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Colossal Biosciences

Colossal Biosciences Inc. is an American biotechnology company founded in 2021 by entrepreneur Ben Lamm and geneticist George Church, focused on de-extinction efforts to revive extinct species such as the woolly mammoth, thylacine, and dodo through CRISPR-based genetic engineering and reproductive technologies.^[1]^[2] The company's mission emphasizes ecosystem restoration and biodiversity enhancement by engineering proxy species—such as Asian elephants modified with mammoth traits—to fulfill ecological roles lost to extinction, alongside applications in conservation for endangered animals.^[3]^[4] Colossal has secured over $425 million in funding, culminating in a $200 million Series C round in January 2025 that elevated its valuation to $10.2 billion, enabling expansions in wet lab infrastructure and computational biology tools.^[5] Notable technical advances include the creation of a "woolly mouse" in early 2025, incorporating multiple mammoth-derived genes for traits like cold-resistant fur and fat metabolism in a living mammal, demonstrating coordinated multi-gene editing at scale.^[6] Despite these milestones, Colossal's de-extinction claims have sparked significant scientific debate, with independent experts arguing that outputs like the April 2025 "dire wolf" revival—gene-edited gray wolves exhibiting select ancient traits—represent enhanced extant animals rather than authentic species resurrection, potentially diverting resources from proven conservation strategies.^[7]^[8]^[9] Critics, including evolutionary biologists, have highlighted challenges in replicating full behavioral, physiological, and genetic fidelity across generations, as well as risks of unforeseen ecological disruptions, while some report targeted online harassment or legal pressures following public skepticism of the company's timelines and terminology.^[10]^[11] These controversies underscore tensions between ambitious bioengineering hype and empirical hurdles in achieving viable, self-sustaining de-extinct populations.^[12]

History

Founding and Early Years

Colossal Biosciences was founded in 2021 by entrepreneur Ben Lamm, who serves as CEO, and Harvard geneticist George Church, who acts as the company's chief scientific advisor.^[13]^[12] The company, headquartered in Dallas, Texas, emerged from Lamm's prior ventures in technology and Church's expertise in synthetic biology and CRISPR gene-editing technologies.^[14] Lamm, with a background in founding companies like Chaotic Moon Studios and Hypergiant Industries, sought to apply entrepreneurial scaling to biological engineering, while Church contributed decades of research in genome editing, including pioneering work on de-extinction concepts.^[15] The founding vision centered on using advanced genetic tools to achieve de-extinction of species such as the woolly mammoth, with the stated goal of addressing biodiversity loss through engineered revival rather than mere conservation.^[1] Initial efforts focused on assembling a team of geneticists, bioengineers, and conservationists, drawing from Church's academic network at Harvard and Wyss Institute.^[12] By late 2021, Colossal had incorporated as a biotechnology firm emphasizing CRISPR-based editing of elephant genomes to incorporate mammoth traits, positioning itself as the first company dedicated to commercial-scale de-extinction.^[16] In its early phase, the company prioritized proof-of-concept research over public announcements, securing initial lab facilities and talent amid skepticism from some biologists who questioned the feasibility and ecological impacts of de-extinction.^[15] Co-founders including Peter Phillips, focused on business development, helped outline operational strategies, though the core impetus remained Lamm and Church's collaboration on leveraging existing elephant-mammoth genetic similarities—estimated at over 99% overlap—for targeted insertions of extinct traits like cold-resistant fur and fat layers.^[14] This foundational work laid the groundwork for subsequent project expansions without immediate revenue generation, relying on the founders' networks for preliminary resources.^[17]

Initial Funding and Project Launches

Colossal Biosciences launched from stealth in September 2021 with $15 million in seed funding, marking the inception of its de-extinction initiatives centered on reviving the woolly mammoth through CRISPR-based genetic editing of Asian elephant cells.^[12]^[18] This initial capital enabled the assembly of a scientific team, including Harvard geneticist George Church as a co-founder, and the establishment of core research facilities in Dallas, Texas, to sequence mammoth genomes and develop editing pipelines for traits like cold-resistant fur and fat layers.^[12] In March 2022, the company secured a $60 million Series A round led by Thomas Tull of Tulco and At One Ventures, elevating total funding to $75 million and providing resources to scale laboratory operations and elephant stem cell research.^[19] These funds directly supported milestones in the woolly mammoth project, such as the creation of induced pluripotent stem cells from elephants and initial gene insertions for mammoth-specific adaptations, with the stated goal of producing viable hybrid embryos for surrogacy.^[3] Building on this momentum, Colossal announced its thylacine (Tasmanian tiger) de-extinction project in August 2022, partnering with the University of Melbourne's Thylacine Integrated Genomic Restoration Research lab to reconstruct the species' genome from preserved specimens and edit marsupial fat-tailed dunnart cells.^[12] The initiative aimed to address gaps in marsupial reproductive biology while leveraging early funding to initiate genome assembly, positioning the thylacine as the company's second flagship effort alongside the mammoth.^[20]

Key Milestones and Recent Developments

Colossal Biosciences was founded in September 2021 by entrepreneurs Ben Lamm and George Church, with an initial focus on de-extinction projects targeting the woolly mammoth, thylacine, and dodo bird using CRISPR-based gene editing.^[1] In May 2021, prior to formal launch, the company secured a $15 million seed round to initiate research and development.^[17] By March 2022, it raised $60 million in Series A funding led by Thomas Tull, enabling expansion of laboratory facilities and project teams.^[21] In July 2022, Colossal announced the complete sequencing of the Asian elephant genome, a foundational step for editing elephant cells to incorporate mammoth traits such as cold-resistant fur and fat layers.^[22] January 2023 saw a $150 million Series B round, boosting total funding and supporting advancements in induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technologies for species revival.^[21] April 2022 marked the addition of a $300 million extension to prior rounds, though integrated into broader capital raises.^[12] Recent developments include the birth of two male dire wolf pups on October 1, 2024, and a female pup on January 30, 2025, achieved through cloning and gene-editing of gray wolf surrogates to restore dire wolf genetic lineage—a project announced in April 2025 with no immediate rewilding plans.^[23] In early 2025, researchers produced 38 "woolly mice" engineered with mammoth genes, resulting in curly, golden-brown coats mimicking mammoth hair phenotypes, as detailed in a March 2025 preprint.^[24] January 2025 brought a $200 million Series C funding round from TWG Global, elevating total investment to $435 million and valuation to $10.2 billion, fueled by these genetic milestones.^[21] In August 2025, Colossal launched operations in Australia to accelerate thylacine revival and ecosystem restoration efforts.^[25] September 2025 featured a $120 million raise dedicated to dodo bird de-extinction, targeting genetic reconstruction via Nicobar pigeon relatives.^[26] By October 2025, the company's technologies, including embryonic primordial germ cell (EPC) cloning from blood draws, earned recognition from TIME for conservation applications, while underlying R&D showed potential extensions to human therapeutics like drug testing models.^[27]^[28]

Leadership and Organization

Founders and Executive Team

Colossal Biosciences was co-founded in September 2021 by serial entrepreneur Ben Lamm and geneticist George Church.^[29] Lamm, who serves as CEO, has previously founded and led technology companies, including ventures acquired by entities such as Accenture, Zynga, and LivePerson.^[1] Church, a professor of genetics at Harvard Medical School and pioneer in genomic sequencing and synthetic biology, acts as co-founder and lead geneticist, directing the company's core genetic engineering efforts.^[30] Additional co-founders include Brian Beard, who joined as chief legal officer and board member, providing strategic legal guidance drawn from prior roles in corporate law and governance, and Andrew Busey, chief product officer with a background in early internet technologies, including contributions to the Mosaic web browser.^[31]^[32] The executive team encompasses Beth Shapiro as chief science officer, responsible for advancing de-extinction research through paleogenomics expertise, and other key roles such as chief operating officer Adam Milne, chief financial officer Sam Singer, and chief animal officer Matt James, supporting operational, financial, and species management functions.^[33]^[34]

Corporate Structure and Partnerships

Colossal Biosciences Inc. is a privately held biotechnology company founded on September 1, 2021, and headquartered in Dallas, Texas, with additional facilities in Austin, Texas, and Boston, Massachusetts, as well as operational labs in Boston, Dallas, the Church Lab, and the TIGRR Lab.^[12] ^[1] The organization employs approximately 187 staff, including over 170 scientists, and is governed by multiple advisory boards encompassing scientific, executive, conservation, bioethics, indigenous, cultural, and youth perspectives to guide its de-extinction and conservation efforts.^[12] ^[35] In October 2024, the company established the Colossal Foundation as its 501(c)(3) nonprofit arm, endowed with $50 million, to apply proprietary genetic technologies toward wildlife conservation, ecosystem restoration, and community engagement without profit motives.^[36] ^[12] The company has pursued technology transfer through spinouts, including Form Bio in September 2022 for computational life sciences platforms and Breaking in April 2024 for microbial plastic degradation using the engineered X-32 strain, enabling commercialization of non-core innovations while retaining focus on de-extinction.^[12] These entities operate independently but stem from Colossal's research pipeline, akin to a NASA-style model for bioscience applications.^[12] Colossal maintains extensive scientific and conservation partnerships to advance its projects, collaborating with over 48 global conservation organizations, academic institutions, and indigenous groups for genomic data, ethical oversight, and rewilding implementation.^[37] ^[36] Key academic ties include ongoing work with Harvard University through co-founder George Church's lab and the University of Melbourne since August 2022 for thylacine revival, alongside the Vertebrate Genomes Project from October 2021 for elephant genome sequencing critical to mammoth proxy development.^[38] ^[12] Conservation-specific alliances encompass the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation since November 2023 for dodo restoration and entities like Aussie Ark, Rewild, and Save the Elephants for species preservation and habitat integration.^[1] ^[12] Financial partnerships underpin operations via venture funding totaling approximately $448 million as of April 2025, with seed investment of $15 million in September 2021 led by Thomas Tull, followed by $60 million in Series A, $150 million in Series B in January 2023, and $200 million in Series C in January 2025 led by TWG Global at a $10.2 billion valuation.^[12] ^[39] Notable investors include Breyer Capital, Winklevoss Capital Management, Tony Robbins, Peter Jackson, and Robert Nelsen of ARCH Venture Partners, providing capital alongside strategic expertise in biotechnology and conservation.^[12] ^[1]

Scientific Foundation

Core Technologies and Methods

Colossal Biosciences employs advanced genome editing techniques, primarily CRISPR-Cas9, to modify the genomes of extant proxy species, inserting sequences derived from extinct relatives to recapitulate key phenotypic traits. This approach targets multiplex edits—simultaneously altering multiple genes—to engineer cold-adaptive features, such as enhanced hair growth and fat metabolism, as demonstrated in their 2025 creation of "woolly mice" via editing seven genes in mouse embryos to mimic mammoth hair phenotypes.^[40]^[24]^[41] A foundational method involves deriving induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from proxy species, enabling scalable genetic modifications and differentiation into various cell types for trait validation. In March 2024, Colossal achieved a milestone by successfully reprogramming Asian elephant fibroblasts from placental tissue into iPSCs, the first such derivation for elephants, which resists standard reprogramming due to elevated TP53 activity; these cells support multiplex editing to test mammoth-specific adaptations like woolliness and thermoregulation.^[42]^[43]^[44] Ancient DNA extraction and next-generation sequencing form the upstream process, reconstructing high-fidelity extinct genomes from subfossil remains to identify target variants for editing. For the woolly mammoth project, this yields reference sequences integrated into elephant cells via CRISPR, followed by embryo production and surrogate gestation in the proxy species to yield hybrid offspring expressing core extinct traits.^[3]^[16]^[45] Artificial intelligence augments these methods by accelerating genome assembly and variant prediction, as applied in decoding mammoth and dire wolf sequences to prioritize edits for ecological functionality over exact replication. This platform extends to conservation applications, including disease-resistant models, though critics note that resulting organisms represent engineered proxies rather than verbatim resurrections.^[46]^[2]

Genetic Engineering Breakthroughs

Colossal Biosciences has pioneered techniques in multiplex genome editing, combining CRISPR-Cas9 with enzymes such as integrases, recombinases, and deaminases to enable precise, large-scale insertions of extinct species' genetic material into living relatives.^[40] This approach addresses challenges in editing complex genomes like those of elephants, where traditional methods struggle with low efficiency and off-target effects.^[47] A key advancement occurred in March 2024, when the company derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from Asian elephant placental tissue, overcoming natural barriers posed by the elephants' robust TP53 tumor-suppressor pathway, which resists cellular reprogramming.^[43] These iPSCs can be genetically edited en masse and differentiated into various cell types, providing a platform to test and validate mammoth-specific traits like cold-resistant fur and fat metabolism before scaling to elephant embryos.^[48] Independent reports confirmed this as the first successful elephant iPSC generation, enabling downstream applications in de-extinction and conservation biology.^[49] In March 2025, Colossal demonstrated multiplex editing capabilities by modifying seven genes in mice to recapitulate woolly mammoth hair phenotypes, resulting in the "Colossal Woolly Mouse" with thicker, golden-brown, elongated fur and enhanced fat storage traits associated with cold adaptation.^[24] This proxy model validated 28 mammoth-derived genetic edits in a living organism, marking one of the largest simultaneous gene modifications in mammals to date and serving as a proof-of-concept for trait engineering in larger species.^[41] While skeptics noted limitations in scalability to megafauna, the achievement highlighted efficiencies in high-throughput editing pipelines.^[50] For the dire wolf project, Colossal reported in April 2025 the birth of pups from gray wolves edited with dire wolf genomic sequences, creating what they described as the most extensively modified canid genome through CRISPR-mediated replacements of key morphological and behavioral loci.^[51] This involved reconstructing a complete dire wolf genome from ancient DNA and integrating edits for traits like robust skull structure and pack-hunting adaptations, though critics argued it produced engineered proxies rather than true lineage revival, emphasizing hype over phylogenetic fidelity.^[52] The effort underscored breakthroughs in synthetic embryology and ancient DNA synthesis but faced scrutiny for lacking peer-reviewed validation of long-term viability.^[9]^[53]

De-Extinction Projects

Woolly Mammoth Initiative

Colossal Biosciences launched its Woolly Mammoth Initiative as the company's flagship de-extinction effort upon its founding in January 2021, aiming to engineer Asian elephants with key woolly mammoth traits to create a cold-adapted proxy species capable of thriving in Arctic environments.^[3] The project targets approximately 50-60 genetic edits to incorporate mammoth-specific adaptations, including dense insulating fur, a layer of subcutaneous fat for thermoregulation, smaller ears to minimize heat loss, and hemoglobin modifications for enhanced oxygen efficiency in low-oxygen, cold conditions.^[3] ^[54] This approach relies on the close phylogenetic relationship between the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)—sharing 99.6% DNA with the woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius)—rather than full cloning, which is infeasible due to degraded ancient DNA.^[47] Colossal has sequenced genomes from nearly 60 recovered mammoth specimens to identify and prioritize these edits.^[54] The core methodology combines CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing with advanced reproductive technologies, starting with the derivation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from elephant fibroblasts to enable scalable editing and surrogate gestation.^[45] In March 2024, the team achieved a breakthrough by generating viable elephant iPSCs, the first such cells from an endangered proboscidean species, which reprogrammed adult cells into an embryonic-like state for editing and differentiation into gametes or embryos.^[55] ^[56] Subsequent steps involve multiplexed CRISPR edits to insert mammoth alleles, followed by in vitro gametogenesis to produce edited embryos for implantation into elephant surrogates or, potentially, artificial wombs under development.^[45] Artificial intelligence models, trained on mammoth and elephant genomic data, accelerate variant prediction and editing prioritization.^[46] Colossal projects the first hybrid calves could be born by 2028, with initial releases into Pleistocene Park in Siberia for ecological testing.^[57] Milestones include the 2024 iPSC success and, in March 2025, the creation of "woolly mice" via gene edits introducing mammoth traits such as cold tolerance, woolly coats, golden-brown fur, and altered fat metabolism, validating the editing pipeline in a mammalian model.^[58] ^[57] These rodents, engineered from mouse embryos with up to 15 mammoth-derived sequences, demonstrated enhanced hypothermia resistance in lab tests.^[54] The initiative posits ecological restoration benefits, positing that reintroduced herds could compact snow cover to insulate permafrost, reducing methane release and countering tundra degradation—a hypothesis drawn from observational data on modern elephant herd dynamics in analogous grasslands.^[59] However, the project's outcomes remain contingent on overcoming reproductive barriers in elephants, which have gestation periods of up to 22 months and low IVF success rates.^[42]

Thylacine Revival Effort

Colossal Biosciences launched its thylacine de-extinction initiative in August 2022, partnering with the University of Melbourne's TIGRR Laboratory to apply advanced genetic engineering toward resurrecting the species.^[60] The thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus), a carnivorous marsupial native to Tasmania and mainland Australia, was driven to extinction in 1936 primarily due to habitat destruction, competition from introduced predators, and bounties on livestock predators.^[20] The project aims to produce viable thylacines within approximately 10 years from announcement, targeting reintroduction to Tasmania to restore ecological roles such as controlling invasive prey populations like rabbits and enhancing biodiversity.^[60] ^[20] The core methodology involves reconstructing the thylacine genome and editing the DNA of its closest living relative, the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata), a small dasyurid marsupial.^[20] Using CRISPR-Cas9 and complementary editing tools like integrases and deaminases, researchers insert thylacine-specific gene variants—particularly those governing craniofacial traits such as jaw structure and pouch configuration—into dunnart cells to approximate the extinct species' morphology and physiology.^[61] Reproduction relies on assisted technologies including in vitro fertilization (IVF), somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), and surrogate gestation in dunnarts, with efforts to develop artificial uteri for extended embryo culture.^[20] This proxy-species approach addresses the absence of viable thylacine germ cells by leveraging dasyurid compatibility for gestation, though it requires iterative editing to mitigate genetic incompatibilities.^[60] Significant progress was reported in October 2024, including the assembly of the most complete ancient thylacine genome to date: a chromosome-level reconstruction spanning roughly 3 billion base pairs, achieving over 99.9% accuracy with only 45 gaps remaining.^[61] This genome drew from preserved specimens, notably extracting long RNA molecules (up to 2,000 bases) from a 110-year-old pickled thylacine head—the first such recovery from an extinct mammal.^[61] In parallel, Colossal engineered over 300 unique genetic modifications in fat-tailed dunnart cell lines, targeting thylacine-associated regulatory elements (TWARs) for trait restoration, marking the highest number of edits in any animal cell line.^[61] Reproductive advancements included pioneering ovulation induction protocols in dunnarts to yield embryos and culturing fertilized embryos beyond halfway through gestation in an ex vivo artificial uterus system, a milestone for marsupial biotechnology.^[61] The effort integrates conservation applications, such as editing related species like the northern quoll for resistance to invasive cane toads, demonstrating transferable technologies for endangered Australian marsupials.^[60] Partnerships extend to organizations like Re:wild and local Tasmanian stakeholders, with the formation of a Tasmania Thylacine Advisory Committee in 2023 to guide ethical rewilding and habitat preparation.^[20] Challenges persist in scaling edits to produce phenotypically stable proxies, validating long-term viability, and addressing ecological risks like hybridization or insufficient genetic diversity, though proponents argue the resulting animals would function ecologically as thylacines despite hybrid origins.^[20]

Dodo Bird Project

Colossal Biosciences launched its Dodo Bird Project as part of its de-extinction efforts, targeting the revival of Raphus cucullatus, a large, flightless pigeon endemic to Mauritius that went extinct in the late 17th century following human arrival and introduction of invasive species, with the last confirmed sighting recorded in 1662.^[62]^[63] The project seeks to engineer a functional equivalent of the dodo through genetic editing of its closest living relative, the Nicobar pigeon (Caloenas nicobarica), an endangered species from Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean, combined with interspecies surrogacy to produce viable offspring.^[62]^[64] The scientific approach involves sequencing the dodo genome to 50-fold coverage using ancient DNA extracted from a skull held at the Natural History Museum of Denmark, followed by comparative analysis with genomes from the Nicobar pigeon and the extinct Rodrigues solitaire, the dodo's nearest relative.^[62] Colossal employs multiplex CRISPR-based genome editing to insert dodo-specific traits—such as flightlessness, large body size, and specialized beak structure—into Nicobar pigeon cells, alongside techniques in tissue culture and primordial germ cell (PGC) manipulation for germline transmission.^[62] Chickens serve as surrogate hosts due to their established use in avian biotechnology, with edited pigeon PGCs injected into engineered chicken embryos lacking endogenous germ cells to ensure offspring inherit the modified genome.^[65]^[66] A major milestone occurred on September 17, 2025, when Colossal announced the world's first long-term culture of pigeon PGCs, enabling sustained propagation and editing of these reproductive precursor cells, alongside the creation of gene-edited chicken surrogates incapable of producing their own gametes.^[65]^[67] This breakthrough establishes a viable pipeline for generating dodo-proxy eggs, positioning the project 5 to 7 years from producing living proxy animals, though full ecological equivalence remains contingent on iterative editing and testing.^[65] To support this, Colossal maintains a captive colony of Nicobar pigeons in Texas for cell sourcing and has formed the Mauritius Dodo Advisory Committee to guide genetic and rewilding protocols.^[68] Partnerships include the Mauritius Wildlife Foundation for habitat restoration—focusing on native forest recovery and pink pigeon (Nesoenas mayeri) conservation—and collaboration with the Mauritian government for potential reintroduction to restored island ecosystems.^[62] Academic ties encompass the University of Copenhagen's Centre for GeoGenetics (led by Tom Gilbert) and John Fjeldså for genomic expertise, plus the University of California, Santa Cruz Paleogenomics Lab for ancient DNA work.^[62] In September 2025, the project secured $120 million in funding from investors including Peter Jackson to accelerate avian de-extinction research and expand infrastructure for dodo revival.^[69]

Dire Wolf Experiment

In April 2025, Colossal Biosciences announced the birth of three pups engineered to exhibit dire wolf (Aenocyon dirus) traits, claiming it as the world's first successful de-extinction.^[70]^[71] The project, initiated in summer 2023, targeted the dire wolf—a Pleistocene carnivore extinct for approximately 10,000–13,000 years—due to its closer relation to modern canids compared to more distant species like the woolly mammoth, facilitating surrogate reproduction in dogs or wolves.^[71]^[51] The methodology involved extracting and sequencing ancient DNA from dire wolf fossils, including a 13,000-year-old tooth and a 72,000-year-old skull, to identify phenotypic differences from gray wolves (Canis lupus), such as larger body size, robust skull morphology, and specialized dentition for bone-crushing.^[45] Colossal scientists then performed 20 precise CRISPR-based edits on gray wolf embryonic cells or blood-derived lines to incorporate these dire wolf variants, achieving a record for multiplex editing in vertebrates; the edited embryos were implanted into domestic dog surrogates, resulting in the viable births.^[72]^[51] This approach diverged from full cloning, prioritizing trait resurrection over genomic fidelity, as complete dire wolf nuclear DNA reconstruction remains infeasible due to degradation in ancient samples.^[73] Critics, including independent geneticists, contend the pups represent engineered proxies rather than true de-extinction, lacking the full dire wolf genome and behavioral epigenetics shaped by natural selection; genetic divergence data indicate dire wolves split from gray wolf lineages over 5 million years ago, rendering the edits superficial approximations of morphology rather than species revival.^[74]^[75] Colossal maintains the project advances conservation genetics by preserving extinct adaptations applicable to endangered canids, though ecological reintroduction feasibility remains untested, with no plans disclosed for wild release as of October 2025.^[76]^[77]

Other Targeted Species

In July 2025, Colossal Biosciences announced its de-extinction project targeting the moa, a group of nine species of giant, flightless birds native to New Zealand that went extinct approximately 600 years ago following human arrival and associated hunting and habitat alteration.^[78]^[79] The primary focus is on the South Island giant moa (Dinornis robustus), which stood up to 10 feet (3 meters) tall and weighed over 500 pounds, representing one of the largest avian species ever known.^[79]^[80] This initiative marks the company's fifth major de-extinction effort, building on prior work with the woolly mammoth, thylacine, dodo, and dire wolf.^[81]^[80] The moa project involves reconstructing complete genomes for all nine moa species using ancient DNA recovered from subfossil remains, which are abundant in New Zealand due to the birds' relatively recent extinction.^[78]^[82] Colossal plans to employ CRISPR-based gene editing to insert moa-specific traits into the genome of the closest living relative, the tinamou (a South American flightless bird), creating hybrid proxies capable of filling ecological niches once occupied by moa, such as seed dispersal and vegetation control in forests.^[78]^[79] The effort is structured as a Māori-led initiative in partnership with the Ngāi Tahu Research Centre and the University of Canterbury, incorporating Indigenous knowledge to address cultural significance and potential reintroduction sites, with goals of restoring "ecological balance" in New Zealand's biodiversity-depleted ecosystems.^[82]^[79] As of October 2025, the project remains in early stages, emphasizing genomic sequencing and ethical consultations rather than viable embryos or births, unlike the dire wolf pups reported earlier in the year.^[78]^[83] Colossal has committed significant funding, supported by investors including filmmaker Peter Jackson, who maintains a private collection of moa bones aiding DNA sourcing.^[79] Proponents argue the revival could enhance conservation by leveraging moa genetics to bolster resilience in extant New Zealand avifauna against threats like invasive predators, though critics question the feasibility of recreating true behavioral and ecological fidelity from fragmented ancient DNA.^[82]^[81] No other species beyond the moa have been publicly confirmed as active de-extinction targets by Colossal as of late 2025.^[84]^[2]

Controversies and Criticisms

Disputes on De-Extinction Validity

Scientists have contested the validity of Colossal Biosciences' de-extinction efforts, arguing that the company's projects do not achieve true revival of extinct species but instead produce genetically engineered approximations using living relatives as bases. For instance, in April 2025, Colossal announced the "de-extinction" of the dire wolf (Aenocyon dirus), extinct for over 10,000 years, by editing gray wolf (Canis lupus) genomes to incorporate dire wolf traits via CRISPR technology.^[85] However, experts such as paleogeneticist Love Dalén stated that the resulting animals, named Romulus and Remus, are not dire wolves but modified gray wolves, lacking the full genomic, epigenetic, and developmental fidelity required for authentic resurrection.^[86] This skepticism extends to Colossal's broader methodology, which relies on filling gaps in fragmented ancient DNA with sequences from surrogate species, inevitably creating hybrids rather than identical recreations.^[87] Fundamental biological barriers underpin these disputes, including the degradation of ancient DNA, which prevents complete genome recovery—dire wolf DNA, for example, is too fragmented for precise reconstruction without extensive insertions from modern wolves.^[9] Epigenetic factors, microbiomes, and environmental influences absent in lab-reared proxies further undermine claims of ecological equivalence, as revived organisms would not possess the behavioral adaptations or gut flora shaped by their original habitats.^[88] Beth Shapiro, a paleogeneticist, has emphasized that even with advanced editing, such efforts yield "extinction-resistant" variants of extant species, not the originals, rendering the term "de-extinction" scientifically imprecise.^[87] Colossal maintains that these engineered animals fulfill functional roles akin to extinct counterparts, but critics like Julie Meachen, a vertebrate paleontologist, counter that this conflates morphological similarity with species identity, potentially misleading public understanding of evolutionary biology.^[89] Proponents of skepticism, including a consensus among de-extinction researchers, assert that true de-extinction remains impossible due to irreversible losses in genetic diversity and historical context, with Colossal's achievements better classified as directed evolution or conservation transgenics.^[87] In a January 2025 analysis, experts noted that while gene-editing tools advance proxy creation, they cannot overcome the "forever" nature of extinction, as no method recreates the full suite of traits lost over millennia.^[90] This view is reinforced by the company's reliance on surrogate pregnancies and iterative breeding, which introduce confounding variables like maternal imprinting, diverging outcomes from prehistoric norms.^[85] Despite Colossal's assertions of breakthroughs, such as 2025's dire wolf pups exhibiting enhanced size and bite force, independent verification has highlighted inconsistencies with fossil records, fueling debates over hype versus substance in biotechnology claims.^[91]

Ethical and Practical Objections

Critics argue that de-extinction efforts, including those by Colossal Biosciences, raise significant ethical concerns regarding animal welfare, as the genetic engineering and cloning processes involved can lead to high rates of miscarriage, stillbirth, early death, genetic abnormalities, and chronic disease in surrogate animals and offspring.^[92] For instance, the creation of engineered proxies like the dire wolf-like canids announced by Colossal in April 2025 has prompted questions about whether such animals are likely to experience suffering due to incomplete genetic fidelity or maladaptive traits in modern environments.^[93] Bioethicists emphasize that even if technical achievements are realized, the intrinsic welfare risks of producing hybrid organisms with uncertain health outcomes undermine the moral justification for proceeding without exhaustive prior safeguards.^[94] Another ethical objection centers on the diversion of substantial resources from the conservation of extant endangered species, which face immediate threats from habitat loss and poaching; Colossal has raised over $225 million since 2021 for de-extinction projects, funds that detractors contend would more effectively support habitat protection and anti-poaching initiatives for living biodiversity.^[95] ^[96] This perspective holds that prioritizing charismatic extinct megafauna like the woolly mammoth perpetuates a form of species bias, neglecting less appealing but critically endangered taxa, and risks fostering public complacency toward ongoing extinctions under the illusion that species can be revived post-extinction.^[97] On practical grounds, de-extinction faces formidable barriers due to DNA degradation in ancient samples, rendering full genomic reconstruction impossible; for the woolly mammoth, preserved specimens yield fragmented sequences that necessitate heavy reliance on Asian elephant genomes, resulting in hybrids rather than authentic revivals.^[87] Colossal's dire wolf project, for example, produced canids via genome editing of gray wolf cells but has been critiqued as an "illusion of de-extinction," achieving morphological resemblance through synthetic embryology without restoring the extinct lineage's behavioral or ecological authenticity.^[52] Reintroduction poses further risks, as revived proxies may disrupt contemporary ecosystems adapted to post-extinction conditions, potentially introducing invasive traits or failing to thrive without historical co-evolved flora and fauna, as seen in simulations of mammoth steppe restoration.^[98] Skeptics also highlight overhype in Colossal's claims, which may erode trust in biotechnology by conflating genetic mimicry with true resurrection, diverting attention from verifiable conservation successes and complicating regulatory oversight for welfare and ecological impacts.^[99] Practical gestation challenges persist, particularly for large mammals like mammoths requiring elephant surrogates, where embryonic viability remains unproven at scale despite CRISPR advancements.^[100] These hurdles, combined with uncertain long-term viability, suggest that de-extinction's touted benefits for biodiversity restoration lack empirical substantiation, potentially yielding more ethical quandaries than ecological gains.^[88]

Responses to Skepticism and Alleged Retaliation

Colossal Biosciences has addressed skepticism regarding the authenticity of its de-extinction achievements, particularly the April 2025 announcement of dire wolf pups, by asserting that the company's approach prioritizes functional ecological proxies over precise genetic replicas of extinct species. In response to claims that the pups—genetically modified from gray wolf embryos—are not true dire wolves (Canis dirus), the company contended that critics employ an unduly rigid taxonomic framework, emphasizing instead the restoration of ecological roles and biodiversity benefits through advanced gene editing.^[101] CEO Ben Lamm further dismissed purist objections by analogizing the project to fictional depictions like those in Jurassic Park, arguing that public recognition of the wolves' dire wolf traits aligns with broader scientific and inspirational objectives rather than pedantic classification debates.^[102] On ethical criticisms, such as accusations of "playing God," Lamm countered that human interventions in biology occur routinely—citing cholesterol medications as comparable genetic modifications—and positioned de-extinction as a tool for advancing conservation technologies, human health applications, and STEM inspiration, while rejecting fears of hubris as inconsistent with everyday biotechnological progress.^[102] Lamm expressed personal conviction in the mission despite mounting criticism, noting a shift in some supporters' attitudes following high-profile announcements.^[102] Allegations of retaliation against critics emerged in mid-2025, with researchers including paleontologist Victoria Herridge (University of Sheffield), evolutionary biologist Vincent Lynch (University at Buffalo), paleogeneticist Nic Rawlence (University of Otago), and zooarchaeologist Flint Dibble (Cardiff University) reporting targeted harassment. These incidents involved anonymous online smear articles—some AI-generated—questioning the critics' credentials, professional integrity, and motives; frivolous copyright infringement claims against videos and social media posts; and, in Lynch's case, a legal threat letter from Colossal's attorneys.^[11]^[103] Colossal Biosciences denied orchestrating the smears, with Lamm stating that neither the company nor its investors commissioned negative stories about detractors, and attributing potential actions to overzealous "fans" or unrelated parties as suggested by chief scientists George Church and Beth Shapiro.^[11]^[103] The firm affirmed its commitment to free speech while pursuing standard legal protections against perceived intellectual property violations.^[11]

Claimed Conservation Impacts

Potential Ecological and Genetic Benefits

Proponents of Colossal Biosciences' de-extinction efforts argue that reintroducing proxy species, such as cold-adapted elephant-mammoth hybrids, could restore ecological functions lost with megafauna extinctions, particularly in Arctic tundra ecosystems. These hybrids are engineered to exhibit mammoth-like traits, including thick fur, fat layers, and behaviors such as snow trampling, which would compact winter snow cover and enhance permafrost insulation, thereby reducing thaw rates and associated methane emissions—a greenhouse gas contributing to climate feedback loops.^[3]^[104] This restoration could promote grassland expansion over shrub-dominated landscapes, increasing carbon sequestration and biodiversity in boreal regions, as modeled in Pleistocene rewilding simulations.^[105] For other projects, such as the thylacine and dodo, claimed benefits include reinstating apex predator or seed-dispersal roles to stabilize food webs and forest dynamics in Tasmania and Mauritius, respectively, potentially mitigating invasive species overgrowth and habitat degradation.^[2] Colossal posits that these interventions would enhance overall ecosystem resilience against climate stressors, drawing on principles of trophic rewilding where large herbivores and carnivores regulate vegetation and prey populations more effectively than smaller extant species.^[106] Genetically, the process involves editing Asian elephant genomes with mammoth-derived alleles for traits like cold tolerance, enhanced immune responses, and extended longevity, which could augment the genetic diversity and adaptive capacity of endangered elephant populations facing habitat loss and disease.^[45]^[55] Similar editing pipelines for thylacine proxies using fat-tailed dunnart surrogates aim to introduce resilient traits that benefit marsupial conservation genetics, potentially reducing inbreeding depression in related species through backcrossed hybrids.^[2] These advancements are expected to yield broader tools for genetic rescue in threatened taxa, enabling precise allele insertions to counter low diversity without relying solely on captive breeding.^[107]

Critiques of Conservation Efficacy

Critics argue that Colossal Biosciences' de-extinction efforts yield limited conservation efficacy, primarily by diverting substantial resources from proven strategies for protecting extant species. With the company's valuation surpassing $10 billion as of 2025, funds could alternatively support habitat restoration and monitoring for thousands of endangered animals, such as allocating resources comparable to India's annual $4 million program sustaining 27,000 elephants.^[108] Ecological restoration claims lack robust empirical support, as proxy species engineered from living relatives often fail to replicate extinct animals' roles in transformed environments. Colossal's dire wolf project, involving 14 to 20 gene edits in gray wolves, produces hybrids that do not match the original species' genetics, morphology, or behavior, rendering them ineffective for biodiversity recovery. Similarly, mammoth-like elephants may not counteract permafrost thaw or regenerate grasslands, given inconsistent evidence from megafauna studies and the Arctic's altered conditions since the Pleistocene.^[9]^[88]^[108] Such initiatives risk creating a moral hazard, implying technological fixes can substitute for preventing extinctions driven by habitat loss and climate disruption, thus undermining urgency for ecosystem preservation. Evolutionary biologists and ecologists, including Vincent Lynch, contend this overhype misleads policymakers and the public, potentially justifying weakened protections for endangered species in favor of unverified genetic engineering over habitat-based interventions. De-extinct proxies also face high re-extinction likelihood if original threats persist, as demonstrated by failed reintroductions in analogous conservation cases.^[95]^[9]^[88] In contrast, traditional methods—such as anti-poaching for Kemp's ridley sea turtles and manatee recovery—have achieved measurable population rebounds without genetic proxies, highlighting de-extinction's opportunity costs in underfunded conservation landscapes. Quantitative analyses remain scarce, but the absence of scaled successes underscores skepticism toward claims of broad ecological benefits from small proxy populations prone to inbreeding and behavioral deficits.^[109]

Broader Implications

Advancements in Biotechnology

Colossal Biosciences has pioneered the derivation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) placental tissue, marking the first successful reprogramming of elephant cells into a pluripotent state on March 6, 2024. This two-step process utilized chemical-media optimization to overcome the inhibitory effects of the elephant's hyperactive TP53 tumor suppressor pathway, which provides robust anticancer defenses but traditionally impedes iPSC generation in large mammals. The resulting emiPSCs demonstrated pluripotency by differentiating into all three embryonic germ layers and forming teratomas in immunodeficient mice, providing an unlimited source of editable cells for de-extinction efforts.^[43]^[44]^[110] In parallel, the company has refined CRISPR-Cas9-based genome editing to incorporate extinct species' traits into living relatives, targeting up to 85 genes for woolly mammoth characteristics such as cold-adapted hemoglobin, thick fur, and fat layers. A proof-of-concept emerged in March 2025 with the creation of gene-edited "woolly mice," which expressed mammoth-inspired mutations for enhanced insulation and thermoregulation, validating multiplex editing scalability in mammals. These techniques build on computational biology for ancient DNA reconstruction and embryology for artificial reproduction, as applied in dire wolf and thylacine projects, where record multiplex edits exceeded prior benchmarks.^[3]^[111]^[51] Such innovations extend to broader applications, including enhanced ancient genome assembly from degraded samples and stem cell reprogramming protocols adaptable to other endangered species like the dunnart, yielding the first iPSCs from that marsupial in 2024. These tools facilitate precise genetic interventions for conservation, such as boosting disease resistance or habitat adaptability, though their efficacy in wild populations remains empirically unproven pending field trials.^[112]^[40]

Future Prospects and Challenges

Colossal Biosciences projects achieving the birth of woolly mammoth-like hybrid calves by late 2028, leveraging CRISPR-Cas9 editing to insert mammoth genes into Asian elephant cells for cold-resistant traits such as thick fur and fat layers.^[113] The company anticipates milestones including the first fully ex utero mammalian birth from an engineered embryo within two years from early 2025, advancing artificial womb technology essential for scaling de-extinction without relying on scarce surrogates.^[113] Expansion to other species, including the dire wolf and thylacine, could yield engineered proxies by the early 2030s, potentially generating spin-off biotechnologies like enhanced disease resistance in livestock.^[90] Recent funding of $200 million in January 2025 supports these efforts, positioning Colossal to commercialize de-extinction platforms for biodiversity restoration.^[90] Technical challenges persist in reconstructing complete extinct genomes, as ancient DNA degrades rapidly post-mortem, yielding fragmented sequences that require extensive inference and Asian elephant scaffolding, which may introduce unintended hybrid vigor or vulnerabilities.^[87] Gestation hurdles loom large, given the 22-month elephant pregnancy cycle and risks of immune rejection in surrogates or artificial systems, compounded by epigenetic gaps that could prevent viable, behaviorally authentic offspring capable of tundra survival.^[87] Regulatory obstacles include uncertain approval pathways for releasing gene-edited megafauna, with potential bans in jurisdictions prioritizing native species protection over novel introductions.^[114] Ecological integration poses further risks, as reintroduced proxies might disrupt modern food webs or fail to deliver claimed carbon-sequestering benefits without herd-scale populations and migratory behaviors hardcoded beyond genetics.^[87] Critics argue de-extinction diverts resources from conserving extant endangered species, creating a moral hazard that excuses habitat loss by promising technological fixes, though Colossal counters that platform technologies like multiplex editing yield dual-use tools for immediate conservation.^[114] Sustained funding beyond venture capital remains uncertain, hinging on demonstrable milestones amid skepticism from paleontologists who view "de-extinction" as semantic overreach for creating novel organisms rather than faithful revivals.^[87]

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Colossal Biosciences is leveraging genetic engineering to de-extinct critical species, enhancing conservation efforts by combatting biodiversity loss and ...
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Editorial: Mammoth de-extinction is bad conservation - Ars Technica
Apr 5, 2025 · The start-up Colossal Biosciences aims to use gene-editing technology to bring back the woolly mammoth and other extinct species.
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OPINION | Resurrection of extinct animals is not effective ...
Apr 30, 2025 · OPINION | Resurrection of extinct animals is not effective conservation ... de-extinction can “serve as a bedrock for modern species conservation.
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Company aiming to 'de-extinct' mammoths creates elephant stem ...
Mar 8, 2024 · A biotech company has succeeded in converting skin cells from Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) into stem cells capable of growing into the layered cells that ...
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De-extinction scientists say these gene-edited 'woolly mice' are a ...
Mar 4, 2025 · Representatives of Colossal have said that they plan to create a woolly mammoth by 2027 or 2028. At the moment, the team is considering 85 genes ...
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Colossal Achieves Multiple Scientific Firsts in Progress Towards ...
Nov 6, 2024 · Wholly Mammoth iPSCs Colossal Biosciences. Revolutionary Elephant iPSC Milestone Reached in Colossal's Woolly Mammoth Project. Colossal ...<|separator|>
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2025 Will See Us Closer to a Woolly Mammoth Comeback
Jan 13, 2025 · "Within the next two years, we will see our first mammal born fully ex utero, grown completely from an embryo to a living, breathing functional ...
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The new dire wolves explain everything wrong with “de-extinction”
Apr 10, 2025 · De-extinction critics have pointed out that the technology creates a moral hazard: It could simply be used as an excuse to allow vulnerable ...