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Conical hill

A conical hill is a landform characterized by its distinct cone-shaped profile, with steep slopes rising symmetrically to a pointed or rounded summit, distinguishing it from broader or rounded hills. These features are typically isolated or rise prominently above surrounding terrain, creating a visually striking element in landscapes.^[1] Conical hills form through various geological processes, most notably volcanic activity, where pyroclastic materials like cinders and ash accumulate around a vent to build steep-sided structures known as cinder cones.^[2]^[1]^[3] In karst regions, particularly in tropical humid environments, dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone produces rounded or conical hills called pepino hills or elements of kegelkarst, where steep-sided cones emerge amid depressions.^[4] Glacial processes can also create conical hills, such as kames, which are mounds of sediment deposited by melting ice in conical forms.^[5] These landforms hold significant geological and ecological value, often serving as indicators of past volcanic, erosional, or depositional events, and they support unique biodiversity on their slopes while attracting interest for hiking and scientific study in areas like national parks.^[3]^[4]

Definition and Terminology

Definition

A conical hill is a landform characterized by a distinctly conical shape, with a circular or near-circular base that tapers smoothly to a pointed or rounded summit, creating a cone-like topographic profile. These features exhibit continuous, gently curving sides without significant plateaus, cliffs, or irregular breaks in slope, setting them apart from more angular or rounded elevations.^[6] Unlike hills integrated into extensive mountain ranges or ridge systems, conical hills are often isolated or semi-isolated, rising prominently above surrounding terrain such as plains or foothills, particularly in karst or erosional contexts, though volcanic examples frequently occur in clusters or near larger volcanoes. This isolation emphasizes their standalone geometric form, often resulting from selective erosion or depositional processes that preserve the cone structure. Slopes on conical hills generally range up to 30 degrees, allowing for a stable yet pronounced elevation that enhances their visual symmetry.^[6]^[7] Conical hills are classified as hills rather than mountains, generally with elevations below 600 meters above sea level, though regional definitions may vary based on local relief and cultural conventions. This distinction prioritizes relative height and form over absolute elevation, ensuring conical hills represent modest, self-contained rises in the landscape. The term derives from the German "Kegelberg," translating to "cone mountain," reflecting early European geomorphological observations of such shapes. Volcanic activity commonly produces conical hills, as seen in cinder cones formed by accumulated ejecta around a vent.^[8]

Historical Development of the Term

The term "conical hill" traces its origins to the German "Kegelberg," which emerged in the late 18th century through literary and observational descriptions of landscape features. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe prominently employed the term during his 1786–1787 Italian journey, applying it to the volcanic cone of Mount Vesuvius in his detailed accounts of geological formations, marking an early fusion of aesthetic and scientific observation in natural history writing.^[9] In the early 19th century, the concept gained systematic traction in geological discourse, particularly through Abraham Gottlob Werner's mappings in the Kingdom of Saxony, where he described numerous volcanic and subvolcanic hills as "Kegel" or "Kegelberg" within his neptunist framework of earth history. This formalization culminated in Carl Friedrich Naumann's 1850 publication Lehrbuch der Geognosie, which provided a structured definition of "Kegelberg" as a distinct geomorphological form, later revised and expanded by Bernhard Cotta to refine its classification amid evolving understandings of rock strata and landforms. Naumann's text, a cornerstone of German geognosy, emphasized the term's applicability to cone-shaped elevations arising from various origins, solidifying its place in academic geology. Over the 19th century, "Kegelberg" transitioned from a descriptive phrase in literature and travelogues to a precise term in scientific classification, profoundly shaping European cartographic practices by standardizing depictions of isolated, cone-like hills in regional surveys across Saxony, the Harz Mountains, and beyond. This evolution reflected broader shifts in geology from speculative theories to empirical mapping, with the term influencing topographic nomenclature in German-speaking academic circles.^[10] By the mid-19th century, the concept entered English and international geological literature as "conical hill," adapted in works like Charles Darwin's 1839 Journal of Researches, where he described steep, cone-shaped elevations during his voyages, and later in glossaries of karst and volcanic forms. Variations such as "cone hill" appeared in non-German contexts, particularly in British and American surveys, facilitating its global adoption while retaining the geometric essence of the original German designation.^[11]^[4]

Physical Characteristics

Morphological Features

Conical hills exhibit a characteristic cone-like profile, with smooth to gently convex sides rising from a broad base to a summit that is often sharp but may be rounded due to subaerial weathering. These profiles typically display consistent curvature, as evidenced by high regression coefficients (r² > 0.67) in morphometric analyses of karst forms, indicating more uniform shapes compared to associated depressions like dolines.^[6] Slope gradients on conical hills generally range from 15° to 40°, determined by the angle of repose of constituent materials; volcanic cinder cones, for example, commonly feature slopes of 25° to 32° due to the loose nature of scoria and ash, while karstic examples can reach 45° to 60° on resistant limestone faces.^[7]^[12] The base is predominantly circular, with planform areas varying from tens of square meters in small karst residuals to hundreds of thousands of square meters in larger volcanic forms, and diameters typically between 100 m and 1 km for median-sized examples; heights range from a few meters to about 400 m, with aspect ratios (height to base diameter) often around 0.1 to 0.3 in well-preserved cones, reflecting steeper initial profiles that flatten with scale.^[6]^[13]^[14] Variations from the ideal symmetric cone include asymmetry, where one flank develops steeper slopes (e.g., north-facing angles up to 25° versus 17°–22° on south-facing sides in older cinder cones) due to differential erosion influenced by aspect and climate. In durable lithologies like limestone, profiles can transition to tower-like configurations with abrupt, near-vertical upper sections and broader pediment bases; circularity indices, a measure of base shape fidelity, are high (0.7–0.97) in smaller hills but decrease (0.3–0.6) in larger ones, highlighting scale-dependent deviations. Vegetation mantling on lower slopes can visually soften contours, enhancing the convex appearance without altering underlying geometry.^[15]^[6]

Measurement and Classification

Field surveys using clinometers, often integrated into geological compasses, have traditionally been employed to measure slope angles of conical hills by sighting along the incline to determine the vertical angle relative to the horizontal.^[16] Topographic maps facilitate calculations of base diameter and height by identifying contour lines that delineate elevation changes, allowing height to be computed as the difference between summit and base elevations, while for idealized conical shapes, height approximates base radius multiplied by the tangent of the measured slope angle.^[17] These manual techniques, prevalent before widespread adoption of digital tools around 2005, were limited by resolution and labor intensity, often relying on aerial photographs for broader context.^[6] Modern approaches leverage LiDAR-derived digital terrain models (DTMs) with resolutions up to 1 meter and geographic information systems (GIS) for three-dimensional morphometry, enabling automated extraction of parameters like planform area, height, and volume through power-law relationships between area and vertical extent (with exponents near 0.5).^[18] Shape indexing, such as circularity defined as \text{Circ} = \frac{4 \pi A}{P^2} where A is the planform area and P is the perimeter, quantifies deviation from ideal conical forms, with values exceeding 0.7 indicating high circularity typical of first-rank residual hills.^[18] These technologies address previous gaps in manual methods by supporting precise volume estimation via integrated DTM analysis, particularly in complex terrains like karst landscapes.^[18] Conical hills are classified primarily by origin, including volcanic types like cinder cones formed by pyroclastic accumulation and karstic residual hills resulting from differential dissolution.^[14]^[18] Additional criteria encompass steepness, with volcanic cinder cones exhibiting slopes of 25° to 32° due to the angle of repose of loose ejecta, contrasted against gentler erosional forms under 15° in some residual contexts.^[7]^[6] Isolation further differentiates solitary prominences rising above surrounding terrain from clustered arrays, as seen in nested hierarchies of karst fengcong landscapes.^[18] Recent studies since 2021 have advanced automated detection using LiDAR in temperate karst regions, such as Slovenia's Javorniki and Hrušica plateaus, where algorithms rank hills (R1 to R6) based on enclosing form hierarchies and compute metrics like pitting index to reveal uniform shapes and densities comparable to tropical counterparts.^[18] These remote sensing enhancements outperform pre-2005 manual surveys by enabling large-scale inventories and improving accuracy in identifying subtle morphological variations.^[18]

Natural Formation Processes

Volcanic Cones

Volcanic cones, the most prevalent form of conical hills produced by natural processes, develop through the accumulation of pyroclastic materials such as ash and cinders, along with lava flows, around a central volcanic vent. This buildup occurs during eruptions where magma is expelled and solidifies upon ejection, forming a mound that grows symmetrically due to the radial distribution of ejecta from the vent, resulting in a typically circular base. Cinder cones, a primary subtype, arise from moderately explosive eruptions of gas-rich, basaltic to andesitic magma, where fragments of lava solidify in the air and pile up with minimal lateral flow.^[14]^[19]^[20] Stratovolcanoes, another key type, form from alternating layers of viscous lava flows and pyroclastic deposits during repeated explosive and effusive eruptions, creating a more composite structure. The shape of these cones is heavily influenced by magma viscosity: steeper sides, often at angles of 25° to 35°, result from thicker, more resistant andesitic or rhyolitic lavas that do not spread far, as seen in cinder cones and stratovolcanoes.^[20]^[21]^[22] Formation of volcanic cones is typically rapid, spanning from months to a few centuries, with many cinder cones completing their growth in less than a year—50% in under one month and 95% within one year—before activity ceases at the vent. Post-formation, erosion from wind, water, and weathering gradually modifies the cone's profile, reducing slope steepness over time. Cinder cones represent the most common volcano type worldwide, comprising the majority of monogenetic volcanic features due to their simple eruptive mechanics.^[23]^[24]^[7] Recent studies since 2005 highlight how climate-volcanism interactions, particularly accelerated glacial melting from global warming, can compromise cone stability by increasing pore pressure in edifices and promoting sector collapses or landslides, especially on glaciated stratovolcanoes. For instance, enhanced humidity and reduced ice loads have been linked to heightened flank instability during inter-eruptive periods, as observed in models of tropical and mid-latitude volcanoes. These effects underscore the vulnerability of volcanic cones to anthropogenic climate change, potentially altering their long-term morphological evolution.^[25]^[26]^[27]

Karstic Cones

Karstic cones, also known as pepino hills or mogotes, form through the selective dissolution of soluble carbonate rocks, primarily limestone, by acidic rainwater in tropical and subtropical environments. Rainwater, enriched with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and soil, forms carbonic acid that preferentially dissolves the limestone along joints, fractures, and bedding planes, leaving behind more resistant residual masses that evolve into isolated, conical hills. This process is particularly prevalent in humid tropical karst terrains where dense vegetation and organic activity enhance soil acidity, accelerating the chemical erosion over thousands to millions of years.^[28] The resulting landforms are characterized by steep-sided, towering cones that can reach heights of up to 100 meters, often clustered in fields or ridges due to uniform erosion of overlying caprock and differential lowering of the surrounding terrain. These cones typically exhibit rounded or pointed summits and are surrounded by depressions or plains formed by the collapse and solution of the dissolved bedrock, creating a pitted landscape known as cockpit or cone karst. Morphometric studies using LiDAR data have quantified their spatial distribution, revealing densities ranging from 10 to 50 cones per square kilometer in representative karst areas.^[28]^[6] Formation of karstic cones requires specific environmental conditions, including annual rainfall exceeding 1,000 mm—often 1,300 to 2,500 mm in tropical settings—and thick sequences of carbonate bedrock like limestone or dolomite. The slow dissolution process, occurring at rates of millimeters to centimeters per millennium, is influenced by factors such as trade winds that may impart asymmetry to the cones and high humidity that sustains continuous percolation. This type of karst is dominant in regions like Southeast Asia, where extensive tower and cone karst landscapes cover millions of hectares, and the Caribbean, particularly northern Puerto Rico's mogote fields.^[28]^[29]^[30] Beyond their geomorphic significance, karstic cones serve as biodiversity hotspots due to their isolation and microhabitats, supporting high levels of endemism among flora and fauna adapted to the thin soils and crevices. For instance, individual mogotes can host dozens of site-specific species, such as endemic snails and plants with specialized drought-resistant traits, underscoring their ecological value in conservation efforts. Recent assessments highlight the vulnerability of these ecosystems to habitat fragmentation, emphasizing the need for targeted protection in karst regions.^[31]

Erosional Cones

Erosional cones arise primarily from differential erosion, where agents such as rivers, wind, and glaciers selectively remove softer surrounding materials, exposing and isolating more resistant rock cores that evolve into conical forms. In fluvial settings, river incision and meander dynamics erode weaker sediments, leaving behind isolated residuals of harder rock that, over time, sharpen into cones through continued abrasion. Wind-driven processes in arid environments can sculpt isolated conical residuals from cohesive bedrock by abrading softer layers to reveal durable cores. Glacial erosion similarly contributes by plucking and abrading valley sides, isolating resistant nunataks that can develop conical profiles as ice retreats.^[32]^[33]^[34] The shape of erosional cones features pointed summits resulting from relatively uniform erosion rates across the exposed core, which progressively steepens the apex while maintaining overall conical symmetry. Slopes typically stabilize at angles of 20–25°, reflecting a balance between mechanical weathering, downslope mass movement, and base-level erosion that prevents further steepening. These features often exhibit a broad base with consistent inclination, as referenced in morphological analyses of residual hills.^[35] Erosional cones predominantly form in arid or semi-arid regions, where sparse vegetation and episodic high-energy events enhance mechanical breakdown, typically involving hard caprock layers overlying softer substrates like sandstones or shales. Formation occurs over timescales exceeding 10,000 years, often spanning the late Pleistocene to Holocene, allowing sufficient erosion to isolate and refine the cones. These landforms are less common than volcanic or karstic cones due to the specific requirements for resistant cores amid extensive planar erosion surfaces. Notable examples include conical sandstone hills cored by clastic pipes in Jurassic formations.^[36]^[37]^[38] Recent research from the 2020s highlights how climate change is accelerating erosion rates in arid regions through intensified storm events and altered precipitation patterns, potentially hastening the development or degradation of erosional cones by increasing fluvial and aeolian activity. Studies project global soil erosion increases of 30–66% by 2070 under various scenarios, with arid zones particularly vulnerable to enhanced wind and water scour.^[39]^[40]

Glacial Depositional Cones

Glacial depositional processes can also produce conical hills, such as kames, which are isolated mounds of sediment deposited by meltwater streams in subglacial or proglacial environments. These form when sand, gravel, and other glaciofluvial materials accumulate in conical piles as ice melts, often reaching heights of 10-30 meters with steep slopes stabilized by coarse debris. Kames are common in formerly glaciated regions and indicate past ice dynamics, though they are subject to post-depositional erosion that may alter their profiles over millennia.^[41]^[42]

Anthropogenic Conical Hills

Construction Methods

Anthropogenic conical hills, often referred to as spoil tips or slag heaps in industrial contexts, are primarily constructed by piling waste materials excavated during mining or metallurgical processes into cone-shaped forms to achieve inherent stability through the angle of repose of the granular materials. This method leverages gravity and natural segregation, where coarser rocks settle at the base and finer particles accumulate toward the apex during end-dumping from heights of at least 20 meters, forming slopes typically between 34° and 38° (or 3:4 ratio) that mimic the material's repose angle for load distribution and resistance to slumping. Engineered mounds for non-industrial purposes, such as landscaped monuments, employ earth-moving equipment like bulldozers and excavators to shape soil and rock into conical profiles, ensuring symmetric apex placement to evenly distribute weight and prevent asymmetric erosion.^[43]^[44]^[45] Materials used in these constructions vary by purpose but prioritize availability and geotechnical properties for durability. Industrial conical hills commonly incorporate byproducts such as mining tailings (fine-grained residues from ore processing), waste rock (angular fragments from overburden removal), slag (byproduct of smelting with high angularity and low fines), and coal ash (pulverized fly ash or bottom ash for filling voids), which provide a heterogeneous mix that enhances internal friction and drainage when layered in thin lifts of less than 25 meters. For deliberate landscaping of monuments or berms, clean soil, gravel, and quarried rock are compacted in stages to achieve heights up to 100 meters or more, as seen in large spoil tips like those reaching 120 meters, while avoiding expansive clays that could lead to settlement. These materials are selected for their shear strength, with unconfined compressive strengths (UCS) of at least 5 MPa and low plasticity (liquid limit below 35%) to maintain structural integrity.^[43]^[46]^[47] Engineering principles emphasize stability through controlled placement and monitoring to mitigate risks like basal sliding or liquefaction. Compaction is achieved by dozer traffic on upper layers or natural consolidation under the weight of subsequent lifts, reducing permeability to 10⁻⁷–10⁻⁸ m/s in mixed fills and increasing density to prevent pore pressure buildup, with factors of safety exceeding 1.5 for static conditions calculated via limit equilibrium methods like the Sarma approach. Slopes are designed at or below the repose angle—often flattened to 2.5H:1V (about 22°) in modern builds for erosion control—while rock drains at the base handle stormwater flows from 1-in-200-year events, ensuring the conical form's apex centers loads symmetrically across the foundation. Heights are limited by stability analyses, rarely exceeding 100 meters without reinforcement, drawing on natural slope ideals of 20–30° for granular earths to inform anthropogenic designs.^[43]^[44]^[48] Historically, 19th-century constructions were largely ad-hoc, with unregulated dumping of mining waste leading to irregular conical piles prone to failure, as evidenced by early colliery tips that reached unstable profiles without compaction or drainage. The 20th century marked a shift following disasters like the 1966 Aberfan collapse, prompting regulations such as the UK's Mines and Quarries (Tips) Act 1969, which mandated stability assessments, phased construction, and hazard classifications for tips, evolving into comprehensive guidelines by the 1970s that incorporated geotechnical testing and slope flattening. Into the 21st century, practices have emphasized regulated structures with mandatory revegetation to stabilize surfaces and reduce erosion, supported by numerical modeling tools like FEFLOW for seepage prediction.^[49]^[50]^[51] Post-2005 sustainability practices have integrated phytoremediation into conical hill management, using hyperaccumulator plants like grasses and legumes to immobilize heavy metals in spoil tips while promoting revegetation on compacted surfaces. Techniques involve seeding tolerant species on amended layers (e.g., with limestone to neutralize acidity) to achieve phytostabilization, as demonstrated in field trials on coal mine spoils where vegetation cover reached 80% within three years, enhancing long-term stability without chemical interventions. These methods align with co-disposal strategies blending acid-forming and non-acid-forming wastes, reducing environmental leachate from engineered cones.^[52]^[53]^[43]

Notable Examples

One prominent example of artificial conical hills from mining activities is the spoil tips associated with the Wismut uranium mines in Thuringia, Germany. These heaps, accumulated during Soviet-era operations from 1946 to 1990, consist of waste rock and tailings that formed conical structures reaching heights of up to 72 meters, such as at the Culmitzsch site. The piles resulted from the extraction of over 230,000 tons of uranium, leaving behind vast landscapes of contaminated earth that posed risks of radionuclide and heavy metal dispersion into soil and water.^[54]^[55] Remediation of these spoil tips began in the early 1990s under Wismut GmbH, a federally owned company tasked with decommissioning and rehabilitating the sites, including the application of soil covers, vegetation, and water treatment to contain leaching. By 2025, efforts have advanced significantly, with a new cooperation agreement signed with the International Atomic Energy Agency in April to enhance global knowledge sharing on uranium legacy management and circular economy approaches for mine waste. These projects have transformed portions of the heaps into stable landforms, though long-term monitoring for heavy metal and radioactive leaching continues due to ongoing environmental risks like acid mine drainage.^[56]^[57] In the realm of 19th-century industrial mounds, the slag heaps from the Dowlais Ironworks in Merthyr Tydfil, Wales, exemplify artificial conical hills generated through metal smelting. Operational from 1759 and peaking in the mid-1800s as the world's largest iron producer, the works amassed towering slag piles—often conical in shape—from the smelting of iron ore using local coal and limestone, with outputs exceeding 20,000 tons of iron annually by 1840. These structures contributed to severe environmental degradation, including heavy metal leaching into the River Taff and surrounding soils, causing pollution that affected water quality and local ecosystems for decades.^[58]^[59] Reclamation initiatives for such industrial sites gained momentum in the 1990s, employing methods like revegetation and encapsulation to stabilize the heaps and reduce leaching of contaminants such as iron, manganese, and cadmium. In Wales, ongoing efforts as of 2025 include biodiversity enhancement projects that repurpose slag materials to support rare plant species, mitigating legacy pollution while integrating the mounds into post-industrial landscapes.^[60]^[61] Modern artificial conical hills include recreational constructs like CopenHill in Copenhagen, Denmark, an 85-meter-high earthwork completed in 2019 on the roof of the Amager Bakke waste-to-energy plant. Designed by Bjarke Ingels Group, this structure features a 400-meter ski slope, hiking trails, and a climbing wall, utilizing construction techniques involving layered aluminum panels and synthetic turf to create a functional urban mound from industrial waste processing. Unlike mining spoils, it exemplifies proactive environmental integration, generating clean energy while providing year-round recreation without significant leaching risks due to its engineered composition.^[62]^[63] Across these examples, heavy metal leaching from spoil tips and slag heaps has driven comprehensive reclamation since the 1990s, with 2025 advancements emphasizing sustainable technologies like bio-covers and monitoring systems to restore contaminated sites globally.^[64]^[65]

Global Examples and Distribution

Iconic Natural Sites

Mount Fuji in Japan stands as one of the most iconic examples of a natural conical hill, exemplifying the symmetrical form of a stratovolcano with minimal erosion shaping its profile. Rising to 3,776 meters, this active volcano on Honshu Island features a near-perfect cone due to its relatively young geological age and limited weathering.^[66]^[67] Designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013 for its cultural and natural significance, Mount Fuji attracts over 200,000 climbers annually during the summer season, contributing to its fame as a pilgrimage and adventure destination.^[66]^[68] Seasonal changes notably affect visibility, with clearer views in winter but frequent cloud cover in summer, enhancing its mystical allure. In the 2020s, conservation efforts have intensified amid climate change threats, including reduced snowfall and accelerated erosion from warming temperatures and overtourism, prompting measures like trail restrictions to protect the ecosystem.^[69]^[70] The Chocolate Hills in the Philippines represent a striking cluster of karstic conical hills, renowned for their uniform, grass-covered mounds that evoke a landscape of Hershey's kisses. Comprising approximately 1,776 such formations, these hills reach heights of up to 120 meters and originated from Miocene-era limestone deposits uplifted and sculpted by erosion over millions of years.^[71] Located in Bohol Province, the site draws significant tourism, with visitors peaking during the dry season when the grass turns chocolate-brown, contrasting sharply with the green wet season. Recent 2020s updates highlight conservation challenges, including erosion risks exacerbated by climate change-induced extreme weather and controversial developments like unauthorized resorts, leading to public outcry and temporary closures to safeguard the tentative UNESCO site.^[72]^[73] Milešovka Hill in the Czech Republic exemplifies a hybrid conical formation blending volcanic origins with erosional processes, standing isolated amid the Bohemian Uplands as the region's highest peak at 837 meters. Formed from ancient volcanic activity in the Central Bohemian Uplands, its cone shape has been refined by long-term weathering, creating a prominent landmark accessible via multiple hiking trails. A popular tourist spot, it sees steady visitors year-round for panoramic views, though numbers fluctuate with weather, offering optimal visibility in clear autumn conditions. While specific 2020s threats are limited, broader regional conservation focuses on mitigating erosion from climate variability in this volcanic landscape area.^[74]^[75]^[76]

Regional Patterns

Conical hills exhibit distinct regional patterns influenced by underlying geological processes and climatic conditions. Volcanic conical hills, particularly cinder cones, are predominantly concentrated along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a tectonically active zone encircling the Pacific Ocean basin. This 40,000-kilometer arc hosts the majority of the world's active volcanoes, with notable clusters in Japan and Indonesia where frequent eruptions build accumulations of pyroclastic material into steep-sided cones.^[77]^[78] In contrast, karstic conical hills thrive in tropical humid environments conducive to intense chemical dissolution of soluble bedrock. Southeast Asia features extensive cone karst landscapes, such as the rolling hills of Bohol in the Philippines, where limestone dissolution under high rainfall has sculpted dense fields of symmetrical cones rising 30 to 120 meters high. Similarly, the Caribbean's tropical karst regions, including Puerto Rico's northern coastal plains, display mogote fields—isolated, steep-sided conical hills emerging from eroded limestone plateaus, often aligned in rows due to structural controls.^[79]^[28]^[80] Erosional conical hills, often manifesting as inselbergs, are characteristic of arid interior regions where differential weathering isolates resistant rock masses into abrupt, cone-like forms. Central Australia's vast desert plains, part of the ancient Yilgarn Craton, contain numerous such features, including granite-bornhardts that rise sharply from surrounding pediplains due to long-term exfoliation and sheeting. In the American Southwest, similar inselberg-style cones appear in the arid basins of the Colorado Plateau, shaped by wind and water erosion on isolated buttes and monadnocks.^[81]^[82] Globally, conical hills show higher density in tectonically active zones and humid tropical climates, where formation processes operate efficiently, compared to stable continental interiors. Recent 2025 satellite observations, including Landsat and Sentinel data, have revealed emerging volcanic cones from dyke intrusions and phreatomagmatic activity at sites like Fentale-Dofen in Ethiopia and Taal Volcano in the Philippines, highlighting ongoing dynamic additions to these patterns in active regions.^[83]^[84]

Significance

Geological and Scientific Value

Conical hills, encompassing volcanic, karstic, and erosional forms, serve as critical natural laboratories for advancing geological research, particularly through applications in geochronology and paleoenvironmental analysis. Volcanic cones, for instance, enable precise dating of eruptive events using radiometric methods such as potassium-argon (K-Ar) dating, which measures the decay of potassium-40 to argon-40 in volcanic rocks to establish eruption timelines spanning millions of years.^[85] This technique has been instrumental in reconstructing volcanic histories, providing age constraints for lava flows and associated deposits that inform models of magmatic evolution. Similarly, karstic cones facilitate paleoclimate reconstruction by analyzing dissolution rates of carbonate rocks, where variations in speleothem growth rates act as proxies for precipitation and temperature changes over millennia, as evidenced by isotopic and trace element analyses in cave deposits.^[86] In educational contexts, conical hills function as ideal model landforms for investigating tectonic processes and erosion dynamics. Their symmetrical profiles and well-defined slopes allow geologists to study fault interactions and uplift rates through morphometric analysis, offering insights into regional tectonic regimes without the complexity of larger mountain systems.^[87] Erosion models applied to these features, often simulated via geographic information systems (GIS), quantify sediment transport and landscape evolution, helping to predict long-term geomorphic changes under varying climatic conditions.^[88] Such simulations integrate digital elevation models to assess slope stability and drainage patterns, enhancing pedagogical tools for understanding hillslope processes. Conservation science leverages conical hills for hazard monitoring and ecological assessment, particularly in karst terrains prone to instability. These structures are hotspots for biodiversity, harboring endemic species adapted to unique microhabitats like crevices and caves, which underscores their role in preserving genetic diversity amid global habitat loss.^[89] Monitoring efforts focus on landslide risks, using remote sensing to detect ground deformation on steep karst slopes, thereby informing mitigation strategies for vulnerable ecosystems.^[90] Contributions to volcanology highlight how cone morphology—such as height-to-width ratios and summit crater dimensions—can predict eruption styles, with steeper profiles indicating more explosive events driven by volatile-rich magmas.^[91] Post-2005 advances in remote sensing, including satellite imagery and photogrammetry, have enabled global inventories of these features, cataloging thousands of cones to map volcanic fields and assess eruption hazards at unprecedented scales.^[92] Recent gaps in research are being addressed through 2021 and later LiDAR applications, which provide high-resolution topographic data for hazard mapping, revealing subtle instabilities like sinkhole precursors in karst cones that traditional surveys overlook.^[93]

Cultural and Environmental Roles

Conical hills have held profound cultural significance across various societies, often revered as sacred sites or embedded in folklore. In Japan, Mount Fuji, with its iconic symmetrical cone, is a central element of Shinto beliefs, embodying the goddess Konohanasakuya-hime, who symbolizes beauty and life; pilgrims have ascended its slopes since the 12th century for ascetic practices blending Shinto and Buddhist rituals, including the ohachimeguri crater circuit to honor the deity Asama no Okami.^[94] Similarly, in the Peruvian Amazon, the isolated pyramidal hill known as El Cono is venerated by Indigenous communities as an "Andean Apu," a protective mountain spirit that emerged from the earth to guide local people, reflecting broader Andean mythologies where such formations serve as spiritual guardians.^[95] In the Philippines, the Chocolate Hills inspire local folklore depicting them as remnants of a colossal battle between two giants who hurled mud and rocks at each other, eventually reconciling and leaving behind the uniform cones as a symbol of harmony; these tales portray the hills as "earth navels," central points connecting the land to mythical origins.^[96] Historically, conical hills served practical roles in human activities, particularly as navigation landmarks due to their distinctive silhouettes visible across vast landscapes. Along the Oregon Trail in the 19th century, Knob Hill's prominent 70-foot conical form stood out amid the flat plains, guiding emigrants westward and noted in numerous diarists' accounts for its reliability as a waypoint.^[97] In ancient quarrying practices, such hills in karst regions provided accessible limestone deposits; for instance, prehistoric communities in the Belfast Hills extracted stone from similar formations for tools and structures, a tradition dating back thousands of years as evidenced by Neolithic flint factories.^[98] Environmentally, conical hills in karst landscapes support unique habitats fostering endemic species, contributing to biodiversity hotspots. The South China Karst region, featuring numerous cone-like hills, harbors 41 endemic plant species and 48 animal species adapted to its isolated towers and caves, including rare orchids and cave-dwelling invertebrates that thrive in the nutrient-poor, high-pH soils.^[99] Vegetation on these hills, such as the grasslands and forests covering Mount Fuji, functions as a carbon sink; mature pine forests on Fuji's lava flows sequester significant atmospheric CO2, absorbing more carbon than they emit despite challenging substrates.^[100] In modern contexts, conical hills face pressures from tourism, which can exacerbate erosion and habitat loss, prompting protective measures. The Chocolate Hills, a tentative UNESCO World Heritage site since 1988 and part of the Bohol Island UNESCO Global Geopark, have suffered soil erosion from unregulated visitor access and construction, as seen in the 2024 controversy over a resort carved into a protected hill, leading to temporary closures and calls for stricter enforcement.^[71]^[101] Recent 2024-2025 studies highlight climate change impacts, such as delayed snowfall on Mount Fuji due to warming temperatures, which disrupt alpine vegetation patterns and reduce carbon sequestration potential by altering forest composition and advancing timberlines upward.^[102]^[103]

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Goethe: Vesuvausbruch. Feder in Schwarz über Bleistiftspuren. Aquarell. Sommer 1787. Kunstsammlungen in Weimar. Aus: Petra Maisak: Johann Wolfgang Goethe.
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(PDF) Fritz Krafft: Goethe zwischen Neptun und Vulkan.
... Kegelbergen erloschener Vulkane als Erfahrungshintergrund geklärt – aber das musste. damit nicht auch für Deutschland gelten. Zwar hatte auch hier bereits ...
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Journal of researches into the natural history and geology of the ...
May 26, 2018 · The most remarkable feature is a conical hill, about one thousand feet high, the upper part of which is exceedingly steep, and on one side ...
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[PDF] Lecture 13 Karst Landforms in the Humid Tropics
The cones or conical hills are generally symmetrical, and their slopes measured between 45° and 60°, regardless of their structure. Conical hills are 30 to 120 ...Missing: morphology | Show results with:morphology
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Morphometric analysis of cinder cone degradation - ScienceDirect
The median cinder cone has a height of 90 m, a basal diameter of 800 m, a crater diameter of 230 m, and a volume of 0.021 km3.
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Principal Types of Volcanoes - USGS.gov
Jan 3, 2011 · ... cone to a height of 1,200 feet. The last explosive eruption left a funnel-shaped crater at the top of the cone. After the excess gases had ...
[17]
Development of topographic asymmetry: Insights from dated cinder ...
Jul 19, 2014 · Hillslope asymmetry is statistically significant in all four volcanic fields on cinder cones with a mean hillslope angle below ≈20° (Figure 7).
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9.4 Measuring Geological Structures - Maricopa Open Digital Press
Measurement of geological features is done with a special compass that has a built-in clinometer—a device for measuring vertical angles. An example of how this ...
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Topographic Maps | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
Some of the most well-known USGS maps are the 1:24,000-scale topographic maps, also called 7.5-minute quadrangles. In 2009, the USGS transitioned from our hand ...Missing: measurement hill diameter
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https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/earth-hazards/volcanoes/how-volcanoes-form/
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Anatomy of a Volcano - Volcanoes, Craters & Lava Flows (U.S. ...
Cinder Cone Volcanoes. Cinder cones are small volcanoes that consist of volcanic ash, cinders, and other types of tephra that has piled up around a vent.
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Types of volcano - British Geological Survey
An eruption of highly viscous (very sticky) magma tends to produce steep-sided volcanoes with slopes that are about 30–35°. That's because the viscous volcanic ...Missing: height | Show results with:height
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Cinder cone | volcanic, eruption, lava - Britannica
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Morphometric evolution of cinder cones - ScienceDirect.com
Crustal thickness may limit cone growth. Fifty percent of observed cinder cone eruptions last less than 30 days and 95% are over in one year or less.
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F2-5: Cinder Cone Volcano - Layered Earth
50% of all cinder cone volcanoes form in less than 1 month, while 95% are formed in less than a year. Occasionally the cone can remain active for several years.
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Managing the effects of accelerated glacial melting on volcanic ...
With current accelerated rates of glacial melting, glaciated active volcanoes are at an increasing risk of sector collapse, debris flow and landslide. These ...
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Climate influence on volcano edifice stability and fluvial landscape ...
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[PDF] The Karst Landforll)s / of Puerto Rico - USGS Publications Warehouse
111-121. --- compiler, 1970, A glossary of karst terminology: U.S.. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1899-K, 26 p.
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[PDF] Puerto Rican Karst—A Vital Resource - Forest Service
... sided hill in a karst terrain. tower karst: General term for a karst terrain dominated by steep-sided hills, such as cone karst and mogote karst.
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(PDF) Karst in Southeast Asia - ResearchGate
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[PDF] Biodiversity and Cultural Property in the Management of Limestone ...
These types, doline karst, cone karst, mogote karst, and tower karst refer to the different land forms resulting from different intensities or periods of ...
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Differential Erosion (U.S. National Park Service)
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Evolution of the yardangs at Rogers Lake, California - USGS.gov
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ice erosion of an isolated, conical mountain. - NPS History
The primary glaciers are cutting back the cliffs encircling the amphitheaters from which they flow, and in their middle courses are slowly sinking into the ...
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[PDF] EQUILIBRIUM THEORY OF EROSIONAL SLOPES APPROACHED ...
Once formed, a steep slope (Böschung) would retreat at a constant angle regardless of changes of gradient of the associated stream. In the Verdugo and San ...
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Geology of Bryce Canyon National Park - USGS.gov
The Colorado Plateau, beginning about 50 million years ago, was a mostly flat part of a lake and floodplain system. This area was surrounded by higher ...Missing: conical hills
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Global impact of climate change on soil erosion and potential for ...
Climate change is expected to lead to increased soil erosion in many locations worldwide affecting ecosystem services and human well-being.Missing: accelerating conical 2020s
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Climate change and land use are accelerating soil erosion by water
Sep 11, 2020 · Depending on the scenario, the simulations predict that by 2070 soil erosion will increase significantly, by 30% to 66%, compared to 2015 ...Missing: conical hills<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Guidelines for Mine Waste Dump and Stockpile Design
Guidelines cover mine waste dump and stockpile design, including basic design, stability rating, and hazard classification.
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The stability of tips and spoil heaps - GeoScienceWorld
If tipped in the form of a cone with slopes at the angle of repose, the solid colliery waste would form annually a heap nearly 900 feet high and 2200 feet in ...
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Feb 20, 2018 · Landscape berms or mounds are specifically made to raise plants and give privacy to flat spaces in the garden while also improving the drainage in the soil.
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Modelling the Control of Groundwater on the Development of ... - MDPI
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[47]
The Slag Heaps of Loos-en-Gohelle | Amusing Planet
the figures refer to the number of the mine pits — are the highest ...Missing: largest spoil tip
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Angles of Repose - The Engineering ToolBox
The angle of repose, or critical angle of repose, of a granular material is the steepest angle of descent or dip relative to the horizontal plane.Missing: spoil heaps<|control11|><|separator|>
[49]
[PDF] colliery spoil reclamationi an appraisal op two sites 11st west lothian
Mines and Quarries (Tips) Act was passed in response to the Aberfan Disaster ... Most spoil tips are relatively unvegetated. The major problems of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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In 1891, Congress passed the first federal statute governing mine safety, marking the beginning of what was to be an extended evolution of increasingly ...
[51]
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This timeline walks through the history of mining waste regulation since 1976 and includes information such as regulations, proposals, amendments and reports ...
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Phytoremediation of coal mine spoil dump through ... - PubMed
Field experiment was conducted on mine spoil dump on an area of 10 ha, to restore the fertility and productivity of the coal mine spoil dump using ...Missing: tips post- 2005
[53]
Elaboration of a Phytoremediation Strategy for Successful ... - MDPI
A myco-phytoremediation technology called Fungcoal was developed in South Africa to achieve these outcomes for land disturbed by coal mining.
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Uranium Mining in Eastern Germany: The WISMUT Legacy
Apr 17, 2011 · Its initial depth was 240 meters; after being partly refilled, the depth was still 160 meters at an open volume of 80 million m3 in 1990. After ...Uranium Production In Eastern... · Impacts For Uranium Miners
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[PDF] Wismut - Mining remediation - taking responsibility, shaping the future
The federally owned company Wismut GmbH has been remediating the legacies left behind by former uranium ore mining and processing operations in Saxony and Thur ...Missing: spoil tips
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Cooperation for Safe Management of Uranium Mining
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“At night they glow red with fire”: tracing the environmental impact of ...
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Dowlais Iron Works Area - Historic Landscape Character Area - Heneb
Dowlais Ironworks was founded in 1759, and went on in the 19th century to become the largest ironworks in the world. The area now forms an industrial park.
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Apr 17, 2025 · Slag from the steel industry could help save some of Wales' most rare plants, according to an ecologist. The material, regarded as waste, ...Missing: 19th century
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Remediation strategies for metal/metalloid contaminated historical mining sites are reviewed and summarized in this article. It focuses on the current ...
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CopenHill | BIG - Bjarke Ingels Group
On the longest vertical façade, an 85 m climbing wall is installed making it the tallest artificial climbing wall in the world.
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Oct 8, 2019 · CopenHill's ski slope measures 400 metres, and runs from the top of the 90-metre-high building to its base, with a 180-degree turn halfway down ...
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Aug 10, 2025 · It focuses on the current applications of in situ remediation with the use of soil amendments (adsorption and precipitation based methods are ...
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Life after mining: New book spotlights global reclamation projects
Jul 19, 2024 · A new book published this month – 102 Things to Do with a Hole in the Ground – showcases remarkable post-mining reclamation projects around the world.
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Value of Mt. Fuji｜Fujisan World Cultural Heritage Council
Fujisan is an active volcano which, at 3,776 meters, is the highest peak in Japan. At the 37th World Heritage Committee Meeting held in June 2013, ...Missing: height symmetrical erosion
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Fujisan - Smithsonian Institution | Global Volcanism Program
67 earthquakes occurred at Mt. Fuji on 30 April, which was the highest number since 53 earthquakes occurred on 18 December 2000.Missing: visitors | Show results with:visitors
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Climbing Mount Fuji is a popular activity with up to 200,000 visitors a year hitting the slopes, often attracted by the seemingly perfect symmetry the mountain ...Missing: stratovolcano erosion per
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No-snow record for Mount Fuji and other key climate stories
Nov 5, 2024 · The Global Risks Report 2023 ranked failure to mitigate climate change as one of the most severe threats in the next two years, while climate ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
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Mount Fuji Environmental impact - airashijapan.com
Pollution stemming from transportation, littering, and waste disposal practices poses a significant threat to the mountain's delicate ecology and the intricate ...
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Chocolate Hills Natural Monument - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
The hills are located throughout the towns of Carmen, Batuan and Sagbayan and consist of about 1,776 mounds of the same general shape. During the dry season ...
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Bohol Island Geopark one year after: controversies amid conservation
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Milešovka Mountain | Central Bohemian Uplands - České středohoří
The mountain Milešovka also known as the Queen of the Central Bohemian Uplands and with its 837 meters it is also the highest mountain in the Central Bohemian ...Missing: Hill height erosion volcanic hybrid
[75]
Central Bohemian Uplands - České středohoří
The Central Bohemian Uplands were caused by a volcanic activity and are its most powerful proof in the Czech Republic. Thanks to the Ohárecký rift, that was ...Missing: Hill height erosion hybrid
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https://www.stredohori.cz/en/detail/conquer-the-queen-of-central-bohemian-uplands-milesovka/
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Volcanoes - USGS Publications Warehouse
Dec 20, 1999 · Geologists generally group volcanoes into four main kinds--cinder cones, composite volcanoes, shield volcanoes, and lava domes. ... Ring of Fire.".<|separator|>
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Plate Tectonics and Volcanic Activity - National Geographic Education
Jun 17, 2025 · Also known as cinder cones, they form after violent eruptions blow lava into the air. In the atmosphere, the lava fragments solidify and fall as ...
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Bohol Island UNESCO Global Geopark
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Limestone Karsts of Southeast Asia: Imperiled Arks of Biodiversity
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[PDF] The Dilemma of Inselbergs - Flood / Ice Age Research
Inselbergs rise above many planation surfaces as hills or mountains that for some reason failed to erode during the planing process. 1. Any erosional mechanism ...
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inselberg, (from German Insel, “island,” and Berg, “mountain”), isolated hill that stands above well-developed plains and appears not unlike an island rising ...Missing: Kegelberg | Show results with:Kegelberg
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Real-time satellite monitoring of the 2024–2025 dyke intrusion ...
Oct 12, 2025 · Real-time satellite monitoring of the 2024–2025 dyke intrusion sequence at Fentale-Dofen volcanoes, Ethiopia. Data Report; Open access ...Missing: cones | Show results with:cones
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Going, going, argon! Determining volcanic eruption ages with argon ...
Jun 10, 2024 · Argon dating is a powerful tool for determining when volcanoes erupted in the past. This technique works on a multitude of volcanic materials.
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[PDF] Climate Change: The Karst Record
(Down) Reconstruction of growth rates (proxy of precipitations) for the last 6400 years with averaged time step of 41 years for Cold Water cave, Iowa, US ...
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A GIS-based assessment of active tectonics from morphometric ...
Dec 1, 2022 · The present study aims at GIS (Geographic Information System) based determination of morphometric parameters and geomorphic indices to assess ...Missing: conical educational
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Modelling Topographic Potential for Erosion and Deposition Using ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Modeling of erosion and deposition in complex terrain within a geographic information system (GIS) requires a high resolution digital elevation ...Missing: conical hills educational
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Biodiversity in Karst Landscapes: Introduction to the Special Issue
They represent a mosaic of environmental and climatic conditions, such as sinking streams, sinkholes, large spring caves, or enclosed depressions.
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Karst landslides detection and monitoring with multiple SAR data ...
Mar 19, 2023 · Karst landslides detection and monitoring with multiple SAR data and multi-dimensional SBAS technique in Shuicheng, Guizhou, China · China has ...
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A review of techniques for characterising scoria cone morphologies
Morphometric analysis of scoria cones is critical for understanding magmatic system evolution, eruptive processes, tectonic controls, age estimation, erosional ...<|separator|>
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Understanding the evolution of scoria cone morphology using ...
Jun 6, 2025 · Scoria cone erosion has been numerically modelled as a slope-dependent diffusion process10,11, which can yield accurate estimates of the degree ...
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[PDF] The Application of Terrestrial LiDAR for Geohazard Mapping ...
Jan 23, 2021 · It has appli- cations for geophysical monitoring of natural hazards, for example earthquakes, volcanoes and landslides, and in structural ...Missing: conical | Show results with:conical<|control11|><|separator|>
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Fujisan, sacred place and source of artistic inspiration
In the 12th century, Fujisan became the centre of training for ascetic Buddhism, which included Shinto elements. On the upper 1,500-metre tier of the 3,776m ...
[95]
El Cono: The mysterious sacred 'pyramid' hidden ... - Live Science
May 2, 2025 · Cerro El Cono is a solitary, pyramidal hill in the Peruvian Amazon rainforest whose origins remain mysterious and that holds spiritual significance for ...
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The Chocolate Hills: Tales of the Giants of Bohol, Philippines
Once upon a time, when giants roamed the earth, two giants had a great fight for reasons that remain obscure. The two hurled rocks and dirt at each other.
[97]
Knob Hill - WyoHistory.org
Dec 21, 2015 · Many Oregon Trail diarists noted the distinctive, conical shape of 70-foot-high Knob Hill, southwest of present Douglas, Wyo., and compared ...
[98]
Quarries & Limekilns - Belfast Hills Partnership
Quarrying had existed in the hills for thousands of years, as shown by the Neolithic flint factory at Ballymagarry, quarries seen on old estate maps.
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[PDF] SOUTH CHINA KARST CHINA - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
Jan 16, 2006 · Some 41 plant species and 48 animal species are endemic to the karst landscapes of Libo, while around 17 species are endemic to karst caves. The ...
[100]
Carbon cycling and sequestration in a Japanese red pine (Pinus ...
Jul 9, 2013 · However, our results indicate that the mature pine forest acted as a significant carbon sink even when established on lava flow with low ...
[101]
Resort in Philippines' protected Chocolate Hills sparks uproar, probes
Apr 2, 2024 · A video of a resort cut into the Philippines' Chocolate Hills, a protected area, has caused public outrage in the island nation.Missing: erosion | Show results with:erosion
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Mount Fuji's Snowless Winter: A Clear Sign of Climate Change
Nov 1, 2024 · As Mount Fuji remains snowless well into October, it serves as a striking indicator of climate change and the urgent need to curb carbon ...
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Advancing Timberline on Mt. Fuji between 1978 and 2018 - PMC
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