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Common

Common (born Lonnie Corant Jaman Shuka Rashid Lynn Jr., March 13, 1972) is an American rapper, actor, and activist based in Chicago, Illinois, recognized for his introspective lyricism and role in advancing conscious hip-hop themes of social awareness and personal growth.^[1] Debuting under the name Common Sense with the album Can I Borrow a Dollar? (1992), he faced a legal challenge over the moniker, shortening it to Common after a settlement, and gained underground acclaim with follow-ups like Resurrection (1994), which showcased jazz-infused production and critiques of commercial rap.^[2] His mainstream breakthrough came with Like Water for Chocolate (2000), earning platinum certification and a Grammy for Best R&B Song for "Love of My Life (An Ode to Hip-Hop)" featuring Erykah Badu; subsequent albums such as Be (2005) and Finding Forever (2007), produced by Kanye West, further solidified his commercial viability while maintaining artistic substance, yielding additional Grammys.^[3] Common's versatility extends to acting in films including Smokin' Aces (2006) and Selma (2014), the latter featuring his Oscar-winning collaboration with John Legend on "Glory," which addressed civil rights struggles and marked him as the first rapper to secure an Academy Award alongside Grammy and Emmy honors for musical contributions.^[4] Defining controversies include early lyrics scrutinized for misogynistic and homophobic content, sparking a prominent feud with Ice Cube in the late 1990s over perceived East Coast bias and artistic direction, as well as later beefs with Drake; these incidents highlight tensions between his "conscious" image and raw expressions in hip-hop's competitive landscape.^[1]

Etymology

Origins and historical evolution

The English word common derives from the Latin adjective communis, meaning "belonging to more than one" or "public," which itself stems from an Old Latin form co(m)moinis, combining the prefix com- ("together") with a root related to munis ("duty" or "obligation"), implying shared burdens or exchanges.^[5] This Latin term traces further to Proto-Indo-European ḱóm-moy-ni-s, where ḱóm denotes "together" and mey- signifies "to change" or "exchange," reflecting an ancient conceptual link between commonality and divisible or interchangeable resources.^[5]^[6] By the 12th century, communis entered Old French as comun, denoting something "general, free, open, or public," influenced by Vulgar Latin adaptations during the Roman Empire's linguistic spread across Europe.^[5] This form was transmitted to Middle English around 1300 via Anglo-Norman comun, following the Norman Conquest of 1066, which integrated numerous French-Latin hybrids into English vocabulary.^[7] The Oxford English Dictionary records the earliest English attestation circa 1300 in texts like the All Saints manuscript, where it signified "belonging to all" or "of a public nature."^[7] Over subsequent centuries, the word's usage evolved from denoting shared property or communal rights—such as in 14th-century references to "common land" accessible to villagers—to broader senses of generality by the 15th century, including "ordinary" or "familiar."^[5] By the 16th century, pejorative connotations emerged, associating common with vulgarity or low social status, as in Shakespeare's works distinguishing "common" folk from elites, reflecting class-based semantic shifts amid England's social upheavals like the English Civil War.^[5] This progression paralleled the term's application in legal and political contexts, such as "common law" by the late 13th century, emphasizing precedents shared across jurisdictions rather than royal prerogative.^[7] Modern meanings retain these layers, with empirical linguistic corpora showing stable core usage around "shared" attributes since the 18th century, though frequency analyses indicate slight declines in formal registers post-Industrial Revolution due to specialized terminologies supplanting general ones.^[8]

Definitions and general usages

Adjectival meanings

The adjective common denotes something belonging equally to, or shared by, two or more distinct individuals, entities, or groups, as in shared resources or mutual interests.^[9] This sense extends to communal or public matters affecting a broader community, such as efforts directed toward the common good.^[9] In another primary usage, common describes that which occurs frequently, appears routinely, or represents the most typical or widespread form within its category, often applied to phenomena, sights, or species like the common housefly.^[9]^[10] It can also signify general knowledge or vernacular terminology accessible to the public, contrasting with specialized or esoteric terms.^[9] Common further characterizes elements falling below elite standards, such as lacking refinement, exhibiting coarseness, or pertaining to ordinary people without special privilege, as in common laborers or vulgar speech patterns.^[9]^[11] This pejorative connotation, implying inferiority or second-rate quality, traces to distinctions between refined and plebeian tastes, though it has softened in modern contexts.^[9] In linguistic and grammatical applications, common refers to forms that apply broadly without specificity, such as common nouns (denoting general classes rather than unique entities) or common gender (encompassing both masculine and feminine without distinction).^[9] Similarly, in mathematics or anatomy, it describes elements shared across structures, like a common base in geometric figures or branching points in biological systems.^[9] These technical senses underscore universality over exclusivity.^[9]

Nominal meanings

In its primary nominal sense, "common" denotes a tract of land owned or used jointly by the members of a community, typically functioning as an undivided pasture or a public open space within a municipality, such as a central square or park.^[9]^[12] This usage traces to historical practices of shared resource access, with examples including town commons in New England where communal grazing or public events occur.^[9] The plural form "commons" refers to the common people, encompassing the nonruling or non-noble class in a society, distinct from the aristocracy or elite.^[9]^[12] In political contexts, "commons" designates the parliamentary body representing this group, as in the House of Commons in the United Kingdom, established historically to voice the interests of ordinary citizens.^[9]^[12] Legally, a "common" signifies the right held by individuals or groups, in conjunction with the landowner or others, to derive profit from another's property, such as through pasturage (common of pasture) or fishing (common of piscary).^[9]^[12] This feudal-era concept, rooted in English common law, allowed specified uses of land or waters without transferring ownership.^[9] Additionally, "commons" can denote a shared dining facility, particularly at universities or colleges, where meals are provided collectively.^[9]^[12] In ecclesiastical usage, it describes a standardized religious service or form applicable to multiple festivals, including parts of the Mass like those sung by the choir.^[9]^[12] An obsolete sense equates "common" with the broader community or public at large.^[12]

Conceptual and theoretical applications

In economics: Tragedy of the commons and resource management

The tragedy of the commons describes a scenario where individuals, pursuing rational self-interest in exploiting a shared resource, collectively deplete it, resulting in suboptimal outcomes for all users. This arises because the resource is rivalrous—use by one reduces availability for others—but non-excludable, allowing free access without cost internalization.^[13] The concept originates from British economist William Forster Lloyd's 1833 pamphlet "Two Lectures on the Checks to Population," which illustrated the dynamic using a hypothetical common pasture: each herdsman benefits from adding cattle (private gain) but shares the cost of overgrazing (diffuse loss), incentivizing overuse until the pasture is ruined.^[14] Lloyd's analysis, rooted in Malthusian concerns over population growth, highlighted how unchecked individual incentives erode communal benefits without institutional constraints. Garrett Hardin popularized and formalized the idea in his 1968 Science article, extending Lloyd's pasture metaphor to modern dilemmas like overpopulation, fisheries, and pollution. Hardin argued that "freedom in a commons brings ruin to all," positing no purely technical fix exists; instead, "mutual coercion, mutually agreed upon" is required, such as coercive policies to limit reproduction or emissions. In economic terms, this manifests as a negative externality where marginal private benefits exceed marginal social costs, leading to inefficient overexploitation. Empirical cases abound, notably in global fisheries: open-access regimes have driven stock collapses, with approximately one-third of assessed fish stocks overfished as of 2020, yielding economic losses estimated at $83 billion annually in foregone sustainable catch.^[15] ^[16] For instance, New England groundfish fisheries collapsed in the 1990s due to unrestricted harvesting, reducing biomass by over 90% in some species and necessitating vessel buyouts costing taxpayers $500 million.^[17] Critiques of Hardin's deterministic view emerged from empirical research challenging the inevitability of tragedy. Elinor Ostrom's 1990 book Governing the Commons analyzed field studies of irrigation systems, fisheries, and pastures worldwide, demonstrating that self-organized user groups can sustain resources through polycentric governance—local rules enforcing monitoring, sanctions, and conflict resolution—without privatization or central state control.^[18] Ostrom's work, awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in Economics, identified eight design principles for long-enduring common-pool resource institutions, such as clearly defined boundaries and graduated sanctions, validated across cases like Swiss alpine meadows managed communally for centuries without depletion.^[19] These findings underscore that outcomes depend on institutional context, not resource type alone; Hardin's coercion-heavy prescriptions overlook successful endogenous solutions observed in diverse cultures.^[20] Resource management strategies address the tragedy via three primary mechanisms: privatization through property rights, state regulation, or hybrid communal arrangements. Assigning secure, transferable property rights—such as individual transferable quotas (ITQs) in fisheries—internalizes externalities, as owners conserve for future yields; Iceland's ITQ system since 1990 increased catch values by 40% while restoring cod stocks.^[21] Government interventions, like total allowable catches and enforcement, can mimic this but often suffer enforcement costs and rent-seeking; the U.S. Magnuson-Stevens Act (1976, amended 2007) mandated rebuilding overfished stocks, yet compliance varies due to political pressures.^[22] Ostrom's evidence supports context-specific communal governance where monitoring is feasible, as in Maine lobster fisheries sustained by voluntary associations since the 19th century. Empirical comparisons reveal property rights excel in high-value, mobile resources like fish, while regulations suit diffuse pollutants, but all require credible enforcement to avert free-riding.^[23] Failure to implement such reforms perpetuates depletion, as seen in high-seas fisheries lacking jurisdiction, where illegal catches exceed 20% of total harvest.^[24]

In philosophy and politics: The common good

The common good denotes the set of social conditions that foster the comprehensive flourishing of a political community's members, encompassing virtues, rational activity, and mutual interdependence rather than mere aggregate individual satisfactions.^[25] In classical philosophy, Aristotle articulated it as the telos of the polis, where the highest good lies in citizens' eudaimonia—realized through political life that cultivates justice and friendship among free equals, excluding slaves and laborers from full participation.^[26] ^[27] This conception prioritizes the community's ordered harmony over isolated pursuits, with deviant regimes failing precisely because they deviate from advancing this shared welfare.^[28] Thomas Aquinas adapted Aristotelian thought within a Christian framework, defining the common good as the ultimate end toward which human laws and governance must direct society, subordinate to divine order but encompassing temporal goods like peace, justice, and provision for basic needs.^[29] ^[30] For Aquinas, positive law qualifies as such only insofar as it proportionately serves this communal bonum commune, distinguishing legitimate rule from tyranny, which pursues private rather than public advantage.^[31] This natural law tradition underscores causal mechanisms: individual virtues emerge from communal structures, and unchecked self-interest erodes societal stability, as evidenced in historical collapses of unbalanced polities noted by Aristotle.^[32] In political theory, the common good contrasts with liberal individualism, which, as in Lockean thought, elevates negative liberties and property rights as safeguards against state overreach, viewing communal ends as emergent from voluntary exchanges rather than imposed hierarchies.^[33] Proponents of the common good critique this as atomistic, arguing it neglects inherently social goods—like civic friendship or cultural transmission—that require collective stewardship and cannot be reduced to market outcomes or procedural neutrality.^[34] Empirical observations from liberal regimes, such as rising social fragmentation amid economic growth in the U.S. post-1970s, lend support to claims that prioritizing individual autonomy can undermine shared resilience, though academic sources often frame such tensions through egalitarian lenses that obscure causal trade-offs between liberty and cohesion.^[35] Contemporary political invocations of the common good appear in communitarian critiques of Rawlsian justice, which subordinates it to a veil-of-ignorance fairness prioritizing the least advantaged, and in Catholic social doctrine emphasizing subsidiarity—handling matters at the lowest effective level to preserve familial and local bonds while advancing universal welfare.^[36] Yet, applications risk instrumentalization: regimes claiming the common good, from Hobbesian sovereignty to modern welfare states, have historically justified expansive powers, with data from 20th-century Europe showing correlations between collectivist rhetoric and reduced individual agency when unchecked by constitutional limits.^[37] Truth-seeking analysis demands scrutiny of sources; institutional biases in academia toward progressive individualism often undervalue pre-modern traditions' empirical insights into human sociability, favoring models that empirically correlate with higher inequality persistence despite redistributive intent.^[38]

In law: Common law systems

Common law systems constitute legal frameworks where judicial precedents, rather than comprehensive statutory codes, form the primary source of law. These systems originated in medieval England following the Norman Conquest of 1066, when centralized royal courts under William the Conqueror and subsequent monarchs began administering justice uniformly across the realm, supplanting fragmented local customs.^[39] By the 12th century, reports of court decisions, known as Year Books, facilitated the accumulation of case law, enabling judges to resolve disputes by analogizing prior rulings.^[40] A defining feature is the doctrine of stare decisis, under which lower courts are bound by decisions of higher courts within the same jurisdiction, promoting consistency and predictability in legal outcomes.^[41] Proceedings typically follow an adversarial model, with parties presenting evidence and arguments before an impartial judge or jury, who interprets the law inductively from precedents rather than deductively from abstract codes.^[39] This contrasts with civil law systems, prevalent in continental Europe and derived from Roman law, which prioritize codified statutes as authoritative and employ inquisitorial procedures where judges actively investigate facts.^[41] Common law spread globally through British colonial expansion, influencing jurisdictions in North America, Australasia, and parts of Asia and Africa. As of 2025, approximately 40 countries maintain predominantly common law systems, including the United States (except Louisiana), the United Kingdom, Canada (except Quebec), Australia, New Zealand, India, and Singapore, while over 60 others incorporate it within mixed systems alongside civil, customary, or religious law.^[42] In practice, statutes increasingly supplement precedents in these jurisdictions, but judicial interpretation remains central, allowing adaptation to novel circumstances without awaiting legislative action.^[40] This evolutionary approach has been credited with fostering flexibility, though critics argue it can perpetuate inconsistencies absent rigorous overruling mechanisms.^[41]

Places

Notable geographic and public spaces

Boston Common, located in Boston, Massachusetts, United States, is the oldest public park in the country, established in 1634 when Puritan colonists purchased 44 acres of land for communal use including cattle grazing and public assemblies.^[43] The site spans approximately 50 acres bounded by major streets such as Tremont and Park, and it hosted diverse activities from colonial militia musterings during the American Revolution to public punishments like hangings under Puritan rule.^[44] By the 19th century, it evolved into a formal park with features like the Park Street Church and Frog Pond, while remaining a venue for protests and events, including Civil War troop departures in 1861.^[45] In the United Kingdom, historic commons represent ancient shared lands preserved against enclosure, often serving as vital green spaces for recreation and biodiversity. Wimbledon Common, encompassing about 1,140 acres in southwest London including Putney Heath, was designated wasteland for common use until 1871, when it was transferred to conservators under the Wimbledon and Putney Commons Act to prevent development and maintain public access.^[46] The area features landmarks like the 1817 Wimbledon Windmill, a surviving post mill, and supports activities such as golf—home to the London Scottish Golf Club since 1865—alongside wildlife habitats for species like deer and birds.^[46] Clapham Common, in south London spanning 220 acres across Lambeth and Wandsworth, dates to medieval times as open grazing land and one of the city's largest ancient commons, with three ponds, woodlands, and a Victorian bandstand erected in 1890 that is the largest in London.^[47] Historically, it played roles in social reform, including gatherings by the Clapham Sect evangelicals who campaigned against the slave trade in the early 1800s, leading to the 1807 Slave Trade Act, and during World War II as a site for anti-aircraft batteries.^[48] Today, it accommodates sports, band concerts, and events while preserving allotments established in the 19th century for community gardening.^[48] These spaces exemplify the "commons" concept as publicly accessible lands rooted in feudal rights, later formalized through preservation efforts like those of the Commons Preservation Society founded in 1865, which protected over 200 sites from urbanization.^[49]

People

Individuals with the surname or moniker

Lonnie Rashid Lynn Jr. (born March 13, 1972), known professionally by his stage name Common, is an American rapper, actor, and activist born and raised in Chicago, Illinois.^[50]^[51] His parents divorced during his childhood, leading him to split time between Chicago and its suburbs while developing an interest in hip-hop influenced by local artists and family members.^[1] Common released his debut album Can I Borrow a Dollar? in 1992 under the name Common Sense, which faced a trademark lawsuit resulting in his shortened moniker.^[51] Common achieved critical acclaim with albums such as Resurrection (1994) and Like Water for Chocolate (2000), earning three Grammy Awards for works including "Love of My Life (An Ode to Hip-Hop)" with Erykah Badu in 2003.^[50] His music often addresses social issues, personal growth, and conscious themes, positioning him as a key figure in alternative hip-hop.^[1] Transitioning to acting, he appeared in films like Smokin' Aces (2006), Wanted (2008), Selma (2014), and John Wick: Chapter 2 (2017), alongside television roles in series such as The Path (2016–2018).^[52] As an activist, Common founded the Common Ground Foundation in 2011 to support youth through arts and education, and has advocated for criminal justice reform, collaborating with figures like Barack Obama.^[1] No other widely notable individuals bear the surname Common, though the moniker primarily refers to Lynn due to his prominence in music and entertainment.^[50]

Arts, entertainment, and media

Music

Common is the professional name of Lonnie Rashid Lynn Jr., an American hip-hop recording artist and actor based in Chicago, who released his debut album Can I Borrow a Dollar? in 1992 and achieved commercial breakthrough with Like Water for Chocolate in 2000, featuring the single "The Light."^[53]^[54] His 2005 album Be, produced entirely by Kanye West under GOOD Music and Geffen Records, emphasized soulful production and introspective lyrics, marking a return to critical favor after earlier commercial struggles.^[55] Common holds the distinction of being the first rapper to win an Emmy Award, a Grammy Award, and an Academy Award, with the Oscar for Best Original Song shared for "Glory" from the 2014 film Selma.^[56] In music theory, common time denotes the 4/4 time signature, the most frequently used meter in Western popular and classical music, where each measure contains four quarter-note beats; it is often represented by the symbol ℂ rather than numerals to save space in notation.^[57] This contrasts with cut time (2/2, symbolized as a slashed ℂ), which halves the value of notes for faster tempos while maintaining duple subdivision.^[58] The common practice period encompasses Western art music composition from roughly 1600 to 1900, defined by adherence to major-minor tonality, functional harmony (e.g., dominant-to-tonic resolutions), and standardized forms like fugue, sonata-allegro, and symphony; it includes the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic eras, during which these conventions formed the normative basis for harmonic progression and voice leading.^[59]^[60] This era's tonal framework contrasted with earlier modal practices and later atonal experiments, establishing conventions still influential in contemporary composition and analysis.^[61]

Film, television, and literature

The Common Reader (1925) is the first of two essay collections by English author Virginia Woolf, comprising literary criticism on figures from ancient Greece to 19th-century novelists, approached from the viewpoint of an everyday reader rather than a scholar.^[62] A second series appeared in 1932, expanding on similar themes with additional essays on modern writers.^[63] The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care (1946), written by American pediatrician Benjamin Spock, offered reassurance to parents amid the post-World War II baby boom, advocating flexible routines, affection, and trust in parental instincts over strict regimens promoted by prior experts like John B. Watson.^[64] The book sold over 50 million copies worldwide, influencing generations of child-rearing practices until revisions addressed criticisms of over-permissiveness.^[65] In television, Boston Common is an American sitcom that premiered on NBC on March 21, 1996, and ran for two seasons until April 28, 1997, created by David Kohan and Max Mutchnick.^[66] The series centers on Boyd Pritchett (Anthony Clark), a laid-back handyman from Virginia who relocates to Boston to monitor his college-attending sister, navigating cultural clashes and student life at the fictional Harrington University.^[67] Films bearing the title Common are limited and minor, with no major theatrical releases identified; however, rapper Common (Lonnie Rashid Lynn Jr.) has acted in prominent productions such as Smokin' Aces (2006) as Sir Ivy, Wanted (2008) as the Gunsmith, and John Wick: Chapter 2 (2017) as Cassian.^[68]

Religion

Religious and spiritual concepts

In Christian theology, particularly within Reformed and Protestant traditions, common grace denotes God's general benevolence extended to all humanity, irrespective of their spiritual election or faith status. This includes providential blessings such as physical sustenance (e.g., rainfall and harvests), civic order through restraint of sin, and innate human capacities for culture, art, and science, which mitigate the effects of the Fall without conferring salvific regeneration. The concept draws from biblical passages like Matthew 5:45 ("He causes his sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous") and Acts 14:17, emphasizing God's sustaining goodness amid universal depravity. Articulated prominently by theologians like Abraham Kuyper in the late 19th century and affirmed in Reformed synods (e.g., Synod of Dort, 1618–1619, implicitly; Synod of Kalamazoo, 1924, explicitly), common grace underscores causal distinctions between God's particular saving grace for the elect and His indiscriminate mercy preserving creation.^[69]^[70]^[71] The priesthood of all believers, a Reformation-era doctrine chiefly associated with Martin Luther (e.g., in his 1520 treatise To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation), asserts that all baptized Christians possess direct access to God through Christ, obviating the need for human mediators beyond Scripture and faith. Rooted in New Testament texts such as 1 Peter 2:9 ("You are a chosen people, a royal priesthood") and Revelation 1:6, it democratizes spiritual authority, enabling every believer to offer spiritual sacrifices, interpret Scripture under the Holy Spirit's guidance, and proclaim the gospel. While Luther intended it to critique clerical abuses rather than abolish ordained ministry, it has influenced Protestant ecclesiology by emphasizing communal equality in priestly functions, though distinctions persist in roles like preaching and sacraments. This principle contrasts with hierarchical views in Roman Catholicism, where it is reframed as participation in Christ's priesthood via the ordained, and finds echoes in Eastern Orthodoxy's emphasis on the laity's liturgical role.^[72]^[73]^[74] The Book of Common Prayer (BCP) serves as the primary liturgical text for Anglican and Episcopal worship, standardizing prayers, rites, and sacraments across congregations. First compiled by Thomas Cranmer in 1549 under Edward VI, it drew from Latin rites, patristic sources, and Scripture to promote uniformity post-Reformation, incorporating daily offices (Morning and Evening Prayer), Eucharist, baptismal orders, and occasional services like marriage and burial. The 1662 edition remains authoritative in the Church of England, balancing Protestant solifidian emphases with catholic liturgical structure, while adaptations (e.g., 1979 U.S. BCP) reflect evolving contexts without altering core doctrines. Its language, derived from the King James Bible and Cranmer's prose, has shaped English spirituality, fostering communal devotion amid private piety.^[75]^[76]^[77] Beyond these, "common" appears in ecumenical contexts, such as shared creedal affirmations (e.g., the common apostolic faith) or interfaith dialogues seeking common ground in ethics like human dignity, though these lack the doctrinal specificity of the above. In non-Christian traditions, analogous communal concepts exist—e.g., shared ritual purity in Hinduism or collective sangha discipline in Buddhism—but explicit "common" terminology is rare and typically untranslated.^[72]

Science and technology

Biological and scientific terms

In biological taxonomy, a common name refers to a vernacular designation for a species or higher taxon that is in general use within a linguistic community, distinct from the standardized scientific name under the binomial nomenclature system.^[78] These names often derive from observable traits, habitats, or cultural associations, but they lack universality and can cause confusion across regions; for instance, the species Puma concolor is known as cougar in North America, puma in South America, and mountain lion in parts of the western United States.^[79] Scientific nomenclature, by contrast, employs Latinized binomials to ensure precision and stability, as formalized in the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) and the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). In evolutionary biology, the term common ancestor describes an ancestral organism or population shared by two or more descendant lineages, from which divergence occurred through speciation events.^[80] This concept underpins the theory of common descent, positing that all extant life forms trace their origins to a last universal common ancestor (LUCA), a hypothetical prokaryote-like entity that existed approximately 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago, inferred from shared genetic, biochemical, and structural features across domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.^[81] Evidence includes the near-universal genetic code, conserved ribosomal RNA sequences, and homologous proteins like ATP synthase, which exhibit sequence similarities exceeding what neutral mutation rates alone would predict over billions of years.^[81] Phylogenetic analyses, using methods such as maximum likelihood estimation on multiple gene alignments, consistently recover LUCA as a metabolic generalist capable of anaerobic fermentation and membrane lipid synthesis. Anatomical terminology frequently employs "common" to denote structures that serve as shared conduits or junctions for multiple pathways, reflecting efficient design for fluid or neural distribution. Examples include the common carotid artery, which bifurcates into internal and external branches to supply blood to the head and neck, originating from the aortic arch on the left and brachiocephalic trunk on the right in humans. Similarly, the common bile duct merges hepatic and cystic ducts to transport bile from the liver and gallbladder to the duodenum, measuring about 8-10 cm in length and prone to obstruction by gallstones in approximately 10-15% of symptomatic cases annually in Western populations. These terms highlight functional convergence rather than frequency of occurrence, grounded in comparative anatomy across vertebrates where such shared trunks minimize redundancy in vascular and ductal systems.^[82]

Technological and computing uses

Common Lisp is a general-purpose programming language standardized as ANSI X3.226-1994, extending the Lisp family with support for procedural, functional, and object-oriented paradigms, including dynamic typing, macros, and condition systems for robust error handling.^[83] It emphasizes extensibility and interactive development, making it suitable for applications requiring rapid prototyping and symbolic computation, such as artificial intelligence systems.^[84] The Common Gateway Interface (CGI) defines a standard protocol for web servers to invoke external scripts or programs, passing HTTP request data via environment variables and standard input while receiving output for dynamic web content generation.^[85] First implemented by the National Center for Supercomputing Applications in 1993, CGI enabled early server-side processing but has been largely supplanted by more efficient mechanisms like FastCGI due to performance overhead from process spawning per request.^[86] Apache Commons comprises a suite of open-source Java libraries hosted by the Apache Software Foundation, providing reusable components for common tasks such as string manipulation (Commons Lang), file I/O operations (Commons IO), and data structure utilities (Commons Collections).^[87] These libraries extend the Java standard library, promoting code reuse and reducing boilerplate in enterprise applications, with active maintenance ensuring compatibility across Java versions. Common Criteria (CC), formalized under ISO/IEC 15408, establishes a framework for specifying, implementing, and evaluating security requirements in IT products through protection profiles and evaluation assurance levels (EALs) ranging from EAL1 (basic) to EAL7 (formally verified design).^[88] Adopted by governments for procurement, it facilitates mutual recognition of certifications among 31 member countries via the Common Criteria Recognition Arrangement, though critics note its complexity can delay evaluations without proportionally enhancing real-world security.^[89] The Common Language Infrastructure (CLI), standardized as ECMA-335, forms the foundation of the .NET ecosystem by defining a virtual machine for executing intermediate language (IL) code, with components including the Common Type System (CTS) for type safety and the Common Intermediate Language for platform-agnostic bytecode.^[90] It enables interoperability among languages like C# and VB.NET, just-in-time compilation for performance, and managed memory via garbage collection, powering cross-platform applications in the .NET Framework and .NET Core runtimes.^[91]

Other uses

Organizations and miscellaneous

COMMON is the world's largest association of users of IBM Power Systems and compatible midrange computing technology, comprising over 4,000 individual and corporate members focused on education, advocacy, and networking for IBM i platforms.^[92]^[93] Common Cause is a nonpartisan citizens' lobbying organization founded on February 15, 1970, by John W. Gardner, advocating for pro-democracy reforms such as campaign finance limits, voting rights expansion, and government accountability through grassroots mobilization and legal action.^[94] Common Sense Media is a nonprofit organization established in 2003 that evaluates and rates media content for children and families, providing reviews, research, and policy recommendations to promote safe digital experiences and media literacy.^[95] In miscellaneous contexts, "common" refers to shared resources or properties, as in the historical English legal concept of common land accessible to community members for grazing or foraging, distinct from private enclosures, which influenced modern discussions of the commons in economics and environmental policy.

References

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Common (1972- ) | BlackPast.org
Aug 29, 2019 · Lonnie Corant Jaman Shuka “Common” Rashid Lynn is a Grammy Award-winning rapper, actor, and songwriter. Common was born on March 13, 1972 in ...Missing: facts achievements
[2]
Common Biography, Celebrity Facts and Awards - TV Guide
Released his debut album, "Can I Borrow a Dollar?" in 1992 under the name Common Sense and gained popularity with the single "Take It EZ․"; Started out as a ...
[3]
Common | Artist - GRAMMY.com
Common won his first career GRAMMY for Best R&B Song as a songwriter on his collaboration with Erykah Badu for "Love Of My Life (An Ode To Hip-Hop)" for 2002. ...
[4]
Oscars 2015: 'Glory' wins for original song - Los Angeles Times
Feb 22, 2015 · “Glory,” John Legend and Common's stirring anthem from “Selma,” won the Academy Award for original song Sunday evening at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood.
[5]
Common - Etymology, Origin & Meaning
Originating c.1300 from Old French and Latin communis, common means "shared by all," referring to public, general use or a fellowship, community, or common ...
[6]
Communis etymology in Latin - Cooljugator
Latin word communis comes from Latin Latin con- (which indicates bringing together) and Latin munus (duty, obligation).
[7]
common, adj. & adv. meanings, etymology and more
The earliest known use of the word common is in the Middle English period (1150—1500). OED's earliest evidence for common is from around 1300, in All Saints. ...
[8]
Evolution of the most common English words and phrases over the ...
Jul 25, 2012 · We find that the most common words and phrases in any given year had a much shorter popularity lifespan in the sixteenth century than they had in the twentieth ...Abstract · Introduction · Results · Discussion
[9]
COMMON Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
The meaning of COMMON is of or relating to a community at large : public. How to use common in a sentence. Synonym Discussion of Common.
[10]
common adjective - Definition, pictures, pronunciation and
common · . happening often; existing in large numbers or in many places · · · (of an animal or plant) found or living in quite large numbers; not rare · ( ...
[11]
COMMON | definition in the Cambridge English Dictionary
common adjective (LOW CLASS). disapproving. typical of a low social class: My mom thinks dyed blonde hair is a little common. SMART Vocabulary: related words ...
[12]
COMMON Definition & Meaning | Dictionary.com
Common definition: belonging equally to, or shared alike by, two or more or all in question ... (of a noun) belonging to the common gender. Mathematics., bearing ...
[13]
Tragedy of the Commons - Econlib
An unmanaged commons in a world of limited material wealth and unlimited desires inevitably ends in ruin. Inevitability justifies the epithet “tragedy,” which I ...
[14]
[PDF] The Tragedy ofthe Commons
pamphlet (6) in 1833 by a mathematical amateur named William Forster Lloyd. (1794-1852). We may well call it "the tragedy of the commons," using the word ...
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Tragedy of the Commons: Examples & Solutions | HBS Online
Feb 6, 2019 · 5 Tragedy of the Commons Examples · 1. Coffee Consumption · 2. Overfishing · 3. Fast Fashion · 4. Traffic Congestion · 5. Groundwater Use.
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Tragedy of the Commons - MarineEcon Lab
The tragedy of the commons in fisheries refers to a competitive race to fish, leading to overexploitation and economic losses. Rights-based management policies ...
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[PDF] The Tragedy of the Commons in International Fisheries
The empirical results from ordered category estimation suggest that shared stocks are indeed more prone to overexploitation. Keywords: International fisheries, ...
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Elinor Ostrom – Prize Lecture - NobelPrize.org
Elinor Ostrom delivered her Prize Lecture on 8 December 2009 at Aula Magna, Stockholm University. She was introduced by Professor Bertil Holmlund.
[19]
The Prize in Economic Sciences 2009 - Illustrated Presentation
Elinor Ostrom has demonstrated how common property can be successfully managed by user associations. Oliver Williamson has developed the theory that ...
[20]
[PDF] Prize Lecture by Elinor Ostrom
Basurto, xavier and elinor ostrom (2009), “Beyond the tragedy of the commons,” ... ostrom, elinor (1990), Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for ...
[21]
The Tragedy of 'The Tragedy of the Commons' – Hardin vs. The ...
Apr 21, 2021 · Hardin's solutions to this problem emphasize coercive policies, including traditional command-and-control environmental and natural resource ...
[22]
Hardin versus the Property Rights Theorists - Chicago Unbound
Hardin's solutions to this problem emphasize coercive policies, including traditional command-and-control environmental and natural resource regulations. In ...
[23]
Understanding the Tragedy of the Commons in Economics
Key solutions include government regulation, private property rights, and collective management to prevent overuse and sustain resources.
[24]
Governing the global fisheries commons - ScienceDirect.com
Economists have long recognized that global fisheries provide archetypal cases of the tragedy of the commons. Property rights are incomplete and difficult to ...
[25]
The Common Good - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Feb 26, 2018 · According to a common good conception of political morality, members of a political community stand in a social relationship with one another.Why Does Political Philosophy... · Central Features of the... · The Common Good...
[26]
Aristotle: Politics | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
You should also keep in mind that by the “common good” Aristotle means the common good of the citizens, and not necessarily all the residents of the city.
[27]
The common good (Chapter 7) - The Cambridge Companion to ...
Aristotle's common good is the happiness or welfare of all of the citizens. The second interpretation, that the common good is the good condition of the ...
[28]
[PDF] The Concept of the Common Good - The British Academy
The common good has been an important concern of moral and political philosophy since ancient times, and a politics of the common good was often contrasted ...
[29]
Question 96. The power of human law - New Advent
Law should be framed, not for any private benefit, but for the common good of all the citizens. Hence human laws should be proportionate to the common good.<|separator|>
[30]
St. Thomas and the Common Good - Dominicana Journal
Jul 20, 2020 · The common good, for St. Thomas and the Catholic Church, can be called the good of the universe. Moreover, this created common good is oriented ...
[31]
[PDF] Common Good and the Problem of Equity in the Philosophy of Law ...
St. Thomas Aquinas insists that the human or positive law 1 must always fulfill the conditions requisite to a thing which has a definite purpose or end.
[32]
Justice, Not Happiness: Aristotle on the Common Good | Polity
Aristotle's concept of the common good is not synonymous with the good life, as has often been thought; it is a standard for evaluating political justice.
[33]
[PDF] Liberalism and the Common Good - Independent Institute
In fact, the liberal Hayek is as concerned as the communitarians to revive a “politics of the common good.” If Hayek is right, how- ever—if individual liberty ...<|separator|>
[34]
Liberalism and the Common Good – M. Anthony Mills - Law & Liberty
Sep 28, 2020 · As Alasdair MacIntyre points out, common goods, in contrast to individual goods, are those that can only be achieved and enjoyed as a member of ...
[35]
Liberalism and the Common Good | American Enterprise Institute - AEI
This course will explore the tensions inherent to our regime while examining how liberalism can foster both individual freedom and the common good.
[36]
The Common Good in the Political Theory of Thomas Aquinas
The state acting under the aegis of the common good should take care of man's temporal needs and the Church should take care of his eternal needs. By supplying ...
[37]
What is the Common Good According to Hobbes?
Dec 15, 2023 · The common good = salus publica = common welfare is the superior principle, the souverain has to follow in his political decision.
[38]
The Common Good - Markkula Center for Applied Ethics
The common good is a good to which all members of society have access, and from whose enjoyment no one can be easily excluded.
[39]
[PDF] THE COMMON LAW AND CIVIL LAW TRADITIONS - UC Berkeley Law
Common law – the system of law that emerged in England begin- ning in the Middle Ages and is based on case law and precedent rather than codified law.
[40]
What is the definition of common law? | Thomson Reuters
Nov 15, 2022 · The simplest definition for common law is that it's a “body of law” based on court decisions rather than codes or statutes.
[41]
Key Features of Common and Civil Law Systems - World Bank PPP
Common Law System · There is not always a written constitution or codified laws; · Judicial decisions are binding – decisions of the highest court can generally ...
[42]
Common Law Countries 2025 - World Population Review
... legal systems in the world by any measure. Approximately 40 countries and territories use common law, and roughly 60 more use it as part of a mixed legal system ...
[43]
Boston Common | The Freedom Trail
Established in 1634, Boston Common is America's oldest public park. Puritan colonists purchased the land rights to the Common's 44 acres.
[44]
Boston Common
Feb 6, 2025 · 350 years of the most extraordinary history of America's oldest park. Founded in 1634. Here the Colonial militia mustered for the Revolution.
[45]
The Common - Friends of the Public Garden
Sep 17, 2025 · The Boston Common, founded in 1634, is the oldest public park in America. Its fifty acres form a pentagon bounded by Tremont, Park, Beacon, Charles, and ...
[46]
Our History - Wimbledon and Putney Commons
Aug 16, 2025 · The Commons were historically wasteland. In 1871, they were transferred to Conservators, who were tasked with keeping them open and unenclosed. ...
[47]
Clapham Common - London - Lambeth Council
At over 85 hectares in size, Clapham Common is one of London's largest, and oldest, public open spaces, situated between Clapham, Battersea and Balham.
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Find out about Clapham Common's rich history - CCMAC
Clapham Common has a rich history. It has seen the abolition of slavery, allotments, gun emplacements and welcomed immigrants from the SS Empire Windrush.
[49]
A History of the Open Spaces Society
The Open Spaces Society was founded in 1865, initially as the Commons Preservation Society. This was expanded to 'the Commons, Open Spaces and Footpaths ...<|separator|>
[50]
Common | Rapper, Biography, Songs, & Movies | Britannica
Sep 6, 2025 · He was the first rapper to win a Grammy Award, an Academy Award, and an Emmy Award. Common's father was a professional basketball player and ...Missing: achievements | Show results with:achievements
[51]
Common - Biography
May 27, 2020 · Award-winning rapper and songwriter Common is known for a bevy of acclaimed albums in addition to his acting work for TV and film.Missing: key | Show results with:key
[52]
Common - Biography - IMDb
He was born in Chicago, and is the son of educator Dr. Mahalia Ann Hines and Lonnie Lynn, an ABA basketball player turned youth counselor.Missing: key achievements
[53]
5 Quintessential Tracks By Common | News - BET
Dec 6, 2022 · “The Light” (2000) ... The second single from Common's 2000 album Like Water for Chocolate, “The Light” is a love letter devoted to Erykah Badu, ...
[54]
Common's 'Like Water For Chocolate' Turns 25 | Album Anniversary
Mar 23, 2025 · Common · Time Travelin' (A Tribute To Fela) · Heat · Cold Blooded · Dooinit · The Light · Funky For You · The Questions · Time Travelin' Reprise.<|separator|>
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Common - Album and Artist Story | Hot Product - Billboard
May 23, 2005 · Chicago rapper Common returns this week with “Be,” which was produced by Kanye West and is being issued by his G.O.O.D. Music imprint and ...Missing: biography | Show results with:biography
[56]
Common | Biography, Music & News | Billboard
Common becomes the first rapper to win a Emmy, Grammy and Oscar | Billboard News Common on '13th' and Rapping to Ava DuVernay at the White House | Meet Your ...
[57]
Time Signatures: 4/4 or C? - My Music Theory
Music which has four beats per bar is sometimes given a 4/4 time signature, and sometimes a “C”. Is there any difference between these two different symbols?
[58]
Common Time - (AP Music Theory) - Vocab, Definition, Explanations
Common time is a musical term that refers to a specific meter, typically indicated by the time signature 4/4. In this context, common time signifies a ...
[59]
Common Practice Period (CPP) - (AP Music Theory) - Fiveable
The Common Practice Period (CPP) refers to a significant era in Western music history, roughly spanning from 1600 to 1900, where composers adhered to certain ...
[60]
Common Practice Style & Developing Tonal Harmony - Lesson
The Common Practice Period was a period of classical music in Western Europe, which spanned three centuries from approximately 1600 to 1910. During this period ...
[61]
what do you mean with the "common practice period?" - Music
May 15, 2019 · The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900, which is known as the common-practice period. https://en.wikipedia.
[62]
The Common Reader by Virginia Woolf | Project Gutenberg
Feb 4, 2021 · The book is a thoughtful examination of literature through the lens of the ordinary reader, emphasizing the value of reading for pleasure.
[63]
The Common Reader by Virginia Woolf - 1925
Aug 10, 2020 · The Common Reader is Woolf's first and most popular volume of essays, her intention was that essays can be read by the 'common people' for ...
[64]
Dr. Spock publishes “The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child ...
Jul 12, 2024 · On July 14th, 1946, at the dawn of the post-World War II baby boom, Dr. Benjamin Spock published The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care.
[65]
No 33 – The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care by Dr ...
Sep 12, 2016 · The groundbreaking American childcare manual urged parents to trust themselves, but was also accused of being the source of postwar 'permissiveness'.
[66]
Boston Common (TV Series 1996–1997) - IMDb
Rating 7/10 (1,171) After moving from Virginia to Boston to spy on his sister who just started college, Boyd finds himself working for the student union, where he raises hell more ...
[67]
Boston Common | Rotten Tomatoes
Rating 33% (6) Boyd Pritchett, a good old boy from Virginia, takes his sister to a snooty Boston college, then decides to stick around when he meets a Boston girl.
[68]
Common - IMDb
How old is Common? 53 years old · When was Common born? March 13, 1972 · Where was Common born? Chicago, Illinois, USA · What is Common's birth name? Lonnie Rashid ...Biography · Awards · Filmography · 2 of 427
[69]
The Goodness of God and Common Grace - The Gospel Coalition
Common grace includes all undeserved blessings that natural man receives from the hand of God: rain, sun, prosperity, health, happiness, natural capacities and ...
[70]
Common Grace - Ligonier Ministries
In short, common grace includes every undeserved providential act of God's restraint, goodness, and mercy toward the sinful inhabitants of this fallen world.
[71]
What is common grace? | GotQuestions.org
Nov 23, 2022 · The doctrine of common grace pertains to the sovereign grace of God bestowed upon all of mankind regardless of their election.
[72]
The Priesthood of All Believers - The Gospel Coalition
The doctrine of the priesthood of all believers states that all believers in Christ share in his priestly status, eliminating any special classes.
[73]
Is the priesthood of all believers biblical? | GotQuestions.org
Aug 22, 2025 · The Bible teaches that all believers in Christ are members of a holy and royal priesthood: “You also, as living stones, are being built up a ...
[74]
Luther's Doctrine of the Priesthood of All Believers - Credo Magazine
Jan 8, 2020 · The doctrine of the priesthood of all believers meant that all who have faith in Christ and are baptised are designated priests and share in Christ's royal ...
[75]
The Book of Common Prayer - The Church of England
A permanent feature of the Church of England's worship and a key source for its doctrine, the Book of Common Prayer is loved for the beauty of its language.The Order for Morning Prayer · The Order for Evening Prayer · The Psalter
[76]
The Book of Common Prayer - The Episcopal Church
The Book of Common Prayer is a treasure chest full of devotional and teaching resources for individuals and congregations, but it is also the primary symbol of ...
[77]
The Online Book of Common Prayer
The Online Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church Together with The Psalter or Psalms of DavidTable of Contents · Prayers and Thanksgivings · The Daily Office · The Psalter
[78]
Taxonomy Help - Glossary - NPS IRMA Portal
A vernacular name for a taxon that is in general use within a community as contrasted with scientific name. Examples of common names are "river otter", "white ...
[79]
[PDF] Taxonomic Classification - Colorado Master Gardener
Common names can lead to confusion about taxonomy, (“poison oak” is not an oak at all), and huge numbers of plants do not have common names. The use of ...<|separator|>
[80]
common ancestor - Understanding Evolution - UC Berkeley
A common ancestor is an ancestral organism shared by two or more descendent lineages, an ancestor they have in common.
[81]
The common ancestry of life - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
It is common belief that all cellular life forms on earth have a common origin. This view is supported by the universality of the genetic code and the ...
[82]
1.4 Anatomical Terminology – Anatomy & Physiology 2e
Regions of the body are identified using terms such as “occipital” that are more precise than common words and phrases such as “the back of the head.<|control11|><|separator|>
[83]
Common Lisp
Common Lisp is designed to evolve, is mature and stable, functional, and object-oriented, with first-class functions and class hierarchies.Learn · Wiki · Getting Started · News
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Welcome to Common-Lisp.net!
Common Lisp is a modern, multi-paradigm, high-performance, compiled, ANSI-standardized language, known for flexibility, object-oriented support, and fast ...
[85]
RFC 3875 - The Common Gateway Interface (CGI) Version 1.1
The Common Gateway Interface (CGI) is a simple interface for running external programs, software or gateways under an information server, like HTTP servers.<|separator|>
[86]
Common Gateway Interface (CGI) - GeeksforGeeks
Jul 11, 2025 · The Common Gateway Interface (CGI) is a standard that facilitates communication between web servers and external databases or information ...
[87]
Apache Commons – Apache Commons
Apache Commons is an Apache project focused on all aspects of reusable Java components. The Apache Commons project is composed of three parts.LangIODownload Apache Commons IOCommons CollectionsDownloads
[88]
Common Criteria : CC Portal
The CC is the driving force for the widest available mutual recognition of secure IT products. This web portal is available to support the information on the ...Publications · Certified Products · Protection Profiles · About The Cc
[89]
What is Common Criteria? - Cybersecurity 101 - Illumio
Common Criteria is a set of security requirements and an international standard for computer security certification used by governments and enterprises.
[90]
Ecma standards for .NET - Microsoft Learn
The C# Language and the Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) specifications are standardized through Ecma International®.
[91]
Common Language Runtime (CLR) overview - .NET - Microsoft Learn
Apr 25, 2023 · .NET provides a run-time environment called the common language runtime that runs the code and provides services that make the development process easier.
[92]
COMMON - Join the Community
Welcome to COMMON, your IBMi and Tech education hub! Join our community and enjoy all of the benefits of being a COMMON member.Membership · POWERUp 2025 · Events from February 12, 2024 · About
[93]
COMMON - LinkedIn
COMMON is the world's largest users group of midrange IBM and IBM-compatible technology. The organization comprises more than 4,000 individual and corporate ...
[94]
Common Cause: Fighting For The Democracy We Deserve ...
Common Cause wins concrete, pro-democracy reforms that break down barriers to participation, promote accountability, and ensure that each of us has a voice.Missing: named | Show results with:named
[95]
Common Sense
We protect and prepare kids for an always-on world. We're Common Sense Media, a nonprofit that puts kids' safety and well-being first in the digital era.For Educators · 20 Years of Impact · How We Rate and Review<|separator|>