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Development of Windows 95

The development of Windows 95, codenamed Chicago, represented Microsoft's ambitious project to integrate MS-DOS and Windows into a single, user-friendly operating system, with initial design work commencing as early as 1990 and significant contributions from the Cairo team in 1992–1993, ultimately leading to its commercial release on August 24, 1995.^[1]^[2] This effort involved a core team of approximately 350 individuals, including around 160 developers and 160 testers, who focused on achieving backward compatibility with existing 16-bit MS-DOS and Windows 3.1 applications while introducing a hybrid 16/32-bit architecture to support emerging 32-bit software.^[1] Key goals included enhancing performance to match or exceed Windows 3.1 on 4 MB systems, eliminating unrecoverable application errors, and providing preemptive multitasking for 32-bit applications, all while transitioning to a document-centric interface and reducing reliance on real-mode MS-DOS components.^[1] The project built on precursor initiatives like the abandoned Panther effort—a scaled-down version of the Windows NT kernel—which influenced the final memory management and API design but was deemed too resource-intensive to pursue fully.^[3] Major milestones marked steady progress amid challenges such as ensuring seamless upgrades and robust networking; these included the first external test release (M4) in August 1993, the M5 showcase at the Win32 developers conference in December 1993, and Beta 1 distribution to about 15,000 users in June 1994.^[1] Innovations developed during this phase, such as the Start button, taskbar, support for long filenames, Plug and Play hardware detection, and the Recycle Bin, fundamentally reshaped personal computing by prioritizing ease of use and connectivity for both standalone and networked PCs.^[2]^[1] Subprojects under cat-themed codenames—like Jaguar for the 16-bit DOS kernel, Cougar for the 32-bit DOS kernel, and Stimpy for the user interface—helped modularize the complex build process.^[4] The resulting system sold 7 million copies in its first five weeks, solidifying Windows 95 as the world's most popular operating system and paving the way for broader PC and internet adoption.^[2]

Background and Planning

Pre-Development Context

Microsoft's operating system journey began with MS-DOS in 1981, a command-line-based system derived from 86-DOS and licensed to IBM as PC-DOS, which established a vast software ecosystem but remained limited to text interfaces and single-tasking on early x86 processors.^[5] This foundation persisted through the introduction of graphical user interfaces, starting with Windows 1.0 in 1985, a 16-bit shell that ran atop MS-DOS to provide basic windows, icons, and mouse support, though it still required DOS for core operations and application launching.^[6] Subsequent releases, such as Windows 3.0 in 1990, enhanced the GUI with improved multitasking for DOS programs, 256-color support, and up to 16 MB of RAM, while Windows 3.1 in April 1992 added TrueType fonts, better stability, and a minimum 1 MB RAM requirement, yet all versions retained their dependence on MS-DOS as the underlying platform.^[5]^[6] These early systems suffered from significant architectural constraints rooted in their 16-bit design and MS-DOS heritage, including cooperative multitasking that could halt the entire system if one application failed to yield control, leading to frequent crashes and instability.^[5] The reliance on DOS meant users endured a cumbersome boot process involving dual operating layers, with Windows acting merely as an overlay rather than a standalone OS, exacerbating incompatibilities with emerging hardware like larger hard drives and advanced processors beyond the 80386.^[6] Memory management remained fragmented, capped at low limits per application despite overall system expansions, and the lack of native 32-bit support hindered performance on increasingly powerful PCs, frustrating users and developers seeking more robust environments.^[5] External competition intensified these shortcomings, particularly from Apple's Macintosh System 7, released in May 1991, which offered superior integration with virtual memory, built-in networking, TrueType fonts, and true multitasking in a cohesive GUI, positioning the Mac as a more seamless alternative for creative and business users.^[7]^[8] Analysts projected 1.5 to 3 million Macintosh upgrades that year, underscoring Apple's push to defend its market share amid Microsoft's growing Windows adoption and an ongoing copyright lawsuit, compelling Microsoft to accelerate innovations for a unified consumer experience.^[7] Internally, Microsoft pursued parallel tracks, launching Windows NT development in 1988 under engineer Dave Cutler to create a robust, 32-bit OS for enterprise and workstation use, culminating in Windows NT 3.1's release in July 1993 with features like preemptive multitasking and POSIX support, but its high hardware demands sidelined it from the consumer segment.^[9]^[10] This focus left everyday users reliant on the aging, DOS-based Windows lineage, highlighting the need for a new consumer-oriented system to bridge the gap.^[5]

Project Setup and Goals

The development of Windows 95, codenamed "Chicago," was formally initiated in March 1992, shortly following the release of Windows 3.1, as Microsoft sought to unify its operating system offerings for consumer markets.^[11] This project emerged from internal efforts to address the limitations of prior DOS-based Windows versions, aiming to create a cohesive platform that integrated graphical user interfaces with underlying system services.^[12] Brad Silverberg, recruited by Bill Gates in 1990 to lead Microsoft's Windows efforts, served as senior vice president of the Personal Systems Division and project lead starting in 1993, providing high-level direction while Gates contributed overarching vision without direct involvement in coding.^[13]^[14] The primary goals, as outlined in an internal March 1992 email by Silverberg, focused on delivering a simple, consistent, and integrated operating system to enhance user productivity and serve as a foundation for future applications, with an initial target ship date of late 1994.^[11] Key objectives included achieving full backward compatibility with existing DOS and 16-bit Windows applications and drivers, introducing 32-bit preemptive multitasking for improved stability, and enabling a simplified installation process that eliminated the need for a separate MS-DOS boot.^[11]^[12] These aims positioned Chicago as a consumer-oriented successor to merge MS-DOS 7.0 elements seamlessly into a single OS, targeting high-volume personal computing devices like desktops and notebooks.^[15] Organizationally, the Chicago team was formed within Microsoft's Personal Systems Division, drawing on subprojects with codenames such as Jaguar for the 16-bit DOS kernel, Cougar for the 32-bit DOS kernel, Panther for the Win32 kernel, and Stimpy for the user interface, to coordinate integration efforts across multiple sites including Redmond and North Carolina.^[4]^[11] Early internal previews in 1992 highlighted Chicago as a next-generation operating system intended to compete with platforms like the Macintosh, with an ambitious initial release target of 1993 that was later postponed due to development complexities.^[11]^[16]

Core Development

Technical Architecture

Windows 95 featured a hybrid kernel architecture that combined a 32-bit protected-mode kernel with underlying 16-bit MS-DOS components to balance performance, compatibility, and backward support for legacy applications. The core kernel, built on a DOS extender foundation, operated in protected mode to enable preemptive multitasking specifically for 32-bit Win32 applications, allowing the operating system to interrupt and switch between these processes without relying on cooperative yielding. This preemptive behavior improved system responsiveness and stability for modern software, contrasting with the cooperative multitasking retained for 16-bit applications running in dedicated Virtual DOS Machines (VDMs). VDMs emulated a protected environment for 16-bit DOS and Windows 3.x programs, encapsulating them to prevent crashes from affecting the entire system while leveraging the 32-bit kernel's scheduling for isolation.^[17]^[18] The boot process integrated MS-DOS 7.0 as the foundational real-mode loader, eliminating the need for a separate DOS installation and streamlining startup by transitioning directly into the protected-mode environment. MS-DOS 7.0 handled initial hardware initialization and loaded essential drivers before handing control to the Windows 95 kernel via IO.SYS and COMMAND.COM, which then mounted the file system and launched the graphical shell. This integration supported a unified boot sequence where real-mode code configured basic I/O and memory, followed by a switch to protected mode for higher-level operations. The file system introduced VFAT (Virtual File Allocation Table), an extension of the FAT12/16 structure that enabled long filenames up to 255 characters while preserving 8.3 compatibility through additional Unicode directory entries and generated short-name aliases. VFAT, managed by the vfat.vxd driver under the Installable File System Manager (IFSMgr), operated in ring-0 protected mode to handle file operations efficiently, supporting cluster sizes as powers of 2 and volumes up to 2 TB in later releases, with block caching via VCACHE for optimized disk access.^[19]^[20] Memory management in Windows 95 provided a 32-bit flat address space for Win32 applications, utilizing paging and linear addressing to deliver up to 4 GB of virtual memory per process, a significant advancement over the segmented model in Windows 3.1. This flat model simplified programming by treating memory as a continuous linear region, with the lower 2 GB typically allocated to user space and the upper 2 GB reserved for kernel operations, enhancing efficiency for 32-bit code execution. The system employed a linear memory allocator derived from earlier Windows versions but optimized for the hybrid structure, incorporating techniques like demand-paged virtual memory to reduce physical RAM requirements and improve performance through better fragmentation handling compared to Windows 3.1's GlobalAlloc-based linear allocation. Legacy 16-bit components, including VDMs, were confined to segmented addressing within their virtual machines to maintain compatibility without compromising the 32-bit subsystem's flat space.^[21] Hardware abstraction in Windows 95 centered on the early Plug and Play (PnP) framework, which introduced automated device detection and configuration to mitigate common hardware conflicts like IRQ overlaps. The framework relied on a configuration manager, hardware tree, and bus-specific enumerators to scan buses (e.g., ISA, PCI, PCMCIA) during boot, identifying devices via unique identifiers such as 72-bit serial numbers or tuples and populating resource requirements into device nodes. For ISA buses, an isolation protocol assigned Card Select Numbers (CSNs) and read nonvolatile storage for details, while PCI used 256-byte configuration spaces per device compliant with the PCI Local Bus Specification 2.0. IRQ sharing was enabled through dynamic arbitration, allowing multiple devices (e.g., network adapters) to share lines like IRQ5 or IRQ7 when configured as level-sensitive, with the BIOS and OS prioritizing unique assignments where possible and supporting up to eight IRQ options per logical device, including disable states. This abstraction layer, supported by Plug and Play BIOS version 1.0a, facilitated bus enumeration without manual intervention, reporting resources like I/O addresses, DMA channels, and interrupts to resolve conflicts via software reconfiguration.^[22]

Key Features and Innovations

The development of Windows 95's user interface represented a significant overhaul aimed at improving accessibility and navigation, building on the 32-bit kernel foundations to enable more intuitive interactions. The Start menu, prototyped as early as January 1993 during usability testing of early desktop designs inspired by the Cairo project, served as a centralized hub for launching programs, accessing settings, and managing recent documents, fundamentally altering how users interacted with the operating system.^[23]^[24] Complementing this, the taskbar provided persistent access to running applications and system notifications, evolving from earlier concepts to include quick-launch capabilities that reduced reliance on desktop clutter. The Explorer shell, introduced in the December 1993 beta, replaced the Program Manager and File Manager with a unified interface supporting hierarchical file browsing through tree views and shell namespace structures, allowing users to navigate folders and drives in a more organized, object-oriented manner.^[25] Networking and multimedia capabilities were enhanced to support emerging internet and entertainment uses, integrating protocols directly into the OS for broader accessibility. Windows 95 included a built-in TCP/IP stack, enabling native internet connectivity without third-party add-ons and facilitating features like web browsing and email. Dial-Up Networking was developed as a core component, simplifying modem-based connections to remote networks through automated scripting and phone book management, which streamlined remote access for home users. Initial precursors to DirectX, such as the DirectDraw API for hardware-accelerated graphics, laid groundwork for gaming by providing low-level access to video and sound hardware, though DirectX 1.0 was released as a separate download in September 1995.^[26] Long filename support, implemented via the VFAT extension to the FAT file system, allowed paths up to 255 characters while maintaining backward compatibility with 8.3 naming conventions through alias entries.^[27]^[25] Device management innovations focused on reducing user intervention for hardware integration, with the Plug and Play (PnP) specification finalized in May 1994 through the joint Plug and Play BIOS standard. This enabled dynamic detection and resource allocation for peripherals like printers and sound cards, eliminating much of the manual IRQ and DMA configuration required in prior systems. USB support was added post-launch in later OSR updates via supplemental drivers, initially for basic devices like input devices rather than storage.^[28]^[29] Improvements in security and stability emphasized centralized management and crash isolation to enhance reliability. The registry database was introduced as a hierarchical store for configuration data, replacing scattered INI files from Windows 3.1 with a unified, binary format that supported complex data types and reduced configuration conflicts across applications. For handling application crashes, enhancements to heap management provided fault tolerance by isolating failures in 32-bit processes, preventing system-wide instability through better memory protection mechanisms.

Testing and Milestones

Internal Development Milestones

The internal development of Windows 95, codenamed Chicago, began in earnest in mid-1992, encompassing several subprojects that were eventually merged. Early phases from 1992 to 1993 centered on integrating an alpha version of MS-DOS 7.0—the 16-bit DOS kernel subproject codenamed Jaguar—with prototypes of the Windows shell to create a unified consumer operating system.^[4] These efforts laid the foundation for better DOS-Windows compatibility, drawing from separate initiatives like the 32-bit DOS kernel (Cougar) and initial Win32 kernel explorations (Panther).^[4] A significant early milestone occurred in August 1993 with build 58s, part of Milestone 4 and the first release of the Chicago Preliminary Development Kit. This build introduced foundational concepts for the Start menu—a proto-version with three buttons for app management, launching, and help—and the taskbar, evolving beyond the Windows 3.1 interface while retaining compatibility elements like a turquoise desktop and warning wallpaper.^[24] Mid-development in 1994 emphasized stability under the Jaguar phase, as the team refined the core architecture for broader usability. Build 189, compiled on September 21, 1994, served as the first usable preview explicitly branded as Windows 95 (Beta 1.4), featuring key integration of Windows Explorer as the primary shell executable (Explorer.exe) and a revamped user interface closer to the final design, including sidebar elements in the Start menu and larger icons.^[30] In late internal development during 1995, the project incorporated technologies from the abandoned Panther subproject, which had aimed to port the 32-bit USER and GDI subsystems from Windows NT for enhanced graphics and window management in a low-memory environment (targeting under 4MB total). Build 490, dated June 8, 1995, marked Release Candidate 1, incorporating these final architecture tweaks such as improved 32-bit forwarding to 16-bit components and serving as the basis for extensive internal testing before public betas.^[3]^[31]

Beta Releases and Feedback

The first public beta release of Windows 95, designated Beta 1 (build 122), occurred in June 1994 through the Windows 95 Preview Program, initially distributed to about 15,000 developers and early adopters before expanding via the public program.^[1] This initiative allowed participants to purchase access for $19.95, receiving installation media on floppy disks bundled with a subscription to the Microsoft Network (MSN) online service.^[32] The Preview Program made the beta available to approximately 400,000 users worldwide and focused primarily on gathering feedback regarding the user interface, including the new Start menu and taskbar.^[33] Subsequent betas, including Beta 2 and incremental upgrades in early 1995, expanded distribution to a broader audience, including original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and developers. These releases emphasized compatibility testing, where feedback highlighted frequent crashes in 16-bit applications due to limitations in the Virtual DOS Machine (VDM) subsystem. Microsoft responded by enhancing VDM stability to better support legacy software, reducing instability in mixed 16-bit and 32-bit environments.^[34] Unauthorized leaks of early development builds also emerged during this period, with build 58s—a Milestone 4 version compiled in August 1993—circulating among hardware enthusiasts and bulletin board system (BBS) users. Public beta testing further exposed flaws in Plug and Play (PnP) hardware detection, where inconsistent driver support led to failed installations and device conflicts; this prompted Microsoft to accelerate certification requirements for hardware vendors to ensure broader compatibility.^[35] Overall, the beta programs engaged approximately 400,000 testers who submitted data through Microsoft's usability laboratories and online forums, enabling iterative refinements that addressed key stability issues before advancing to release candidate builds.^[33]

Final Stages

Overcoming Challenges

During the development of Windows 95, one of the primary challenges was ensuring compatibility with the vast ecosystem of existing 16-bit DOS and Windows 3.1 applications while introducing 32-bit advancements. This balance created significant setup complexities, as the operating system needed to boot from legacy environments without requiring users to manually configure dual-boot systems or install additional intermediaries. To address this, the development team implemented a mini-Windows 3.1 loader for the installation process, which handled file copying and reboots in a familiar 16-bit environment, avoiding the need for a full 32-bit setup kernel that would have been prone to hardware incompatibilities during early stages. Additionally, Virtual DOS Machine (VDM) isolation was employed to run 16-bit applications in protected sessions, preventing legacy code from destabilizing the 32-bit core while maintaining seamless integration.^[36] Hardware and driver integration posed another major hurdle, particularly with the introduction of Plug and Play (PnP) technology, which aimed to automate device detection and resource allocation but initially led to conflicts due to inconsistent vendor support for PnP-compliant BIOS, cards, and peripherals. Early implementations suffered from resource overlaps, such as IRQ and DMA channel contention, exacerbated by the limited address space in ISA-based systems and varying adherence to the PnP BIOS Specification v1.0a. These issues were mitigated through mandatory OEM testing requirements under the Windows Hardware Quality Labs (WHQL) program, which enforced Hardware Compatibility Tests (HCT) to verify device reconfigurability, resource reporting, and OS integration before certification for the "Designed for Windows 95" logo. Furthermore, enhanced IRQ auto-assignment algorithms in the Windows 95 resource arbitrator prioritized boot-critical devices and resolved conflicts dynamically using priority levels (0 for optimal, up to 2 for suboptimal), reducing manual intervention needs and improving overall system stability.^[22] Performance bottlenecks emerged from the hybrid 16/32-bit architecture, where early 32-bit code exhibited inefficiencies in memory management and multitasking, leading to higher latency in graphical operations and frequent application hangs compared to pure 16-bit Windows 3.1. Developers addressed these through targeted optimizations, including tweaks to the preemptive scheduling mechanism to better handle thread priorities and reduce context-switching overhead in multi-tasking scenarios. Memory allocators were refined to minimize fragmentation in the virtual memory subsystem, supporting larger address spaces without excessive paging. Iterative usability engineering, involving 64 lab testing phases with over 560 participants, further refined these elements, resulting in users completing common tasks approximately 50% faster than under Windows 3.1.^[23] Resource constraints intensified as development delays pushed the project timeline, with the team expanding to more than 200 engineers to manage the 11 million lines of code. Usability engineering played a crucial role in tracking and resolving issues, exemplified by the purchase of over $10,000 worth of software from local stores to test compatibility with thousands of applications, which generated extensive problem reports processed through systematic bug-tracking protocols. No significant legal obstacles arose during core development, as antitrust scrutiny from the U.S. Department of Justice emerged only post-release in the late 1990s.^[37]^[38]

Preparation for Release

In the final months leading up to release, the Windows 95 development team concentrated on post-release candidate testing from June to July 1995, prioritizing bug fixes to enhance registry stability and refine built-in networking capabilities, including resolutions to initial TCP/IP stack issues. These efforts addressed lingering issues in the new registry system, which replaced older configuration files for improved performance and scalability, and polished network integration to support seamless connectivity for home and small office users. Concurrently, Microsoft conducted extensive hardware certification through its Compatibility Labs, verifying compatibility across thousands of PC configurations to ensure broad support for existing peripherals and systems, in line with the PC 95 standards outlined in the official Hardware Design Guide. The final beta, Build 501 (Release Candidate 1), was distributed in June 1995.^[39]^[40] The culmination of these preparations occurred with the release to manufacturing (RTM) on July 14, 1995, using build 4.00.950 as the final version. This build incorporated last-minute user interface tweaks derived from iterative usability testing, including refinements to the Start menu and Explorer shell based on feedback from design-test-redesign cycles conducted by the UI team. These adjustments aimed to improve intuitiveness and accessibility, drawing from principles of usability engineering to better accommodate diverse user needs.^[41] Parallel to technical finalization, the marketing team developed an ambitious launch campaign, prominently featuring the Rolling Stones' song "Start Me Up" after negotiations led by Windows 95 marketing director Brad Chase. The deal, finalized in May 1995 following meetings in Amsterdam and phone discussions with the band's management, secured rights to the 1981 track for $3 million, aligning its theme with the new Start button to generate buzz. The Windows 95 Preview Program was expanded in the summer of 1995 to distribute beta builds like 490 to developers and enthusiasts, building hype while the development focus shifted to OEM readiness, including preinstallation tools and driver certification to facilitate easy integration on new PCs.^[42]^[43] Development delays from an initial 1994 target to 1995 stemmed from scope expansion, incorporating features like 32-bit preemptive multitasking, the taskbar, Plug and Play hardware support, and long filename handling to enhance compatibility with prior Windows 3.1 and DOS applications. This final push ensured Windows 95 could run on most existing PCs meeting minimum requirements, such as a 386 processor and 4 MB RAM, while maintaining backward compatibility for legacy software.^[44]^[45]

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