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User error

User error refers to mistakes made by individuals interacting with computer systems, software, or other technological interfaces, resulting in unintended outcomes or failure to achieve desired goals.^[1] These errors often stem from slips in execution, such as pressing the wrong key due to distraction, or mistakes in planning, where the user's mental model of the system is inaccurate, leading to flawed intentions.^[2] In human-computer interaction (HCI), user errors are distinguished from system faults and are frequently attributed to inadequate interface design rather than inherent user incompetence.^[3] The concept of user error has been central to HCI since the field's emergence in the 1980s, emphasizing that human operators represent a primary source of failures in complex systems.^[3] Common examples include misconfiguring settings in applications, entering incorrect data in forms, or overlooking security protocols, which can lead to productivity losses, data corruption, or vulnerabilities in information security.^[4] Lapses, another category of error involving memory or attention failures, further highlight how cognitive limitations interact with technological demands.^[2] To mitigate user errors, designers employ principles like providing clear feedback, using consistent conventions, and conducting usability testing to align interfaces with users' expectations and behaviors.^[1] This user-centered approach shifts focus from blaming individuals to improving system reliability, recognizing that most errors are predictable and preventable through better engineering.^[5] In practice, analyzing user errors offers valuable insights for refining products, as seen in fields from software development to cybersecurity.^[4]

Definition and Overview

Definition

User error refers to an error in the operation or use of a system, device, or software that is attributable to the actions or decisions of the human user, rather than to inherent defects in the hardware, software, or design of the technology itself.^[6] This concept is prevalent in fields such as computing, engineering, and human-machine interaction, where it describes deviations from expected system behavior stemming directly from user input or choices.^[7] Key characteristics of user error include both intentional and unintentional actions by the user that result in unintended or undesired outcomes, such as incorrect data entry, misinterpretation of instructions, or improper sequencing of operations.^[8] These errors highlight the role of human agency in system interactions, often occurring in complex environments where users must navigate interfaces or procedures without full prior familiarity. Unlike systemic issues, user errors are transient and context-specific, tied to individual behavior rather than reproducible flaws in the technology.^[6] User error is distinctly contrasted with hardware failures, which involve physical defects or malfunctions in system components, and software bugs, which are programming errors embedded in the code that cause consistent deviations from intended functionality.^[9] This emphasis on user agency differentiates it from technology-inherent problems, focusing instead on the human element in error causation.^[10] Early documented uses of the concept appear in 1970s computing literature, often under terms like "operator error," as seen in NASA technical reports on IBM System/360 operations, where "operator-error rerun" described job resubmissions due to user mistakes in job control language or resource allocation.^[11] Further references in late 1970s studies quantified operator errors as contributing to 50-70% of failures in electronic systems, underscoring their prevalence in early mainframe environments.^[9] Informally, user errors have inspired humorous acronyms like PEBKAC (Problem Exists Between Keyboard and Chair) among IT professionals.^[12]

Historical Development

The concept of user error emerged in the mid-20th century alongside the rise of mainframe computing, where human operators were often held responsible for system failures in punch-card-based data processing. During the 1950s, technologies like the IBM 701 and UNIVAC relied heavily on punched cards for input.^[13]^[14] This era marked the initial recognition of user error as a distinct category in computing, rooted in the limitations of early human-machine interfaces that demanded precise manual intervention without intuitive feedback mechanisms.^[15] The 1970s brought a pivotal shift through advancements in human-computer interaction (HCI), exemplified by Xerox PARC's development of the Alto computer in 1973, which introduced graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and the mouse to make systems more accessible and less prone to operator mistakes. These innovations stemmed from studies emphasizing cognitive ergonomics, moving beyond blame toward designing interfaces that aligned with human information processing capabilities, as influenced by early models from psychologists like Broadbent (1958). By the 1980s, the popularization of personal computing further highlighted user error in everyday contexts, with IT support communities adopting slang terms like "PEBKAC" (problem exists between keyboard and chair) to describe perceived user-induced issues, reflecting a growing but still user-centric view in technical discourse.^[16]^[17]^[18] The field's roots in ergonomics and human factors engineering, formalized post-World War II, provided a critical lens, with seminal works like Fitts and Jones (1947) analyzing design-induced errors in complex systems such as aircraft cockpits, principles later applied to computing. A landmark critique came in 1988 with Donald A. Norman's The Design of Everyday Things, which argued that apparent user errors often result from poor design lacking affordances and feedback, famously stating, "The fault... lies not in ourselves, but in [the] product design that ignores the needs of users."^[15]^[19]^[20] In the post-2000 era, the evolution toward mobile and AI-driven interfaces has significantly reduced attributions of user error by incorporating predictive, adaptive designs that anticipate and mitigate human slip-ups, such as autocorrect in touchscreens and voice assistants that parse natural language inputs. Despite these advances, user error remains a persistent concept in troubleshooting, as multimodal AI interfaces continue to reveal gaps between human expectations and system behaviors, though with far less frequency than in earlier decades.^[21]^[22]

Causes

Technical Factors

Technical factors contributing to user error primarily stem from deficiencies in system design and implementation that hinder effective human-technology interaction. Poor user interface (UI) layout, such as cluttered or non-intuitive arrangements, can lead to misinputs by overwhelming users or obscuring key actions.^[23] Ambiguous icons or symbols further exacerbate this by failing to convey intended functions clearly, prompting incorrect selections.^[24] Additionally, inadequate feedback mechanisms—such as delayed or absent confirmations of user actions—leave individuals uncertain about whether inputs were registered, increasing the likelihood of repeated or erroneous attempts.^[23] A review of health information technology studies found that poor user interfaces and fragmented displays were associated with errors in 76% of cases, highlighting the pervasive role of design flaws in error induction.^[25] Hardware limitations also play a significant role in precipitating user errors through ergonomic mismatches and compatibility issues. Small keyboards on mobile devices, for instance, restrict finger placement and increase typing inaccuracies due to limited key size and spacing, with studies showing higher error rates on touchscreen keyboards under 4 cm in width compared to larger physical ones.^[26]^[27] Incompatible peripherals, such as mismatched input devices or adapters, can cause unintended activations or failures in recognition, leading to accidental actions like erroneous data entry.^[28] Ergonomic problems, including awkwardly positioned or non-adjustable hardware, contribute to physical strain that indirectly amplifies input errors over prolonged use.^[29] Environmental influences within workspaces compound these technical vulnerabilities by altering interaction reliability. Distractions in shared or open-plan environments, such as ambient noise from colleagues, interrupt task focus and double error rates even in brief 3-second interruptions.^[30] Low-visibility conditions, like screen glare from overhead lighting or poor ambient illumination, reduce UI readability and prompt misreads or overlooked elements, thereby elevating operational mistakes.^[31] The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) emphasizes that such environmental-technical interactions often underlie critical use errors in software interfaces, particularly where visibility and distraction gaps impair safe operation.^[32]

Human Factors

Human factors contributing to user error arise from the interplay of cognitive processes, behavioral patterns, and physiological conditions, as studied in psychology and ergonomics. These elements explain why individuals deviate from intended actions during system interactions, often independently of external design flaws. Research in human-computer interaction (HCI) highlights how internal user states can amplify the likelihood of mistakes, emphasizing the need to understand human limitations to contextualize error occurrence. Cognitive biases significantly influence user behavior, leading to systematic deviations in judgment and perception. For instance, confirmation bias prompts users to selectively attend to information aligning with their preconceptions.^[33] Similarly, fatigue induces lapses in attention and reduced cognitive flexibility, impairing sustained focus and increasing the propensity for attentional errors during prolonged interactions.^[34] These biases and states distort information processing, resulting in unintended actions that persist even in familiar environments. Skill and experience gaps further exacerbate user errors, particularly among novices who lack the contextual knowledge to interpret system commands accurately. Without adequate familiarity, beginners often misapply instructions, leading to operational failures that stem from incomplete mental models of the interface.^[35] This gap highlights the role of prior exposure in building effective interaction strategies, where inexperience creates barriers to intuitive use. Physiological factors, such as age-related declines, also play a critical role in error proneness by affecting sensory and motor capabilities. Declines in visual acuity and contrast sensitivity can hinder precise input, while reduced dexterity impairs fine motor control, both contributing to inaccuracies in target selection and manipulation.^[36] These changes underscore how biological aging alters interaction reliability, particularly in tasks demanding high precision. Theoretical frameworks from ergonomics provide quantitative insights into these human factors. Fitts' Law, a foundational model, posits that the time required for aimed movements is a function of target distance and size, where larger distances or smaller targets prolong execution and elevate error probability in interface operations. This law illustrates how human motor limitations interact with design constraints to predict error rates, informing the analysis of physiological and skill-related influences on performance.

Types and Examples

Input and Operation Errors

Input and operation errors occur when users directly interact with devices or software, leading to unintended actions due to imprecise physical or cognitive inputs during routine tasks. These errors are prevalent in everyday computing, where human motor skills and attention intersect with digital interfaces, often resulting in minor disruptions that accumulate over time. For instance, typing and data entry mistakes, such as typos or incorrect keystrokes, arise from the inherent limitations of manual input, with average error rates in manual data entry hovering around 1% across various contexts.^[37] A common manifestation of these input errors is the "fat-finger" phenomenon on touchscreens, where users inadvertently tap adjacent keys or buttons due to finger size relative to small interface elements, frequently leading to issues like entering incorrect passwords or selecting wrong options. This type of error is exacerbated in mobile environments, where screen space constraints amplify the risk of mis-touches, contributing to frequent password reset requests that account for 20-50% of all IT help desk tickets.^[38] Such incidents highlight how physical interaction flaws can cascade into operational hurdles, often requiring user intervention or support to resolve. Navigation errors represent another key category, involving accidental selections of incorrect links, menu items, or icons within applications, which can derail workflows or trigger unwanted processes. These mishaps stem from cluttered interfaces or hasty interactions, diverting users from intended paths and sometimes necessitating backtracking or recovery steps. In real-world scenarios, unintentional file deletion in file explorers exemplifies this, with 56% of workers admitting to accidentally deleting cloud-based data at some point, underscoring the prevalence of such operational slips in data management tasks.^[39] Similarly, misdialing in VoIP systems—often due to erroneous number entry or interface misnavigation—can lead to failed communications, illustrating how input errors extend beyond typing to broader interaction dynamics. Overall, these errors, while typically recoverable, emphasize the need for intuitive designs to mitigate their frequency in user-system engagements.

Configuration and Setup Errors

Configuration and setup errors occur when users incorrectly configure systems, software, or devices during initial installation or maintenance, leading to operational failures. These errors often arise from overlooking compatibility requirements, such as mismatched software versions or unaddressed dependencies, which can cause immediate crashes or long-term instability. For instance, in distributed systems like Apache Hadoop, upgrades fail when new versions introduce incompatible data formats, such as required fields in serialization protocols that old nodes cannot parse, resulting in crashes during rolling upgrades.^[40] Similarly, multiple versions of dynamically linked libraries (DLLs) in Windows environments contribute to application crashes by passing invalid arguments or conflicting with peripherals, with ntdll.dll alone implicated in 86 crashes across analyzed applications.^[41] Parameter misconfigurations represent a significant subset of setup errors, particularly in networking and security contexts, where incorrect settings disrupt connectivity or expose vulnerabilities. In networks, IP address conflicts frequently stem from DHCP server misconfigurations, such as overlapping scopes or rogue servers assigning duplicate addresses, which disable affected interfaces and halt communication between devices.^[42] For security protocols, common issues include default credentials and permissive service permissions in systems like Active Directory Certificate Services (ADCS), where web enrollment is left enabled, allowing attackers to issue fraudulent certificates and compromise networks.^[43] Weak multi-factor authentication (MFA) setups, such as retaining static password hashes on smart cards, further enable pass-the-hash attacks without requiring credential changes.^[44] Device setup issues often involve faulty pairings or incompatible installations that prevent proper integration. In Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystems, Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) pairing failures commonly result from outdated firmware or platform-specific differences, causing unstable connections or complete inability to pair devices like sensors with gateways.^[45] Driver installations exacerbate this, as incompatible versions—particularly for peripherals like graphics cards or printers—trigger errors during operating system upgrades, such as Windows 11's Memory Integrity feature failing due to unsigned or outdated drivers flagged in Device Manager.^[46] Historical and modern case studies illustrate the scale of configuration errors. The Y2K bug exemplified date format setup flaws in legacy systems, where two-digit year representations (e.g., "00" interpreted as 1900) risked miscalculations in financial and operational software, prompting global remediation efforts estimated at over $50 billion to expand to four-digit formats.^[47] In contemporary cloud environments, misconfigurations like exposed Amazon S3 buckets have led to data breaches; for example, a healthcare provider's bucket leaked over 60,000 patient records due to absent password protections, underscoring persistent risks from inadequate access controls.^[48] Similarly, Toyota's 2023 breach exposed data on 2.15 million users for a decade because of unchecked cloud settings lacking proper identity and access management (IAM) policies.^[49]

Terminology and Acronyms

English-Language Acronyms

In information technology support, professionals often employ humorous acronyms to euphemistically describe instances of user error, where the issue stems from the user's actions rather than technical faults.^[18] One prominent example is PEBKAC, standing for "Problem Exists Between Keyboard And Chair," which originated in 1980s tech support environments as a lighthearted way to attribute problems to operator mistakes.^[12] A close variant, PEBCAK ("Problem Exists Between Chair And Keyboard"), emerged similarly in the same era, emphasizing the physical distance between the user and the device as the metaphorical source of the error. These terms extend to related acronyms like PICNIC ("Problem In Chair Not In Computer"), a variant that reinforces the idea of the user as the root cause without directly assigning blame.^[12] Another widely recognized term is the ID-10-T error (often written as ID10T), a phonetic play on "idiot" pronounced as "eye-dee-ten-tee," used from the 1990s onward in military and IT contexts to mask references to user-induced mistakes.^[50] In military settings, it appears as ID10T in the Navy (pronounced "eye dee ten tango") or 1D10T in the Army ("one delta ten tango"), serving as coded language during troubleshooting to maintain professionalism.^[51] This acronym allows support staff to document or discuss errors discreetly, avoiding overt criticism of the individual involved.^[52] These acronyms function as internal jargon within helpdesks and technical teams, enabling communication about user errors without escalating tensions or violating customer service protocols.^[18] They appear in examples from early online tech forums, including Usenet posts where support anecdotes highlighted operator oversights in computing setups.^[53] Over time, such terms have spread culturally through professional literature, notably popularized in Thomas A. Limoncelli, Christina J. Hogan, and Strata R. Chalup's The Practice of System and Network Administration (2001), which documents sysadmin practices and informal lingo to foster better team dynamics.

Variations in Other Languages and Cultures

In non-English speaking countries, user error terminology often adapts English IT slang while incorporating local linguistic nuances. In German, the term DAU, standing for "dümmster anzunehmender User" (dumbest assumed user), is commonly used in technical contexts to refer to errors stemming from the least competent user imaginable, paralleling assumptions in engineering about worst-case scenarios.^[54] Similarly, in French IT environments, ICC denotes "Interface Chaise-Clavier" (chair-keyboard interface), a euphemistic way to attribute issues to the human operator without direct confrontation.^[55] Subcultural adaptations extend these concepts within global communities. In gaming circles, "noob error" describes mistakes by inexperienced players, derived from "noob" as a pejorative for novices, emphasizing skill gaps rather than malice.^[56] Among open-source developers, RTFM ("Read The Fine Manual") signals user negligence in overlooking documentation, a term that underscores expectations of self-reliance in collaborative coding environments.^[57] Since the 2010s, globalization through internet memes and online forums has disseminated these terms across borders, blending English origins with local flavors and accelerating their adoption in multicultural tech spaces.

Impacts

Effects on Individuals

User errors in computing and digital interactions frequently trigger immediate emotional responses such as frustration and anger, with research indicating that end-users experience frustrating interactions for 30.5% to 45.9% of their total computer usage time.^[58] These incidents often arise from unexpected system behaviors or task interruptions, leading to feelings of helplessness or self-directed irritation, as documented in workplace studies where 71.1% of frustration events were rated as highly intense on a 1-9 scale in early 2000s research; more recent UX studies suggest frustration affects around 25% of interactions.^[59]^[60] In severe cases, repeated errors contribute to embarrassment, particularly in social or professional settings, and can erode an individual's confidence in their technical abilities, fostering a broader sense of inadequacy.^[61] On a practical level, user errors like accidental deletions or incorrect inputs result in data loss, compelling individuals to invest significant time in recovery processes that may not fully restore lost files or information.^[62] Such mishaps waste a substantial portion of active computer time, with common examples including hours spent troubleshooting application crashes or misplaced features.^[59] Financial repercussions include costs for professional data recovery services, which typically range from $500 to $2,000 for logical errors on personal hard drives as of 2024, or expenses for device repairs following operational mistakes, such as hardware mishandling.^[63]^[64] Over time, persistent user errors exacerbate emotional strain, potentially leading to "computer anxiety" or technophobia, where individuals develop avoidance behaviors toward technology to evade further distress.^[65] This is particularly evident in long-term patterns, such as reduced engagement with digital tools due to accumulated negative experiences, resulting in over-reliance on external support from family or professionals.^[66] Demographics play a key role, with higher incidences among elderly users and those with low digital literacy; for instance, as of 2023, 41% of adults aged 50 and older report feeling overwhelmed by the pace of technology updates, contributing to elevated stress levels from error-related challenges.^[67] Studies highlight that these groups experience amplified emotional and practical burdens, widening digital literacy gaps and perpetuating cycles of disengagement.^[68]

Effects on Organizations and Systems

User errors, particularly misconfigurations during routine maintenance, frequently result in operational disruptions such as server outages and system downtime across organizations. For instance, in October 2021, a configuration change to a backbone router by a Facebook employee inadvertently severed the company's internal communication tools, leading to a six-hour global outage that affected billions of users and halted internal operations. Similarly, human errors like accidental deletions or improper configuration updates have been identified as a leading cause of major software outages, with IT technicians sometimes deleting critical databases or applying faulty changes that cascade into widespread service failures.^[69]^[70] These disruptions impose substantial financial costs on organizations, including elevated helpdesk expenses and lost productivity. Forrester Research estimates the average cost of a single password reset—a common user error—at $70 per incident, though recent estimates suggest $100 or more accounting for inflation.^[71] which can accumulate significantly in large enterprises handling thousands of such requests annually. Additionally, tech disruptions stemming from user-induced issues contribute to nearly $4 million in annual lost productivity per organization, as employees face frequent interruptions equivalent to 3.6 tech issues and 2.7 security updates per month. Human errors contribute significantly to global business losses, with cybersecurity incidents alone projected to cost $10.5 trillion annually by 2025.^[72]^[73] User errors heighten security risks by enabling breaches, especially through phishing interactions that compromise organizational networks. Human error, including interactions with phishing, contributes to a significant portion of data breaches, with social engineering involved in about 22% according to the 2024 Verizon DBIR.^[74] In the 2020s, such incidents have fueled ransomware outbreaks; for example, the 2020 Magellan Health ransomware attack exposed over 365,000 patient records after employees likely interacted with phishing payloads, resulting in operational shutdowns and regulatory scrutiny. Another case involved the 2023 MGM Resorts breach, initiated by a social engineering call to the service desk mimicking a user error scenario, which led to widespread system disruptions and an estimated $100 million in losses.^[75]^[76] Beyond immediate incidents, persistent user errors impose systemic strain on IT resources in large enterprises, amplifying scalability challenges. Frequent support requests for error resolution overload helpdesks, diverting personnel from strategic tasks and contributing to bottlenecks in resource allocation. In distributed environments, this increased load from misconfigurations and operational mistakes can exacerbate infrastructure scalability issues, as IT teams struggle to maintain performance amid rising ticket volumes that grow faster than organizational expansion. For example, 2019 data from NetDiligence shows staff mistakes averaging around $75,000 per incident in recovery costs for small and medium businesses, a burden that scales disproportionately in enterprises due to complex systems; more recent estimates are higher.^[77] In 2024, user errors in AI tools, such as incorrect prompts, have led to increased productivity losses in enterprises.^[78]

Prevention Strategies

User Training and Education

User training and education play a crucial role in mitigating user errors by equipping individuals with the necessary skills and awareness to interact effectively with systems. Common methods include workshops, which provide hands-on guidance for tasks like software navigation, tutorials that offer step-by-step instructions to prevent input mistakes, and simulations that allow practice in safe environments to simulate real-world operations without consequences. These approaches target human factors such as cognitive load and familiarity, fostering better decision-making during interactions.^[79] Awareness programs further support error prevention through targeted campaigns that highlight error-prone situations, such as overlooking confirmation prompts or misconfiguring settings, often integrated into corporate onboarding modules to instill best practices from the outset. For instance, onboarding sessions emphasize recognizing common pitfalls in system use, promoting a culture of vigilance and proactive error checking. These programs are particularly effective when combined with interactive elements like quizzes or role-playing to reinforce learning. Studies in human-computer interaction demonstrate the effectiveness of such training, with error management training (EMT)—which encourages learners to make and learn from errors—showing a positive mean effect on performance (d = 0.44 overall), and larger effects on post-training transfer tasks (d = 0.56) and distinct tasks (d = 0.80), indicating substantial reductions in error rates when applying skills to novel scenarios. These gains are attributed to enhanced metacognitive strategies and emotion control during error encounters.^[79]^[80] Tailored training approaches customize content for specific user groups to maximize relevance and accessibility. For older adults, programs often use simplified tutorials with larger fonts, slower pacing, and verbal guidance to address challenges like reduced visual acuity or slower processing speeds, leading to improved task completion rates and fewer navigation errors. Research shows that such customized interventions can increase confidence and reduce self-reported errors in technology adoption among seniors. These methods ensure that training aligns with diverse cognitive and physical needs, promoting long-term error avoidance.^[81]^[82]

System Design and Usability Improvements

UI/UX enhancements focus on creating intuitive interfaces that anticipate and mitigate user mistakes through features like confirmation dialogs and auto-corrections. Confirmation dialogs, for example, prompt users to verify potentially destructive actions, such as file deletions, thereby preventing unintended errors before they occur.^[83] Intuitive designs reduce cognitive load by employing natural mappings and visible affordances, making system behaviors predictable and aligning with user expectations to minimize slips.^[83] These enhancements draw from established principles, such as Ben Shneiderman's golden rules, which advocate for error prevention by constraining invalid inputs—such as limiting numeric fields to digits only—and providing targeted recovery guidance if issues arise.^[84] Error-proofing techniques integrate fail-safes directly into software to block or detect errors at their source, inspired by poka-yoke methodologies adapted for digital environments. Validation checks, for instance, automatically verify input formats—like email addresses—before processing, halting erroneous submissions and promoting data integrity without user intervention.^[85] Undo functions serve as a key fail-safe, enabling users to reverse actions easily, which encourages experimentation and limits the consequences of inadvertent choices, such as accidental edits in document editors.^[84] These techniques shift the burden from users to the system, ensuring errors are either impossible or immediately reversible.^[85] Adherence to international standards and guidelines further standardizes these improvements for broad applicability. The ISO 9241-110 standard outlines seven dialogue principles for human-system interaction, including error tolerance—which designs systems to recover from mistakes with minimal disruption—and controllability, allowing users to initiate and manage actions safely to avoid unintended outcomes.^[86] Similarly, Jakob Nielsen's ten usability heuristics emphasize error prevention as a core tenet, recommending the elimination of high-risk conditions through defaults, constraints, and feedback to avert both slips and more deliberate mistakes.^[83] Compliance with these frameworks, derived from empirical usability studies, ensures interfaces are ergonomic and resilient to common human limitations.^[83] Recent innovations in AI-driven predictive interfaces represent advanced system-level interventions to curb user errors proactively. Adaptive keyboards with word prediction, for example, suggest completions based on context, reducing uncorrected typing errors by about 25% in on-screen keyboard use among blind users by facilitating quicker and more accurate selections.^[87] These AI enhancements, powered by natural language processing, extend to auto-correction in mobile apps, where predictive algorithms analyze patterns to preempt misinputs, achieving keystroke reductions of up to 73% in free-text entry scenarios and thereby lowering overall error rates.^[88] Such technologies exemplify how machine learning can personalize interfaces, adapting in real-time to user behavior for sustained error minimization.^[88]

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