Romulus and Remus
Romulus and Remus are legendary twin brothers in Roman mythology, credited with founding the city of Rome on April 21, 753 BCE.[1] According to the traditional account preserved in ancient Roman historiography, they were the sons of the god Mars and the vestal virgin Rhea Silvia, daughter of Numitor, the deposed king of Alba Longa.[2] Exposed at birth by order of the usurping king Amulius, the infants were abandoned in the Tiber River, washed ashore, and suckled by a she-wolf in a cave known as the Lupercal before being rescued and raised by the shepherd Faustulus and his wife Acca Larentia.[1][2] As adults, Romulus and Remus led a revolt that restored Numitor to the throne of Alba Longa, then sought to establish a new city on the Palatine Hill.[3] A dispute arose over leadership and site selection, culminating in Remus mocking Romulus's wall by leaping over it; Romulus then killed his brother, proceeded to found the city named after himself, and became its first king, populating it with outlaws and fugitives.[2] The legend, first systematically recorded by authors like Livy and Plutarch centuries after the purported events, served to legitimize Roman origins through divine parentage and heroic fratricide, embedding themes of destiny, violence, and state formation central to Roman identity.[3] Archaeological evidence reveals no confirmation of the twins' historical existence, with Rome emerging gradually from clustered Iron Age settlements on the Palatine and nearby hills by the late 8th or early 7th century BCE, predating or aligning loosely with the mythic date but lacking artifacts or inscriptions directly tied to Romulus or Remus.[4][3] Scholarly consensus views the narrative as etiological myth, possibly amalgamating older Italic traditions with influences from Greek founding stories, designed to explain Rome's martial ethos and institutions like the Senate and festivals such as Lupercalia.[5] Excavations, including the 2007 discovery of the Lupercal cave beneath the Palatine, provide context for the legend's sacred geography but underscore its symbolic rather than literal role in Roman cultural memory.[3]Mythological Narrative
Birth and Divine Parentage
In the foundational Roman myth, Romulus and Remus were twin brothers born to Rhea Silvia, the daughter of Numitor, the rightful king of Alba Longa, and the war god Mars. Numitor had been deposed and imprisoned by his brother Amulius, who usurped the throne and, to eliminate potential rivals, compelled Rhea Silvia to become a Vestal Virgin, sworn to chastity. Despite her vows, Rhea Silvia conceived the twins, attributing their divine parentage to Mars to avert execution for violating her sacred duties. This account, emphasizing the gods' intervention in Rome's origins, is preserved in Livy's Ab Urbe Condita, where the historian notes the uncertainty of whether Rhea truly believed in Mars's involvement or fabricated the claim for self-preservation.[6] Plutarch, in his Life of Romulus, recounts a similar tradition but highlights variations among ancient authorities. While the predominant narrative affirms Mars as the father, granting the twins semi-divine status, some sources rejected this, proposing instead that Rhea was violated by an unknown human or even Amulius himself to discredit the divine element and attribute the birth to mortal intrigue. Plutarch cites earlier historians like Fabius Pictor, who favored the human violation theory, underscoring how Roman elites sometimes rationalized mythic origins to align with verifiable lineage from Trojan Aeneas through Alba Longa. These discrepancies reflect efforts to historicize the legend, yet the divine parentage motif reinforced Rome's destined greatness under martial auspices.[7] The myth's insistence on Mars as progenitor linked the twins directly to divine favor, symbolizing Rome's martial ethos from inception. No empirical evidence supports the birth details, as the narrative stems from oral traditions codified centuries after the purported events around the 8th century BCE, but it served to legitimize Roman kingship and imperial ideology.[8]Exposure and Rescue by the She-Wolf
According to the Roman foundation myth as recorded by Livy in Ab Urbe Condita (1.4), King Amulius of Alba Longa, fearing the twin sons of his niece Rhea Silvia and the god Mars as potential rivals to his throne, ordered their exposure to ensure their death. The infants were placed in a trough or basket by the king's servants and abandoned on the banks of the Tiber River, but a sudden flood carried the vessel downstream until it lodged in the roots of a wild fig tree at the foot of the Palatine Hill, near the Lupercal cave.[9][10] There, the exposed twins were discovered and suckled by a she-wolf, known in Latin as Lupa, who provided them nourishment from her teats while they lay in the cave, protecting them from exposure to the elements and predators. Plutarch, in his Life of Romulus (3-4), corroborates this element, describing how the infants were nourished by the she-wolf's milk after their exposure, emphasizing the miraculous intervention of wild beasts in preserving the founders of Rome. This motif underscores the theme of divine favor in the legend, with the she-wolf symbolizing feral resilience and maternal instinct aligned with Rome's martial patron, Mars.[11][7] Ancient accounts vary slightly in details, such as the precise location of the stranding—often tied to the Lupercal, a site associated with fertility rites and wolf imagery—but consistently feature the she-wolf's rescue as a pivotal act of survival. Some rationalizing interpretations among ancient authors, including hints in Plutarch and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, suggest Lupa may refer to a human prostitute using the slang term for wolf, implying the infants were suckled by a woman of ill repute rather than a literal animal; however, the predominant mythological tradition favors the beastly rescuer, reinforced by early Roman iconography depicting the nursing wolf.[10][12]Upbringing Among Shepherds
According to Livy, the twins were discovered by Faustulus, a herdsman in the employ of King Numitor, who found them at the site of their exposure near the Palatine Hill and carried them to his own hut.[13] Faustulus entrusted the infants to his wife Acca Larentia, who had recently lost her own children and thus nourished Romulus and Remus as substitutes.[13] Plutarch similarly recounts that Faustulus, a swineherd, brought the boys to Laurentia (an alternate name for Acca Larentia), portraying her as a woman of good character who raised them after finding them in the wolf's den.[11] The brothers grew up among the shepherds of the Palatine, tending flocks and engaging in the hardy pursuits of rural life, which honed their physical vigor and martial skills.[7] Livy describes how Romulus and Remus, as youths, demonstrated exceptional strength and leadership, organizing their peers into bands that protected livestock from bandits and wild animals while hunting and rustling for sustenance.[13] They distributed spoils from these exploits equitably among their followers, fostering loyalty and establishing themselves as natural chieftains amid the pastoral communities.[13] Dionysius of Halicarnassus notes that the twins, by their eighteenth year, had become involved in disputes over pastures with Numitor's herdsmen, showcasing their combative prowess in skirmishes that foreshadowed their later roles.[14] Though raised in obscurity, their innate nobility manifested in feats of bravery, such as repelling thieves who preyed on the shepherds' holdings, which Livy attributes to their divine heritage subtly influencing their development.[13] Faustulus, suspecting their royal origins due to the circumstances of their discovery, preserved artifacts like the cradle as evidence but concealed their true parentage until the appropriate moment.[11] This shepherding existence thus equipped them with the rugged discipline and camaraderie essential for their eventual ascent.Recognition of Royal Heritage
As young adults, Romulus and Remus had established themselves as formidable leaders among the local shepherds, often resolving disputes with physical prowess and gaining followers. A conflict erupted between Numitor's herdsmen and those loyal to Amulius over rustled cattle, escalating into violence near Alba Longa. During the fray, Remus was overpowered and delivered to Numitor, the deposed king, for judgment, as Amulius had ordered harsh punishment for such offenders. Numitor, observing Remus's exceptional strength and demeanor, refrained from immediate execution and instead engaged him in conversation about his upbringing. Remus disclosed that he and his brother were exposed as infants, nurtured by a she-wolf, and later raised by the shepherd Faustulus after being discovered in a basket along the Tiber.[7] Concurrently, Faustulus, fearing exposure, confessed the twins' true origins to Romulus and presented the preserved basket containing identifying tokens from their birth, such as the insignia Rhea Silvia had included. Romulus, armed with this knowledge, mobilized his shepherd allies and launched a surprise attack on Alba Longa. They stormed the palace, killed Amulius in the ensuing battle, and secured the city before Amulius's forces could rally. Numitor was promptly restored to the throne amid public acclaim, and upon reuniting with the twins, he confirmed their identity as his grandsons by cross-verifying their account with Rhea Silvia's testimony and the basket's contents, which bore marks consistent with royal lineage.[6][7] This recognition solidified the twins' royal heritage, linking them directly to the descendants of Aeneas through Numitor's line. Ancient accounts vary slightly in details—such as the precise mechanism of identification, with some emphasizing physical resemblance or divine signs—but converge on the causal sequence of the shepherds' quarrel prompting revelation, the overthrow of the usurper, and formal acknowledgment of their descent from Mars and Rhea Silvia. Numitor, grateful, urged the brothers to establish their own settlement rather than vie for Alba's throne, setting the stage for their departure.[14][7]Founding of the City
After Numitor's restoration to the throne of Alba Longa, Romulus and Remus, having grown to manhood among the shepherds on the Palatine Hill, resolved to establish a new city in the region where they had been raised and rescued, near the banks of the Tiber River.[6] [7] This location, encompassing the hills of Palatine, Aventine, and Capitoline, offered strategic advantages including natural defenses and proximity to trade routes, though the twins disagreed on the precise site and leadership.[14] To determine divine favor, the brothers consulted auguries by observing flights of birds, a Etruscan practice adopted in the rite. Remus, positioned on the Aventine Hill, reportedly sighted six vultures first, while Romulus, on the Palatine, claimed to see twelve shortly thereafter, interpreting this as a sign of greater authority.[6] [7] Plutarch notes variations in the augural method, with some accounts emphasizing the number of birds as conferring kingship, leading Romulus to proceed independently despite Remus's prior sighting.[7] Romulus began the foundational rites on the Palatine Hill by plowing a furrow with a bronze plow drawn by a bull and a cow, turning the earth inward to mark the pomerium, the sacred boundary of the city, in accordance with Etruscan ritual.[6] [7] This act symbolized the enclosure of habitable land, excluding marshes and excluding the unsuited terrain. Remus, arriving in mockery, vaulted over the nascent wall or furrow, prompting either Romulus himself or his companion Celer to strike him down with a spade, declaring that such would be the fate of future transgressors.[6] [14] The city, named Roma after Romulus, was traditionally dated to April 21, 753 BCE, based on calculations by the antiquarian Marcus Terentius Varro, aligning with the later Roman festival of Parilia commemorating pastoral origins.[6] [7] Romulus then populated the settlement by granting asylum to fugitives, debtors, and exiles on the Capitoline, drawing inhabitants from surrounding Latin and Sabine communities to form a diverse body politic.[14] Dionysius of Halicarnassus describes this as a deliberate policy to bolster numbers, establishing the core of Roman citizenship amid initial huts and rudimentary fortifications.[14]Dispute and Death of Remus
After restoring Numitor to the throne of Alba Longa, Romulus and Remus resolved to establish a new city on the Tiber River, but they disputed its precise location, with Romulus favoring the Palatine Hill and Remus the Aventine.[7] To settle the matter, the brothers consulted auguries from bird flight; Remus reportedly saw six vultures first, while Romulus observed twelve, granting him precedence in most accounts, though some traditions allege Romulus fabricated the higher number.[15][7] Despite Remus's objections, Romulus proceeded to demarcate the city's boundaries by plowing a sacred furrow (sulcus primigenius) around the Palatine and constructing initial fortifications, including a rudimentary wall or ditch.[8] Remus, resentful of his brother's claim, mocked the incomplete defenses as inadequate and leaped over them in derision, declaring that enemies would enter so easily; this act precipitated his death.[15][7] Ancient sources differ on the killer: Livy reports that Remus was slain by Celer, one of Romulus's followers, who struck him with a spade while exclaiming, "Thus perish any who may leap over these walls," though Romulus mourned the loss; Plutarch similarly attributes the blow to Celer or possibly Romulus himself in a fit of anger.[15][7] Dionysius of Halicarnassus aligns with these variants, emphasizing the fratricide as a foundational act of violence underscoring Rome's martial origins.[14] The incident, dated by Livy to April 21, 753 BCE—the traditional founding date of Rome—symbolized the primacy of boundaries and the cost of sovereignty in Roman lore, with Romulus burying Remus and proceeding alone as the city's first king.[8] Later interpretations, such as those in Ovid's Fasti, frame the killing as a grim necessity, but primary historians like Livy and Plutarch present it without overt moralizing, reflecting an unvarnished view of power consolidation in archaic societies.[6][7]Romulus's Reign and Institutions
As the first king of Rome, Romulus selected one hundred of the most eminent citizens to serve as his councilors, designating them patricians and their assembly the senate, or council of elders, to advise on governance and distinguish the nobility from the common populace.[11] This body initially comprised heads of the leading families, forming the basis of Rome's aristocratic class.[7] To rapidly increase the city's population, Romulus established an asylum on the Capitoline Hill, a sanctuary for fugitives and exiles whom he refused to extradite, in accordance with a Delphic oracle, which soon swelled Rome's numbers to rival larger settlements.[7] Romulus organized the populace into thirty curiae, or brotherhoods, grouped under three tribes—the Ramnenses under his leadership, the Titienses, and the Luceres—each tribe containing ten curiae, to facilitate political assemblies, religious rites, and military levies.[11] These curiae served as the primary voting units in early Roman decision-making and ceremonial processions, with each providing troops for the infantry.[7] For defense, he formed a personal guard known as the Celeres, consisting of three hundred horsemen, and structured the army into legions, initially mustering three thousand foot soldiers and three hundred cavalry, emphasizing discipline and expansion through conquest.[11] Facing a shortage of women for marriage, Romulus dispatched envoys to neighboring peoples seeking alliances and intermarriage rights, but these were rebuffed due to the asylum's influx of undesirables; in response, Roman men abducted approximately thirty maidens from the Sabines during a festival, sparking war with the Sabine king Titus Tatius.[7] The conflict ended when the Sabine women, now mothers, intervened between the combatants, pleading for peace; Romulus and Tatius then formed a joint kingship, merging their peoples, renaming Romans as Quirites in honor of the Sabines' Cures, and expanding the senate by adding one hundred Sabine members, doubling it to two hundred.[11] The legions grew accordingly to six thousand infantry and six hundred cavalry.[7] Tatius ruled jointly for five years until his death, after which Romulus resumed sole authority.[11] During his reign, Romulus waged successful campaigns against nearby tribes such as the Ceninenses, Antemnates, and Crustumerini, securing territory, distributing lands to settlers, and dedicating the first temple to Jupiter Feretrius on the Capitoline after personally slaying an enemy king, establishing the tradition of spolia opima offerings for supreme military honors.[7] These victories reinforced Rome's martial institutions, with the king consulting the senate and auguries before battles, laying foundational precedents for religious and political consultation in warfare.[11]