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Continuity thesis

The continuity thesis is a historiographical hypothesis in the history of science positing that there was no radical rupture or revolutionary break between medieval and early modern scientific thought; instead, modern science emerged as a gradual, continuous development from the intellectual achievements of medieval scholasticism, particularly the 14th-century Parisian school.^[1]^[2] Championed primarily by the French physicist and philosopher Pierre Duhem (1861–1916), the thesis challenges 19th-century narratives that portrayed the Middle Ages as a "dark age" of intellectual stagnation, followed by an abrupt Scientific Revolution in the 16th and 17th centuries.^[1]^[2] Duhem's argument, articulated in major works such as Les Origines de la statique (1905–1906), Études sur Léonard de Vinci (1906–1913), and the unfinished Le Système du monde: Histoire des doctrines cosmologiques de Platon à Copernic (1913–1959), demonstrated through meticulous archival research that key concepts in modern physics and cosmology—such as impetus theory in dynamics and hypothetical reasoning in mechanics—originated with medieval thinkers like Jean Buridan, Nicole Oresme, and Albert of Saxony.^[1]^[2] For instance, Duhem traced the foundations of Galileo's mechanics to these 14th-century scholastics, asserting that "the science of Galileo" represented "the well-paved triumph of the science born at Paris during the fourteenth century over the doctrines of Aristotle and Averroes."^[1] This perspective not only rehabilitated the reputation of medieval science but also emphasized the role of Christian theology, particularly the 1277 Condemnation of Parisian Aristotelian doctrines, in liberating scientific inquiry from ancient Greek necessitarianism and enabling innovative thought experiments.^[2] The continuity thesis has profoundly influenced subsequent historiography, inspiring scholars such as Marshall Clagett, Ernest A. Moody, and A. C. Crombie to further explore medieval contributions, while contrasting sharply with the "conflict thesis" that depicted science and religion as inherently opposed forces.^[1]^[2]

Overview

Definition

The continuity thesis is a historiographical perspective in the history of science that posits no abrupt break between medieval scholasticism and modern science, instead emphasizing a process of gradual evolution across centuries.^[1] This view challenges the traditional narrative of a revolutionary rupture during the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries, arguing that modern scientific achievements represent an uninterrupted progression from earlier doctrines developed in medieval schools.^[2] Early proponents, such as Pierre Duhem, framed this as a "suite ininterrompue de perfectionnements à peine sensibles" (uninterrupted series of scarcely perceptible improvements) in mechanics and physics from the Middle Ages onward.^[2] Central to the thesis are shared methodologies between medieval and early modern thinkers, including empirical observation and mathematical reasoning applied to natural phenomena. For instance, medieval scholars employed quantitative analysis in kinematics and cosmology, laying groundwork for later developments. Institutional continuity further supports this perspective, as universities established in the 12th and 13th centuries—such as those in Paris and Oxford—provided enduring frameworks for scientific inquiry, persisting into the early modern period without fundamental disruption. Intellectual lineages also illustrate this evolution, with medieval figures like Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme advancing impetus theory and graphical methods that influenced early modern scientists, including Galileo, who referenced "Doctores Parisienses" in his works.^[1] The thesis primarily applies to the development of Western science from the Middle Ages through the 17th century, focusing on the transmission of ideas from 14th-century Parisian schools to figures like Copernicus and Galileo. It reframes the "Scientific Revolution" not as radical innovation but as the culmination of medieval foundations in mechanics, optics, and astronomy, thereby highlighting incremental advancements over dramatic shifts.^[1]^[2]

Historical Context

The prevailing historiographical narratives of the 19th and early 20th centuries, heavily influenced by Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire, depicted the medieval period as an era of intellectual darkness marked by superstition, barbarism, and stagnation in scientific inquiry. Voltaire, in works such as his Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations (1756), portrayed the Middle Ages as a regressive interlude between the classical antiquity and the rational rebirth of the Renaissance, where progress in knowledge was stifled by religious dogma and ignorance.^[3] This perspective framed the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries as a radical rupture, inaugurating modern science as a triumphant emergence from medieval obscurity. Building on Enlightenment views, 19th-century positivists such as Auguste Comte further entrenched this discontinuity by conceptualizing human intellectual development through his "law of three stages," in which the medieval era fell squarely within the "theological stage." In this framework, medieval thought was dominated by supernatural explanations and anthropomorphic deities, lacking the empirical rigor that would only arrive in the "positive" or scientific stage associated with modernity. Comte's evolutionary model, outlined in Cours de philosophie positive (1830–1842), thus reinforced the notion of medieval science as primitive and discontinuous with later advancements.^[4] These interpretations aligned with the "Whig history" approach, which retrospectively celebrated the Scientific Revolution as inexorable progress toward contemporary scientific ideals, often at the expense of nuanced appreciation for pre-modern contributions. By the early 20th century, a historiographical shift began to challenge these dominant narratives, spurred by increased access to medieval archives and the critical reevaluation of long-neglected texts, which uncovered evidence of advanced natural philosophy and proto-scientific methods in the Middle Ages. This reevaluation positioned the continuity thesis as a deliberate antidote to Whig biases, emphasizing gradual evolution over abrupt breaks in the history of science. Pierre Duhem initiated much of this transformation through his extensive research into medieval mechanics and cosmology, demonstrating precursors to modern theories in 14th-century works.^[1]^[2] The emergence of the continuity thesis resonated within broader debates in Medieval Studies, especially in North America, where it became a defining characteristic of 20th-century scholarship. Historians Paul Freedman and Gabrielle M. Spiegel have observed that this approach reflected a prevailing tendency to integrate medieval intellectual life into narratives of Western continuity, countering earlier Eurocentric dismissals of the period's significance.^[5]

Origins and Early Development

Pierre Duhem's Contributions

Pierre Duhem (1861–1916) was a French physicist and philosopher of science who, after facing academic disputes that limited his career to provincial universities such as Lille, Rennes, and Bordeaux, increasingly turned to the history of science as a scholarly pursuit.^[1] Born in Paris to a devout Catholic family, Duhem's intellectual trajectory shifted notably around 1903 when his research uncovered overlooked medieval scientific texts, prompting him to challenge prevailing narratives of scientific discontinuity.^[6] Duhem's foundational contributions to the continuity thesis are evident in his major historical works, particularly the multi-volume Le Système du Monde (published between 1913 and 1959, with ten volumes in total, though incomplete at his death) and Études sur Léonard de Vinci (1906–1913). In Le Système du Monde, Duhem meticulously traced cosmological and mechanical doctrines from ancient Greece through the Middle Ages to the early modern period, arguing that medieval thinkers provided essential precursors to modern mechanics.^[1] Similarly, Études sur Léonard de Vinci examined Renaissance figures like Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo, demonstrating how medieval impetus theory influenced their developments in dynamics.^[1] Central to Duhem's arguments was the claim that medieval scholastics anticipated key inertial concepts in modern physics; for instance, he highlighted Jean Buridan's theory of impetus—describing a projectile's sustained motion through an internalized motive force—as a direct precursor to Galileo's principle of inertia.^[1] Duhem explicitly rejected the Protestant-influenced historiographical bias that depicted the Catholic Middle Ages as a period of intellectual stagnation and anti-scientific repression, instead portraying it as a vibrant era of scientific advancement.^[7] Duhem's methodological approach emphasized the Catholic intellectual tradition's pivotal role in preserving, translating, and extending Greek scientific heritage, particularly through scholastic philosophy and university curricula that fostered rigorous analysis of natural phenomena.^[1]^[7] This perspective laid groundwork for later historians to explore medieval contributions to science.

George Sarton's Influence

George Sarton (1884–1956), a Belgian-American historian of science, is widely recognized as the founder of the modern discipline of history of science.^[8] Born in Ghent, Belgium, he immigrated to the United States in 1915 amid World War I and became a pivotal figure in establishing the field through his scholarly and organizational efforts.^[9] Sarton's most influential work, Introduction to the History of Science (1927–1948), comprises three volumes in five parts that meticulously chronicle scientific progress from antiquity to the end of the 14th century, with particular emphasis on medieval contributions to the scientific method, such as advancements in optics, mathematics, and empirical observation.^[10] In this comprehensive synthesis, he documented how medieval scholars preserved and expanded ancient knowledge, laying foundational elements for later developments.^[11] Complementing this, his 1931 book The History of Science and the New Humanism explicitly stressed the unbroken historical continuity of science, rejecting notions of abrupt ruptures and portraying scientific inquiry as a gradual evolution driven by human curiosity and collaboration across eras.^[12] Sarton advocated a "humanistic" history of science that intertwined technical advancements with cultural and philosophical contexts, arguing that understanding science's past humanizes its present applications.^[13] He integrated medieval figures like Roger Bacon (c. 1219–1292) into this narrative as proto-empiricists, highlighting Bacon's insistence on experimentation, direct observation, and mathematical verification—such as his applications of Euclid's optics in studies of mirrors—as bridges between scholastic deduction and modern inductive methods.^[14] Sarton's institutional legacy further entrenched the continuity thesis in academic discourse; he founded the journal Isis in 1913 as a platform for interdisciplinary historical research and launched Osiris in 1936 for in-depth monographic studies.^[15] In 1924, he established the History of Science Society to sustain Isis and foster global collaboration among historians, scientists, and philosophers.^[16] He also championed the integration of history of science into university curricula, influencing Harvard University's creation of the first Ph.D. program in the field in 1936 and promoting its role in broadening scientific education beyond technical training.^[8] These efforts helped institutionalize the study of the history of science with an emphasis on continuity as a core tenet of historiographical study.

Medieval and Renaissance Foundations

Edward Grant's Work

Edward Grant (1926–2020) was an American historian of medieval science who served as Distinguished Professor Emeritus in the Department of History and Philosophy of Science at Indiana University, Bloomington, where he taught from 1959 until his retirement.^[17] Specializing in the intellectual history of natural philosophy during the Middle Ages, Grant's scholarship emphasized the foundational role of medieval thought in the emergence of modern science.^[18] Grant's key contributions to the continuity thesis appear in his seminal works The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts (1996) and A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century (2007). In the former, he systematically traces how medieval intellectual traditions provided the conceptual and methodological groundwork for scientific advancements in the seventeenth century.^[19] The latter offers a broader historical survey, underscoring the evolution of natural philosophy across eras while highlighting medieval innovations as pivotal links.^[20] Central to Grant's arguments is the development of systematic natural philosophy within medieval universities, which integrated empirical observation and mathematical reasoning into the study of nature. He contends that these institutions, emerging in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, created structured curricula based on Aristotelian texts that encouraged rigorous analysis and debate, evolving Aristotle's qualitative physics toward more quantitative approaches.^[19] For instance, Grant illustrates continuity in core concepts such as the void and motion, showing how fourteenth-century thinkers like William of Ockham advanced discussions of impetus and spatial extension, which prefigured René Descartes's mechanistic views on matter and locomotion in the seventeenth century.^[20] This progression demonstrates a gradual refinement rather than a rupture in scientific thought. Grant places particular emphasis on the institutional role of universities in nurturing scientific inquiry, arguing that they provided autonomy for natural philosophy despite the era's theological framework. By separating domains of faith and reason—allowing philosophers to explore natural causes without direct divine intervention—medieval academia countered perceptions of science as purely theological or stagnant, instead fostering an environment conducive to empirical and logical exploration.^[19] His analysis aligns briefly with Pierre Duhem's earlier recognition of medieval impetus theory as a precursor to modern dynamics.

Contributions of Graham and Saliba

Mark Graham, an American author and novelist with a background in medieval history, and George Saliba (born 1939), a Lebanese-American historian and professor emeritus of Arabic and Islamic science at Columbia University, have significantly advanced the continuity thesis by illuminating the pivotal role of Islamic scholarship in bridging ancient Greek knowledge to European scientific developments.^[21] Their works emphasize the intermediary function of Islamic intellectuals in astronomy, optics, and mechanics during the 9th to 12th centuries, positioning these contributions as essential to the unbroken evolution of scientific thought. In his 2006 book How Islam Created the Modern World: The Untold Story of Islam's Influence on World Civilization, Graham details the medieval translation movement centered in Baghdad's House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikmah), where Islamic scholars preserved, translated, and expanded Greek texts from antiquity, laying foundational groundwork for later European innovations.^[21] Complementing this, Saliba's influential 2007 monograph Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance critiques traditional historiographies that isolate the Renaissance as a uniquely European phenomenon, instead demonstrating how Islamic scientific traditions directly informed European progress through sustained intellectual exchanges.^[22] Saliba draws on astronomical manuscripts to show ongoing advancements in Islamic science up to the 15th century, which were assimilated into European curricula via translations in Toledo and Sicily.^[23] Central to their arguments is the transmission of Greek knowledge through Islamic intermediaries, exemplified by the influence of Ibn al-Haytham's (Alhazen) Book of Optics (early 11th century), which introduced experimental approaches to light and vision that shaped Johannes Kepler's later theories on planetary motion and optics in the 17th century.^[24] Graham and Saliba further trace continuity in experimental methods, from systematic observations and mathematical modeling in Baghdad's observatories to their adoption in Padua's universities, where figures like Galileo built upon these precedents without radical breaks.^[25] By highlighting these links, they challenge Eurocentric narratives that portray the Scientific Revolution as an abrupt Western emergence, arguing instead that Islamic science provided the critical continuity and innovation essential to modernity.^[26] Their unique emphasis on 9th- to 12th-century Islamic contributions underscores these as the vital conduit between Hellenistic antiquity and European modernity, fostering a more inclusive understanding of scientific history that recognizes cross-cultural dependencies.^[27] This perspective extends Edward Grant's analysis of university-based developments in Latin Christendom by integrating the cross-cultural exchanges that originated in the Islamic world.^[24]

Modern Interpretations

Franklin and Pasnau

James Franklin (born 1953) is an Australian philosopher and mathematician, and Robert Pasnau (born 1967) is an American philosopher. Franklin is a retired professor of mathematics and philosophy at the University of New South Wales, where his research encompassed the philosophy of mathematics, the history of probability, and the philosophy of science.^[28] Pasnau serves as a professor of philosophy at the University of Colorado Boulder, specializing in medieval and early modern philosophy, with a focus on metaphysics, epistemology, and the philosophy of mind.^[29] Both scholars contribute to the continuity thesis through their examinations of epistemological and methodological developments, emphasizing persistent logical structures from the late Middle Ages into the early modern period without positing radical breaks. Franklin defends continuity in the philosophy of science by highlighting the analytical rigor of late scholastic thinkers from the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries, arguing that their conceptual analysis prefigured modern scientific methods. In his analysis, these scholastics advanced fields like economics, political theory, and natural philosophy through precise thought experiments and probabilistic evaluations, countering narratives of intellectual stagnation.^[30] For instance, Franklin traces the evolution of probabilistic reasoning in medieval jurisprudence and theology, showing how concepts of evidence and conjecture—developed in works like those of canon lawyers—laid groundwork for empirical science, bridging scholastic traditions to post-Cartesian inquiry.^[31] This approach underscores a methodological continuity, where logical tools for handling uncertainty persisted across periods. Pasnau similarly argues for epistemological continuity, particularly in how medieval and early modern philosophers addressed skepticism, regress problems, and the nature of knowledge. Drawing on Thomas Aquinas's treatments of infinite regress in justification—where knowledge requires foundational certainties to avoid vicious cycles—Pasnau demonstrates parallels in Descartes's foundationalism, rejecting the idea of a methodological rupture.^[32] In his broader historical survey, Pasnau illustrates a gradual shift in epistemic ideals, from the high certainty demands of medieval scientia to probabilistic acceptance in early modern thought, with shared concerns over regress and soul-related cognition linking Aquinas to Locke. Their aligned perspectives emphasize that logical frameworks for epistemology, such as probabilistic responses to skeptical challenges, evolved incrementally from medieval foundations.

Gary Hatfield

Gary Hatfield (born 1955) is an American philosopher of science and the retired Adam Seybert Professor in Moral and Intellectual Philosophy at the University of Pennsylvania, where he taught from 1987 after positions at Harvard and Johns Hopkins.^[33] His research focuses on the history and philosophy of psychology, perception, and mind, with seminal contributions including the book The Natural and the Normative: Theories of Spatial Perception from Kant to Helmholtz (1990), which examines the interplay of empirical and transcendental approaches to perception, and numerous essays on Descartes' psychology, such as those exploring his mechanistic views of the mind in works like Descartes and the Meditations (2003).^[34] In advancing the continuity thesis, Hatfield argues that medieval theories of vision provided foundational elements for early modern empirical psychology, particularly through the intromission model developed by Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham) and transmitted via Roger Bacon's Opus majus (1267), which emphasized the geometric projection of light forms into the eye as a basis for spatial perception.^[35] This framework, he contends, evolved without radical rupture into seventeenth-century theories by Descartes and Malebranche, where visual sensations were analyzed as natural signs requiring inferential processes to yield perceptual judgments about external objects, thus bridging scholastic optics to the empirical psychology of Locke.^[36] Hatfield further highlights continuity in the mind-body problem, tracing its persistence from scholastic debates on the soul's union with the body—rooted in Aristotelian and Thomistic traditions—to Locke's empiricist treatment in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689), where mental operations arise from sensory experience without positing a substantive dualism that severs psychological inquiry from natural philosophy. In his chapter "Remaking the Science of Mind: Psychology as a Natural Science" (1995), he demonstrates how eighteenth-century psychology retained this thread by classifying mental powers under natural laws, avoiding the sharp discontinuities posited by some histories of the Scientific Revolution. Hatfield's unique emphasis lies in psychological continuity, wherein medieval intromission theories prefigure modern cognitive science by positing unconscious inferential mechanisms in perception—such as Bacon's "species" as intermediaries—that anticipate contemporary models of visual processing in computational theories of mind.^[37] This perspective aligns briefly with Franklin and Pasnau's arguments for epistemological continuity in medieval contributions to modern logic and certainty.

Arun Bala

Arun Bala is an Indian-Canadian historian of science and philosopher, holding a Ph.D. in philosophy from the University of Western Ontario, with prior degrees in physics from the National University of Singapore.^[38] He has taught history and philosophy of science at the National University of Singapore and served as a senior research fellow at the Asia Research Institute there, while also holding visiting positions, including at the University of Toronto.^[39] Bala's scholarship extends the continuity thesis by emphasizing the role of non-Western scientific traditions in the emergence of modern science, challenging Eurocentric narratives through a focus on intercultural dialogues. In his seminal work, The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science (2006), Bala argues that modern science arose not as a uniquely European achievement but through hybrid interactions involving Asian, Arabic, and ancient Egyptian ideas transmitted to Europe during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries.^[40] He highlights specific contributions, such as Indian mathematical concepts—like infinite series and negative numbers—influencing Islamic algebra, which in turn shaped European developments in calculus and symbolic mathematics during the Scientific Revolution.^[41] Similarly, Bala points to Chinese cosmological and observational practices, including precise astronomical measurements, as informing European heliocentric models via Jesuit exchanges. These examples underscore his rejection of a pure Western origin for modernity, positing instead a dialogic continuity where non-Western traditions provided essential conceptual and technical foundations.^[42] Bala further develops this globalized perspective in Asia, Europe, and the Emergence of Modern Science: Knowledge Crossing Boundaries (2012), an edited volume that examines cross-cultural knowledge flows as key to scientific innovation.^[43] Here, he addresses Eurocentrism by illustrating hybrid developments, such as the integration of Indian and Chinese empirical methods with European experimentation in optics and mechanics, fostering the methodological pluralism of early modern science. This approach complements George Saliba's emphasis on Islamic transmissions by broadening the scope to include East Asian influences in a multifaceted continuity.^[44] Bala's framework thus reframes the continuity thesis as a worldwide process, highlighting mutual exchanges that overcame cultural boundaries to propel scientific progress.

Criticisms and Debates

Ideological Critiques

Critics have accused the continuity thesis, particularly as articulated by Pierre Duhem, of being driven by ideological motivations rooted in Catholic nationalism and apologetics, which intrude upon objective historical analysis. In their 2011 analysis, Bernard R. Goldstein and Giora Hon argue that Duhem's emphasis on gradual evolution in scientific thought served to rehabilitate the medieval Catholic intellectual tradition, portraying it as a harmonious precursor to modern science rather than a period of stagnation or conflict.^[45] They contend that this narrative downplays significant tensions between science and the Church, such as the trial of Galileo in 1633, which Duhem largely ignored to avoid highlighting institutional opposition to heliocentrism. Alexandre Koyré offered an early and influential counterpoint by stressing conceptual revolutions in the history of science, which inherently challenge the continuity thesis's minimization of breaks. Through Maurice Clavelin's examination, Koyré's work underscores discontinuities, such as the shift from medieval qualitative physics to the mathematical frameworks of the seventeenth century, arguing that Duhem's gradualism overlooks these profound paradigmatic changes.^[46] This critique positions the continuity thesis as ideologically selective, favoring evolutionary harmony over evidence of rupture to align with apologetic goals. Broader ideological concerns extend to the risk of anachronism, where proponents project modern scientific standards onto medieval thought, thereby distorting historical alterity. Paul Freedman and Gabrielle M. Spiegel identify this as a hallmark of twentieth-century North American medievalism, where the continuity thesis reinforced a progressive narrative that assimilated the Middle Ages into a teleological story of Western development, often at the expense of recognizing period-specific worldviews.^[47] Such approaches, they argue, stem from cultural and ideological commitments to continuity, blurring the line between historical inquiry and contemporary self-justification. Historical examples of this bias appear in critiques of George Sarton's influential historiography, which promoted a humanistic vision of science's development that privileged unbroken progress over genuine epistemological shifts. Sarton's framework, emphasizing the integration of science into broader human endeavors, has been faulted for underplaying discontinuities, such as the methodological breaks during the Scientific Revolution, in favor of a cohesive narrative that aligns with liberal humanistic ideals. This selective emphasis, critics note, reflects an ideological preference for continuity that echoes Duhem's apologetic undertones while adapting them to a secular, progressive context.

Responses to Discontinuity Thesis

Proponents of the continuity thesis have offered robust rebuttals to the discontinuity narrative, emphasizing institutional and intellectual developments in the medieval period that directly informed modern science. Edward Grant, in his analysis of medieval natural philosophy, argues against the "dark ages" myth by highlighting the pivotal role of universities such as Paris and Oxford, which institutionalized rigorous inquiry into logic, natural philosophy, and theology, creating a stable framework for scientific thought that persisted into the early modern era.^[48] These institutions, supported by the Church, fostered methodologies like hypothetical reasoning and empirical observation, which Grant contends laid essential groundwork for the Scientific Revolution, countering claims of a complete intellectual rupture.^[19] Specific arguments draw on empirical evidence from historical texts to demonstrate incremental progress across eras, particularly in mechanics. For instance, medieval scholars like Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme developed impetus theory, which explained projectile motion through sustained internal force, bridging Aristotelian kinematics and later Newtonian principles without abrupt breaks.^[1] This continuity is evident in how Oresme's graphical representations of velocity and acceleration prefigured Descartes' and Galileo's work, showing a gradual evolution rather than revolutionary invention.^[49] Such textual analyses refute the discontinuity thesis as an oversimplification, often rooted in 19th-century ideologies that portrayed medieval Europe as stagnant to exalt Enlightenment progress, as seen in John William Draper's portrayal of religious suppression stifling science.^[50] In response to persistent ideological critiques portraying science as perpetually at war with medieval traditions, continuity advocates integrate global and philosophical perspectives to address Eurocentrism. Arun Bala extends the thesis by tracing modern science's emergence to interactions among European, Chinese, Indian, and Islamic civilizations, arguing that 17th-century breakthroughs built on cross-cultural exchanges rather than isolated Western genius.^[51] Similarly, Gary Hatfield reevaluates the Scientific Revolution, questioning its "revolutionary" label by showing how 17th-century innovations in perception and mechanics evolved from scholastic foundations, challenging narratives of total paradigm shifts. Post-2000 archival studies have bolstered these defenses, uncovering manuscripts that reveal sustained transmission of knowledge, such as Arabic-to-Latin translations influencing Copernican astronomy, thus undermining outdated Eurocentric discontinuity models.^[52] The continuity thesis continues to evolve in contemporary scholarship to counter enduring "revolution" tropes in popular histories of science. Recent works, such as Dennis Dieks' 2023 examination of scientific realism, leverage historical continuity to argue that successive theories exhibit emergent links—e.g., from Aristotelian mechanics to Newtonian physics—without radical breaks, supporting realism's claim of progressive truth approximation.^[53] This approach reframes debates, positioning continuity not as mere preservation but as a dynamic process that integrates global contributions and philosophical rigor to dismantle simplified origin myths.

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A. C. Graham. He argues that in China practical and theoretical concerns ... Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study. Kent, UK: World of Islam. Festival ...
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Asia, Europe, and the Emergence of Modern Science - SpringerLink
Asia, Europe, and the Emergence of Modern Science ; © 2012 ; eBook USD 39.99. Price excludes VAT (USA) ; Softcover Book USD 54.99 ; Hardcover Book USD 54.99 ; About ...
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[PDF] Untitled - Bazhum
Bala, The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science and G. Saliba, Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance have begun to ...
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The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages
The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional and Intellectual Contexts
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How medieval thinkers did physics without knowing it | Aeon Essays
Apr 13, 2023 · Medieval thinkers foreshadowed modern physics in investigating the character of machines, devices and forces.
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History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science
By John William Draper, M. D., LL. D. PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW ... The dark ages owe their darkness to this fatal policy. Here and there, it ...
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How Modern Science Came into the World : Four Civilizations, One ...
Arun Bala. In his study How Modern Science Came into the World: Four ... The paper presents a short historical review about the development of academic ...
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Circulation and the Global History of Science | Isis
Sci., 2005, 35:463–489; Arun Bala, ed., Asia, Europe, and the Emergence of Modern Science: Knowledge Crossing Boundaries (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012); ...
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Emergence, Continuity, and Scientific Realism | Global Philosophy
Aug 29, 2023 · This paper aims to critically scrutinize one argument for scientific realism, namely, that the history of science demonstrates a continuity between successive ...