Pediatric intensive care units (PICUs) and neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) provide age-specific care for critically ill children and newborns, respectively, with staffing ratios and equipment scaled to pediatric physiology—such as smaller ventilators and age-appropriate monitoring devices.^[64] PICUs manage a broad range of conditions in patients from infancy to adolescence, while NICUs specialize in preterm or ill newborns, emphasizing developmental support and family-centered care.^[65] These units require multidisciplinary teams trained in pediatric critical care to optimize outcomes, differing from adult ICUs in dosing, equipment sizing, and psychosocial interventions.^[66] Surgical and specialized ICUs are frequently co-located or positioned adjacent to operating rooms to facilitate rapid patient transfer, minimizing delays in post-operative care and enabling efficient resource sharing.^[67] This proximity supports seamless transitions from surgery to intensive monitoring, particularly in high-volume trauma or elective surgical centers.^[68]

Staffing and Personnel

Medical and Nursing Roles

Intensivists are board-certified physicians specializing in critical care medicine who lead the medical team in the intensive care unit (ICU), assuming primary responsibility for the diagnosis, treatment, and overall management of critically ill patients. They coordinate care plans, oversee procedures, and direct multidisciplinary teams to ensure integrated patient support.^[69]^[70]^[71] To qualify as an intensivist, physicians must complete a residency in fields such as internal medicine, anesthesiology, or emergency medicine, followed by a 2- to 3-year fellowship in critical care medicine accredited by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME), which provides advanced training in managing complex, life-threatening conditions.^[72]^[73]^[74] Critical care nurses constitute the core nursing staff in the ICU, delivering hands-on care to patients with ratios typically of 1:1 or 1:2, adjusted based on acuity to maintain safety and responsiveness. Their duties encompass continuous monitoring of vital signs and physiological parameters, precise administration of medications and intravenous therapies, and serving as the primary liaison for family communication, including updates on patient status and emotional support.^[14]^[75]^[76]^[77]^[78] Nursing shifts in the ICU are generally organized into 12-hour blocks to promote continuity of care and efficient handoffs between staff, reducing disruptions for patients. Charge nurses, experienced critical care registered nurses, manage these shifts by supervising unit operations, allocating resources, and ensuring smooth workflow amid varying patient demands.^[79]^[80] Training for ICU nurses emphasizes specialized competencies, including mandatory Advanced Cardiovascular Life Support (ACLS) certification from the American Heart Association, which covers algorithms for managing cardiac arrest and other emergencies in high-acuity settings. Additionally, many pursue the Critical Care Registered Nurse (CCRN) certification through the American Association of Critical-Care Nurses (AACN), requiring at least 1,750 hours of direct bedside care for acutely or critically ill adults within the prior two years, along with passing a comprehensive exam on clinical knowledge and decision-making.^[81]^[82]^[83] In teaching hospitals, physician extenders including residents and fellows augment ICU staffing under the supervision of attending intensivists. Residents, in their postgraduate years, handle routine tasks such as patient assessments, entering orders, and documenting clinical data, while fellows, pursuing subspecialty expertise, take on advanced responsibilities like managing ventilator support and leading rounds to build proficiency in critical care.^[84]^[85]^[86]

Multidisciplinary Support Teams

In intensive care units (ICUs), multidisciplinary support teams comprising allied health professionals play a vital role in delivering holistic patient care, complementing the efforts of physicians and nurses by addressing specialized aspects of recovery and well-being. These teams enhance patient outcomes through coordinated interventions that mitigate complications, optimize resource use, and support families during critical illness.^[87] Clinical pharmacists contribute significantly to medication management in the ICU, performing medication reconciliation upon admission to identify and resolve discrepancies in patients' drug histories, which reduces errors and adverse events. They also adjust dosing for organ dysfunction, such as renal failure, exemplified by therapeutic drug monitoring and dose optimization for vancomycin to prevent toxicity while ensuring efficacy against infections. This involvement has been shown to decrease vancomycin-associated kidney injury rates substantially.^[88]^[89] Respiratory therapists manage mechanical ventilation and implement weaning protocols to facilitate safe liberation from ventilatory support, assessing readiness through spontaneous breathing trials and adjusting settings to minimize ventilator-associated complications like pneumonia. Evidence-based guidelines emphasize their role in reducing mechanical ventilation duration and ICU length of stay by standardizing weaning processes, such as pressure support ventilation trials lasting 30 to 120 minutes.^[90]^[91] Physical and occupational therapists promote early mobility programs to counteract ICU-acquired weakness, a common sequela affecting up to 40% of critically ill patients and leading to prolonged recovery. These interventions, initiated within 48 hours of stabilization when feasible, involve progressive exercises like sitting, standing, and ambulation to preserve muscle function and improve functional independence post-discharge.^[92]^[93] Nutritionists develop individualized enteral feeding plans to meet caloric and protein needs, prioritizing early initiation within 24 to 48 hours of ICU admission to maintain gut integrity and prevent malnutrition in critically ill patients. Guidelines recommend volume-based feeding strategies to achieve 80% of estimated energy requirements, adjusting for factors like residual gastric volumes and metabolic stress.^[94]^[95] Social workers provide family-centered support, facilitating communication during family conferences and coordinating discharge planning to ensure seamless transitions to home or rehabilitation settings. They address psychosocial needs, connect families to community resources, and advocate for patients, thereby alleviating emotional distress and improving post-ICU adjustment.^[96]^[97] Chaplains offer spiritual care to patients and families confronting end-of-life scenarios, providing comfort through prayers, legacy-building activities, and emotional support to foster coping and dignity during palliative transitions. Clinical ethicists integrate ethical consultations into care, guiding discussions on goals-of-care and withholding treatments in alignment with patient values, enhancing the palliative framework within the ICU.^[98]^[99] These support teams collaborate during daily multidisciplinary rounds, where professionals convene to review patient progress and integrate insights, often employing the SBAR (Situation, Background, Assessment, Recommendation) communication tool to ensure clarity and efficiency in handoffs. This structured approach supports intensivists by streamlining decision-making and promoting patient-centered outcomes.^[100]^[101]

Equipment and Systems

Monitoring and Diagnostic Tools

In intensive care units (ICUs), multi-parameter vital signs monitors are essential devices that provide continuous, non-invasive assessment of key physiological parameters, including heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and oxygen saturation. These monitors integrate multiple sensors, such as electrocardiography leads for heart rate detection via electrical impulses and oscillometric cuffs for intermittent blood pressure readings, allowing clinicians to track hemodynamic stability in real time. Pulse oximetry, a core component, operates on the principle of spectrophotometry, where red and infrared light transmitted through a finger or earlobe probe measures arterial oxygen saturation (SpO2) by calculating the ratio of oxygenated to deoxygenated hemoglobin absorption differences, typically aiming for values above 92-95% in most patients.^[102] Invasive monitoring enhances precision for critically ill patients requiring beat-to-beat data. Arterial lines, inserted into peripheral arteries like the radial, enable direct transduction of blood pressure waveforms through a fluid-filled catheter connected to an external pressure transducer, offering accurate systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial pressure readings essential for titrating vasoactive drugs. Central venous catheters, placed in large veins such as the internal jugular or subclavian, measure central venous pressure (CVP) to assess fluid status and right heart preload, with normal ranges typically 2-6 mmHg in euvolemic adults. These invasive tools, while providing superior accuracy over non-invasive methods, carry risks like infection and require strict sterile insertion protocols.^[103]^[104] Diagnostic tools in the ICU extend beyond basic vitals to specialized assessments for organ function and acute events. Electrocardiography (ECG) monitors detect arrhythmias by analyzing cardiac electrical activity through multi-lead configurations, alerting to conditions like ventricular tachycardia that demand immediate intervention. Electroencephalography (EEG) tracks brain electrical patterns to identify non-convulsive seizures, common in sedated patients, using scalp electrodes for continuous waveform analysis. Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS), including the Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) exam, rapidly visualizes free fluid in peritoneal, pericardial, or pleural spaces during trauma evaluations, guiding decisions on surgical exploration with high sensitivity for hemoperitoneum.^[105]^[106] Data from these monitors integrates into central stations, where networked systems aggregate patient information from bedside units for remote oversight by nursing staff. Alarms trigger based on predefined thresholds, such as SpO2 below 90%, to prompt rapid responses to deteriorations like hypoxemia, with customizable delays to reduce false positives from motion artifacts. This integration feeds real-time data to life support devices like ventilators for synchronized adjustments.^[107] Calibration and maintenance ensure monitoring reliability, with daily checks recommended for critical devices in ICUs to verify accuracy and prevent failures. Procedures include zeroing transducers for invasive lines, testing pulse oximeter probes against known saturations, and inspecting cables for damage, aligned with manufacturer guidelines and institutional protocols to minimize measurement errors that could affect patient outcomes.

Life Support and Therapeutic Devices

Intensive care units rely on a range of life support and therapeutic devices to maintain vital organ functions and deliver targeted interventions for critically ill patients. These devices are essential for stabilizing patients in acute states of organ failure, enabling precise control over physiological parameters that cannot be managed through conventional means. Mechanical ventilation, hemodynamic support systems, renal replacement therapies, infusion pumps, and specialized beds form the core of this equipment, often integrated to provide comprehensive care guided by real-time clinical assessments. Mechanical ventilators are pivotal for patients with severe respiratory failure, delivering controlled breaths to optimize oxygenation and ventilation while minimizing lung injury. In volume-controlled modes, ventilators are typically set to deliver tidal volumes of 6-8 mL/kg of predicted body weight, a strategy proven to reduce mortality in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) by limiting ventilator-induced lung injury.^[108]^[109] Weaning from mechanical ventilation involves spontaneous breathing trials (SBTs), where patients breathe without full ventilator support for 30-120 minutes to assess readiness for extubation, with success rates improving when combined with protocols that monitor respiratory effort and gas exchange.^[110] Hemodynamic support devices address circulatory instability, particularly in cardiogenic shock. Intra-aortic balloon pumps (IABPs) function by inflating during diastole to augment coronary perfusion and deflating during systole to reduce afterload, though current guidelines recommend against their routine use in myocardial infarction-related shock due to lack of mortality benefit demonstrated in large trials.^[111]^[112] Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) circuits provide more advanced support by oxygenating blood and maintaining circulation outside the body; venoarterial (VA) ECMO is used for combined cardiac and respiratory failure, achieving flows of 50-70 mL/kg/min to stabilize hemodynamics in refractory cases.^[113]^[114] Renal replacement therapies, such as continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT), are employed for acute kidney injury (AKI) in hemodynamically unstable patients, allowing gradual solute clearance and fluid management. CRRT modalities like continuous venovenous hemofiltration deliver effluent doses of 20-25 mL/kg/hour, facilitating controlled fluid removal rates of up to 35 mL/kg/day to avoid hypotension while addressing volume overload.^[115]^[116] Infusion pumps ensure accurate delivery of vasoactive medications, critical for maintaining blood pressure in septic or cardiogenic shock. For vasopressors like norepinephrine, these pumps administer doses starting at 2-5 mcg/min, titrated upward to achieve a mean arterial pressure of at least 65 mmHg, with concentrations typically ranging from 16-128 mcg/mL to minimize infusion volumes.^[117] Specialized therapeutic beds, such as those incorporating kinetic therapy, are used in burn recovery and for immobile patients to prevent complications like pressure ulcers. These beds provide continuous lateral rotation, up to 40 degrees every few minutes, which has been shown to reduce the incidence of pressure ulcers and ventilator-associated pneumonia by improving pulmonary secretion clearance and tissue perfusion.^[118]

Patient Care and Management

Common Conditions and Treatments

Intensive care units commonly manage life-threatening conditions that require immediate, specialized interventions to stabilize patients and prevent organ failure. These include sepsis, acute respiratory failure, cardiogenic shock, severe trauma, and neurological emergencies such as traumatic brain injury or stroke with elevated intracranial pressure. Initial management focuses on rapid assessment, hemodynamic support, and targeted therapies to address the underlying pathophysiology. Sepsis, a dysregulated host response to infection leading to organ dysfunction, is a leading cause of ICU admission and mortality. Screening often utilizes the quick Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA) score, which includes respiratory rate ≥22 breaths/min, altered mentation (Glasgow Coma Scale <15), and systolic blood pressure ≤100 mmHg; a score of ≥2 points indicates high risk for poor outcomes and prompts further evaluation.^[119] Early administration of broad-spectrum antibiotics, ideally within 1 hour for septic shock and within 3 hours for sepsis without shock, is recommended to improve survival, alongside fluid resuscitation and source control.^[120] Acute respiratory failure, often manifesting as hypoxemia or hypercapnia, necessitates prompt airway protection and ventilatory support in the ICU. Intubation is indicated in cases of severe hypoxemia, such as a PaO₂/FiO₂ ratio <300, alongside clinical signs like respiratory distress or impending fatigue.^[121] For patients with moderate-to-severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), prone positioning for more than 12 hours daily improves oxygenation by redistributing lung perfusion and reducing ventilator-induced injury. Cardiogenic shock, characterized by inadequate cardiac output due to myocardial dysfunction, requires urgent inotropic support and careful volume management. Dobutamine infusion, typically starting at 2-5 mcg/kg/min and titrated upward, enhances contractility and cardiac output without excessive vasoconstriction, particularly when systolic blood pressure exceeds 80 mmHg.^[122] Fluid resuscitation should be echo-guided to assess left ventricular filling pressures and avoid overload, using parameters like inferior vena cava collapsibility or tissue Doppler imaging.^[123] In severe trauma with hemorrhagic shock, massive transfusion protocols are activated to restore volume and coagulation. These protocols employ a 1:1:1 ratio of red blood cells to plasma to platelets, delivering fixed packs (e.g., 6 units each of RBCs and plasma plus 1 apheresis platelet unit) to mimic whole blood and mitigate coagulopathy.^[124] This balanced approach, supported by evidence from randomized trials, reduces mortality compared to RBC-heavy strategies.^[125] Neurological conditions in the ICU, such as traumatic brain injury or intracerebral hemorrhage, involve assessment of consciousness and intracranial pressure (ICP) management. The Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), ranging from 3 (deep coma) to 15 (normal), evaluates eye, verbal, and motor responses to quantify coma severity and guide prognosis. For elevated ICP (>22 mmHg), hyperosmolar therapy with mannitol (0.5-1 g/kg bolus) or hypertonic saline (e.g., 3% NaCl) is used to create an osmotic gradient, reducing cerebral edema and ICP.^[126]

Daily Protocols and Procedures

Daily protocols and procedures in the intensive care unit (ICU) emphasize structured routines to optimize patient outcomes, prevent complications, and ensure coordinated care among multidisciplinary teams. These protocols typically begin with multidisciplinary rounds, often conducted in the morning as huddles or formal sessions involving physicians, nurses, respiratory therapists, pharmacists, and other specialists. These rounds utilize standardized checklists to review patient status, assess ongoing needs, and plan interventions, adapting tools like the World Health Organization (WHO) surgical safety checklist for ICU-specific contexts such as device necessity and recovery concerns.^[127]^[128] Such rounds have been shown to improve processes of care and patient safety in ICUs.^[127] Hygiene protocols form a cornerstone of daily routines to mitigate infection risks, with hand hygiene compliance targeted at greater than 90% among healthcare providers.^[129] These efforts are integrated into broader ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) bundles, which include elevating the head of the bed to 30-45 degrees for intubated patients to reduce aspiration risk, alongside oral care and daily assessments for ventilator weaning.^[130] Compliance with these bundles during multidisciplinary rounds has been associated with decreased VAP incidence in trauma and general ICU settings.^[131] Sedation management involves routine evaluation using the Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale (RASS), a validated 10-point scale ranging from +4 (combative) to -5 (unarousable) to guide sedative dosing and target light sedation levels, typically RASS 0 to -1 for most patients.^[132] Daily interruption of sedation, performed at least once every 24 hours, allows assessment of neurological status and readiness for weaning mechanical ventilation, reducing duration of ventilation and ICU length of stay.^[133] Protocolized approaches incorporating RASS and daily interruptions have demonstrated reduced mortality and shorter hospital stays compared to non-protocolized care.^[134] To support recovery and prevent complications like muscle weakness and delirium, daily protocols prioritize early nutrition and mobility. Early enteral feeding is initiated within 48 hours of ICU admission for stable patients, preserving gut integrity and reducing infectious risks when oral intake is insufficient.^[135] Progressive mobilization, starting with passive range-of-motion exercises and advancing to sitting or walking as tolerated within 24-48 hours, is safely feasible even for ventilated patients and helps lower delirium incidence.^[136] These interventions, often bundled as part of the Society of Critical Care Medicine's ABCDEF approach, promote earlier extubation and functional independence.^[137] Documentation of these protocols relies on electronic flowsheets within electronic health records, enabling real-time, hourly assessments of vital signs, sedation levels, and interventions.^[138] This structured recording facilitates interdisciplinary communication during rounds and supports quality audits, with flowsheets capturing trends in parameters like RASS scores and mobility progress to inform timely adjustments.^[139]

Quality of Care

Standards and Metrics

Intensive care units (ICUs) adhere to accreditation standards set by organizations such as The Joint Commission, which evaluates compliance through on-site surveys focusing on performance improvement, patient safety, and quality metrics including infection control and staffing adequacy.^[140] These standards require ICUs to implement evidence-based practices, conduct regular audits, and track outcomes to maintain accreditation, emphasizing continuous quality improvement in critical care delivery.^[141] The Leapfrog Group establishes specific ICU physician staffing criteria as part of its hospital safety ratings, recommending that board-certified intensivists manage or co-manage all ICU patients, with at least 8 hours of on-site coverage per day, 7 days a week, and 24/7 availability.^[142] Full credit is awarded for dedicated intensivist-led models meeting these requirements, with partial credit for combinations including telemedicine-based intensivist availability and on-site planning, but this standard aims to reduce variability in care and improve patient outcomes through consistent oversight.^[143] Key performance metrics for ICU quality include central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI) rates, with benchmarks targeting rates below 1 per 1,000 central line days to minimize preventable infections, as reported in national surveillance data from the CDC's National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN).^[144] These metrics are calculated by dividing confirmed CLABSI events by total central line days and multiplying by 1,000, enabling risk-adjusted comparisons across facilities to drive bundle-based prevention strategies.^[145] Guidelines from the Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) promote the ICU Liberation Bundle, particularly Element D, which focuses on assessing, preventing, and managing delirium using validated tools like the Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU (CAM-ICU).^[137] The CAM-ICU tool screens for delirium features such as acute onset, inattention, and altered consciousness, with SCCM recommending routine daily assessments to facilitate early intervention and reduce delirium duration in ICU patients.^[137] Quality assurance involves regular audits, including peer reviews of cases and application of mortality prediction models like the Simplified Acute Physiology Score II (SAPS II), which estimates ICU mortality risk based on 17 variables collected within the first 24 hours of admission.^[146] Developed from a multicenter study, SAPS II provides a logistic regression-based probability of death to benchmark unit performance and guide resource allocation during audits.^[146] International variations exist in ICU standards, with the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM) emphasizing structural requirements such as minimum nurse-to-patient ratios and multidisciplinary training, differing from U.S. standards that prioritize intensivist-led models and specific infection metrics under Joint Commission oversight.^[147] For instance, ESICM guidelines recommend basic organizational aspects like dedicated ICU space and 24-hour medical coverage but allow flexibility in staffing models compared to the more prescriptive intensivist mandates in U.S. Leapfrog criteria.^[147]

Outcomes and Complications

Patient outcomes in intensive care units (ICUs) are characterized by variable mortality rates that depend on patient demographics, underlying conditions, and facility resources. Overall ICU mortality rates typically range from 10% to 20% in developed countries, though global figures can reach 30-35% in resource-limited settings.^[148]^[149] For specific conditions like septic shock, mortality often exceeds 40%, with recent studies reporting rates of 33% to 58% depending on the cohort and interventions applied.^[150]^[151] Common complications further impact outcomes, including ICU-acquired infections, which occur in approximately 15-25% of patients, with ventilator-associated pneumonia being a predominant form at rates of 10-20 per 1,000 ventilator days.^[152]^[153] Delirium affects up to 80% of mechanically ventilated patients, contributing to prolonged ventilation and cognitive deficits.^[154] Intensive care unit-acquired weakness, a key component of post-intensive care syndrome, manifests as muscle atrophy and reduced strength in 25-50% of survivors, often persisting for months post-discharge.^[155] Long-term effects are substantial, with approximately 30% of ICU survivors experiencing mortality within one year of discharge, alongside diminished quality of life as measured by tools like the SF-36, where physical and mental component scores frequently remain 10-20 points below population norms.^[156]^[157] Factors such as advanced age and multiple comorbidities significantly elevate these risks, with each decade of age increasing mortality odds by 20-30%.^[158] Evidence-based protocols, including ventilator bundles, have demonstrated reductions in ventilator-associated pneumonia incidence by over 50%, thereby improving overall survival rates.^[159] Notable research, such as the PROWESS trial, initially suggested benefits from drotrecogin alfa (activated) in reducing mortality for severe sepsis patients by about 6%, but the PROWESS-SHOCK trial, halted in 2011 after interim analysis showed no survival benefit, confirmed this lack of efficacy when published in 2012, leading to discontinuation of drotrecogin alfa (activated) in October 2011 due to inefficacy and bleeding risks.^[160]^[161]

Operational Aspects

Facility Design and Logistics

Intensive care units (ICUs) are designed with a focus on patient safety, staff efficiency, and infection control, incorporating specialized layouts that optimize visibility, accessibility, and environmental controls. Modern ICU facilities often prioritize single-patient rooms over multi-bed bays to enhance privacy, reduce nosocomial infections, and minimize medication errors; studies indicate that single-room designs can decrease error rates compared to open wards. Central nursing stations are typically positioned to allow line-of-sight monitoring of multiple rooms, facilitating rapid response to alarms and patient needs while balancing staff workload. Additionally, negative pressure isolation rooms are integrated into ICU layouts to contain airborne pathogens, maintaining a pressure differential of at least -2.5 Pascals to prevent contaminant spread, as recommended by infection control standards.^[162] Workflow organization in ICUs emphasizes ergonomic principles to reduce physical strain on healthcare providers and streamline care delivery. Bedside charting systems, enabled by electronic health records integrated into room-mounted workstations, allow nurses to document vital signs and interventions without leaving the patient's side, thereby minimizing interruptions and errors. Proximity of supplies—such as medications, ventilators, and linens—is achieved through decentralized storage within or adjacent to patient rooms, which can reduce nurse walking distance and alleviate fatigue during long shifts. These design elements support efficient supply distribution, aligning with broader resource management goals. Capacity planning in ICUs accounts for fluctuating demands, particularly during surges like pandemics, through flexible infrastructure that enables rapid expansion. Protocols often involve converting adjacent wards or post-anesthesia care units into temporary ICUs, increasing bed capacity by 50-100% in crisis scenarios, as demonstrated during the COVID-19 response where hospitals repurposed spaces with modular barriers and additional monitoring ports. Utilities in ICU facilities are engineered for reliability, including uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) and backup generators to ensure continuous operation of life-sustaining equipment during outages, with failover times under 10 seconds to prevent clinical disruptions. High-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filtration systems are standard for maintaining air quality, achieving 99.97% efficiency in capturing particles as small as 0.3 microns to mitigate airborne transmission risks. Regulatory compliance shapes ICU design, with building codes mandating robust systems for safety and functionality. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 99 standard governs medical gas systems, requiring piped oxygen, vacuum, and compressed air delivery with alarms for pressure failures and zone shutoff valves to isolate issues without compromising care. These regulations ensure that facilities meet seismic, electrical, and ventilation requirements tailored to high-acuity environments.

Resource Management

Resource management in intensive care units (ICUs) involves the strategic allocation of beds, equipment, supplies, and financial resources to ensure optimal patient care while addressing operational constraints. Bed management is a critical component, utilizing specialized software systems to track occupancy in real-time, monitor bed turnover, and predict availability based on patient flow. These tools help maintain occupancy rates between 80-90% to avoid overcrowding or underutilization, with average lengths of stay in ICUs typically ranging from 4 to 5 days depending on patient acuity and hospital protocols.^[163]^[164]^[165] The supply chain for ICU resources focuses on maintaining stocks of essential equipment and consumables, particularly during periods of high demand or shortages. Ventilators, a cornerstone of ICU support, cost approximately $50,000 each for standard models, necessitating careful inventory management to ensure availability for mechanical ventilation needs. Personal protective equipment (PPE) stockpiling became particularly vital during crises like the COVID-19 pandemic, where global shortages led to rationing protocols to protect staff and sustain operations.^[166]^[37] Financial aspects of ICU resource management highlight the high costs associated with intensive care compared to general wards. The daily cost of an ICU stay ranges from $5,000 to $15,000 per patient (as of 2023–2024), driven primarily by staffing, which accounts for about 60% of total expenses due to the need for specialized nurses and physicians at ratios as low as 1:1 or 1:2. In contrast, a general ward day costs approximately $2,500–$3,500 (as of 2023), underscoring the threefold to fourfold expense differential that influences hospital budgeting and resource prioritization.^[148]^[167]^[168]^[169] Ethical considerations arise during resource scarcity, particularly in crises, where allocation models balance utilitarian and egalitarian principles. Utilitarian approaches prioritize patients with the highest likelihood of survival and recovery to maximize overall benefit, as seen in 2020 ventilator rationing guidelines during the COVID-19 surge, which used scoring systems like SOFA to triage based on prognosis. Egalitarian models, conversely, emphasize equal access regardless of age or comorbidities, though they may conflict with efficiency goals; triage committees often integrate both to ensure transparency and equity.^[170]^[171]^[172] To enhance efficiency, ICUs employ tools like Lean methodology, which systematically identifies and eliminates waste in processes such as supply ordering and patient transitions, potentially reducing operational costs by 10-20%. This approach also supports readmission prevention through standardized discharge planning and multidisciplinary handoffs, lowering the 30-day readmission rate from historical highs of 20% to under 15% in implementing units. Recent advancements include AI-driven predictive analytics for bed management to better forecast demand and optimize resource allocation post-COVID.^[173]^[174]^[175]

Innovations and Future Directions

Remote Collaboration Systems

Remote collaboration systems in intensive care units, commonly known as tele-ICU or eICU technologies, enable off-site experts to provide real-time monitoring, consultation, and intervention support to bedside teams. These systems are structured around central command centers or hubs where intensivists, nurses, and specialists oversee multiple remote ICUs simultaneously. Key components include two-way audio-visual feeds from patient rooms, secure access to real-time vital signs, electronic health records, and laboratory data, as well as integrated decision-support tools. A prominent example is the Philips eICU program, which deploys centralized monitoring across hundreds of hospitals in the United States, allowing remote teams to track and respond to patient conditions from a single location.^[176]^[177] Implementation of tele-ICU involves installing bedside cameras and sensors for continuous video surveillance, coupled with software platforms that deliver AI-driven alerts for early signs of patient deterioration, such as abnormal vital sign trends or risk scores. These alerts notify remote clinicians, facilitating proactive interventions like medication adjustments or escalation of care. Adoption of these systems has surged since the COVID-19 pandemic, driven by the need for surge capacity and reduced exposure risks, with studies noting expanded use covering over 28% of ICU beds as of recent surveys and innovative models for off-hours oversight.^[178]^[179]^[180] The systems often integrate with AI tools for predictive analytics, enhancing the detection of subtle changes in patient status.^[177] One primary benefit is the provision of 24/7 intensivist oversight, which extends expertise to understaffed or rural ICUs and shortens response times to critical alarms by enabling immediate remote assessment and guidance. This continuous monitoring helps standardize care protocols across sites, reducing variations in treatment. However, challenges include ensuring data privacy through strict compliance with regulations like HIPAA in the United States, as well as meeting high bandwidth demands for uninterrupted video and data transmission, which can strain infrastructure in remote areas.^[181]^[182] Outcomes from tele-ICU implementations demonstrate improved patient safety and efficiency, with multiple studies reporting reduced mortality rates ranging from 15% to 30% in participating ICUs, particularly for high-risk patients. Additionally, these systems contribute to cost savings by optimizing staffing needs, allowing fewer on-site specialists while maintaining high-quality care, and shortening overall hospital lengths of stay. Meta-analyses confirm lower ICU mortality and length of stay across diverse settings, underscoring the value of remote collaboration in enhancing critical care delivery.^[183]^[184]^[185]

Emerging Technologies and Trends

Artificial intelligence (AI) applications are revolutionizing predictive care in intensive care units (ICUs), with machine learning models leveraging electronic health record (EHR) data to forecast sepsis onset at accuracies of approximately 85%. These models analyze vital signs, lab results, and clinical notes to identify high-risk patients hours before traditional criteria, enabling timely interventions that can lower mortality by up to 20%. For instance, the FDA-authorized Sepsis ImmunoScore tool integrates multimodal data for enhanced early detection in ICU settings.^[186]^[187] Wearable devices and robotics are emerging as key tools for continuous monitoring and rehabilitation in the ICU. Continuous glucose monitors, such as those using subcutaneous sensors, deliver real-time blood sugar readings to critically ill patients, reducing hypoglycemia episodes by facilitating precise insulin adjustments without repeated blood draws. Robotic exoskeletons, like powered suits for lower-body support, enable early mobilization for bedridden patients post-surgery or trauma, improving muscle strength and shortening recovery times while minimizing staff injury risks.^[188] Precision medicine is advancing through genomics and organoid technologies tailored to ICU needs. Genomic sequencing identifies genetic variants influencing drug metabolism, allowing clinicians to select antibiotics like vancomycin with dosing adjusted for individual pharmacokinetics, which reduces toxicity and resistance development in septic patients. Organoid models, derived from patient stem cells to mimic organ structures, support in vitro drug testing for personalized responses, accelerating safe therapy selection in organ failure cases. Sustainability initiatives are addressing the ICU's substantial environmental impact, where these units produce about 3 times more greenhouse gas emissions per bed than standard hospital wards due to high-energy devices and disposable supplies. Energy-efficient ventilators incorporating adaptive algorithms and low-power components reduce electricity use compared to conventional models without compromising respiratory support. Efforts to reduce medical waste include adopting biodegradable materials and closed-loop sterilization systems.^[189]^[190] Projections to 2030 highlight closed-loop systems for automated insulin delivery, which use AI to integrate glucose sensors with infusion pumps for dynamic adjustments, aiming to achieve normoglycemia in a high percentage of diabetic ICU patients and reduce clinician workload. Virtual reality (VR) platforms are expected to expand for therapeutic applications, providing immersive environments to alleviate anxiety, delirium, and chronic pain in ventilated patients. Emerging trends as of 2025 include quantum sensors capable of detecting biomarkers like cytokines at low concentrations, offering ultra-sensitive, non-invasive diagnostics to predict complications such as acute kidney injury in real time, such as through vibro-polariton methods for molecular vibrations. These advancements build on remote collaboration systems to enhance tele-ICU capabilities through seamless data integration.^[191]^[192]

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[89]
Pharmacist support in the entry of blood drug concentration test ...
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A comprehensive protocol for ventilator weaning and extubation
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Early Active Mobilization during Mechanical Ventilation in the ICU
Early active mobilization may mitigate ICU-acquired weakness, increase survival, and reduce disability.
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Early Mobilization in the ICU - ScienceDirect.com
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A guide to enteral nutrition in intensive care units: 10 expert tips for ...
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[PDF] Clinical nutrition in the intensive care unit - ESPEN
This ESPEN guideline is a shortened, partially revised, practical guide to increase understanding of ICU nutrition, based on previous guidelines, and includes ...
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Improving Social Work in Intensive Care Unit Palliative Care - NIH
The intensive care unit (ICU) is a focal point for decision making in end-of-life care. Social workers are involved in providing this care for patients and ...
[97]
Role of Social Workers in Family Conferences for Critically Ill Infants
Social workers in adult context also connect families to community resources, help families plan for discharge, and serve as liaisons between families and other ...
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Chaplain Care in the Intensive Care Unit at the End of Life - NIH
Chaplains provide comfort to patients and family facing the end of life, provide prayers with a variety of purposes, assist in supporting family members.Missing: ethicists | Show results with:ethicists
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Rationale for integration of palliative care in the medical intensive care
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Situation, Background, Assessment, Recommendation (SBAR ...
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Arterial Pressure Monitoring - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
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Physiology, Central Venous Pressure - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
A normal central venous pressure reading is between 8 to 12 mmHg. This value ... Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion and central venous pressure in ...Introduction · Issues of Concern · Mechanism · Pathophysiology
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Invasive and non-invasive monitoring in the ICU - PMC
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Mechanical Ventilation in Adult Patients with Acute Respiratory ...
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Early IABP Use No Better Than Medication in Cardiogenic Shock ...
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Venoarterial ECMO Hemodynamics - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
May 5, 2024 · ECMO is a specialized technique used primarily in critical care settings for patients experiencing severe cardiac and respiratory failure.
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Fluid Management during Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy
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Knowing the ropes of vasopressor dosing: a focus on norepinephrine
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[PDF] Kinetic Beds for Patients at Risk of Complications due to Immobility
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Guidelines for the Acute Treatment of Cerebral Edema in ...
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[PDF] Surgical Safety Checklist
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Early Mobilization in the Intensive Care Unit: A Systematic Review
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The eICU Research Institute - A Collaboration Between Industry ...
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Philips eICU leverages critical care specific data, analytics, and decision support to help support your efforts to improve patient outcomes.
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COVID-19 and the Transformation of Intensive Care Unit Telemedicine
COVID-19 led to more efficient telemedicine centers, increased use by bedside staff, off-hours oversight, new models, and a 15% increase in ICU capacity via ...Missing: adoption post-
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Telemedicine Intensive Care Unit (Tele-ICU) Implementation During ...
May 19, 2022 · Telerounding proved to be a useful teambuilding tool across the Tele-ICU model during COVID-19. Two studies found a great increase in the use ...
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Telemedicine/Virtual ICU: Where Are We and Where Are We Going?
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Hospital Mortality, Length of Stay, and Preventable Complications ...
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Tele-ICU: Efficacy and Cost-Effectiveness Approach of Remotely ...
With optimizing the telemedicine application in ICU, both the mortality rate and length of stay could influence positively; a 15-60% reduction in the mortality ...
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FDA-Authorized AI/ML Tool for Sepsis Prediction: Development and ...
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Development and prospective implementation of a large language ...
May 17, 2025 · Recent work has highlighted the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) models for predicting sepsis using EHR data. These models ...