Djerba
Djerba (Arabic: جربة) is the largest island in North Africa, spanning 514 square kilometers in the Gulf of Gabès off the southeastern coast of Tunisia in the Mediterranean Sea.[1][2][3] The island features flat terrain with extensive sandy beaches, olive groves, and a mild subtropical climate conducive to agriculture and tourism, and it connects to the mainland via a causeway and ferry services.[2] With a population of approximately 175,000, primarily Berbers, Arabs, and a small Jewish minority, Djerba has been continuously inhabited for over 6,000 years, serving as a historical crossroads for Phoenician, Carthaginian, Roman, Vandal, Byzantine, Arab, and Ottoman influences.[4][3][5] Its economy centers on tourism, which draws visitors to resorts and sites like the ancient El Ghriba Synagogue—one of the oldest in the Diaspora and focal point for an annual Jewish pilgrimage—alongside traditional pottery production and date cultivation.[6][7] The island's unique cultural landscape, including vernacular architecture and hara (village) settlements, earned UNESCO World Heritage status in 2023, underscoring its enduring testimony to adaptive human habitation patterns.[8] Notable challenges include emigration from the Jewish community, numbering around 1,300 and predominantly Kohanim, amid security threats exemplified by a 2023 terrorist attack at El Ghriba that killed five pilgrims, reflecting broader instability in the region despite relative local coexistence.[9][7][10][11]Geography
Physical Features
Djerba is the largest island in North Africa, encompassing an area of 514 square kilometers in the Gulf of Gabès off Tunisia's southeastern coast.[2] The island spans approximately 27 kilometers in length and 26 kilometers in width, forming a quadrilateral shape with a 161-kilometer coastline.[12] [13] The topography is predominantly flat and low-lying, with an average elevation of 7 meters above sea level, characterized by sandy terrains, dunes in the northeast, and limited relief.[14] [15] The highest point reaches about 48 meters near Guellala, as indicated by topographic surveys, though some measurements suggest up to 53 meters in adjacent areas.[16] Geologically, Djerba features Mio-Pliocene aquifer formations overlain by Quaternary dunes and Holocene bioclastic deposits, particularly in northern coastal zones, contributing to its permeable sandy soils and vulnerability to coastal sediment dynamics.[15] [17] The island is separated from the Tunisian mainland by a shallow strait, historically bridged by ancient causeways and now linked by modern infrastructure, facilitating its physical integration while preserving insular characteristics.[1]Administrative Divisions
Djerba is administratively part of Tunisia's Medenine Governorate and comprises three delegations: Djerba-Ajim, Djerba-Houmt Souk, and Djerba-Midoun.[18][1] These serve as the principal sub-provincial units, managing local administration, infrastructure, and services across the island's approximately 510 square kilometers.[19] The Djerba-Houmt Souk delegation, with its seat in the island's main town, includes sub-municipal areas such as Erriadh, Mellita, and Mezraya, focusing on commercial and administrative functions.[20] Djerba-Midoun delegation covers inland and tourist-heavy zones, while Djerba-Ajim handles coastal and port-related activities in the west.[21] Each delegation is further subdivided into imadats (sectors) and baladiyahs (municipalities) for finer governance.[22] As of the 2014 census, Djerba's population stood at 163,726 residents distributed among these delegations, supporting a density of roughly 320 people per square kilometer. Local advocacy persists for establishing Djerba as a separate governorate to enhance autonomy in tourism-driven development and resource allocation, separate from mainland Medenine priorities.[23]Climate and Environment
Climate Patterns
Djerba exhibits a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen Csa), characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, wetter winters influenced by its position in the Gulf of Gabès.[24] Average annual temperatures hover around 20°C (68°F), with total precipitation typically ranging from 200 to 250 mm annually, concentrated primarily in the autumn and winter months.[25] The island's coastal location moderates extremes, though rising temperatures—observed at approximately 0.46°C per decade from 1971 to 2020—have intensified summer heat and reduced relative humidity in recent years.[26] Summers (June to August) are hot and arid, with average high temperatures reaching 29–33°C (84–91°F) and lows around 23°C (73°F); rainfall is negligible, often below 5 mm per month, supporting prolonged sunny periods exceeding 10 hours daily.[27] Winters (December to February) bring milder conditions, with highs of 16–18°C (61–64°F) and lows occasionally dipping to 9–10°C (48–50°F), accompanied by the highest precipitation—up to 35–40 mm monthly—and occasional windy spells from northerly sirocco influences.[24] Spring and autumn serve as transitional seasons, with April and October seeing average highs of 22–25°C (72–77°F) and increased rainfall variability. Temperature extremes are moderated by the Mediterranean Sea, rarely falling below 7°C (45°F) or exceeding 38°C (100°F) in recorded data from Djerba-Zarzis International Airport.[28] Humidity peaks in summer, creating muggy conditions for about five months, while evaporation rates outpace precipitation year-round, contributing to the semi-arid undertones despite the Mediterranean classification.[28]| Month | Avg High (°C) | Avg Low (°C) | Precipitation (mm) |
|---|---|---|---|
| January | 16 | 10 | 25 |
| February | 17 | 10 | 20 |
| March | 19 | 12 | 20 |
| April | 22 | 14 | 15 |
| May | 26 | 18 | 5 |
| June | 29 | 21 | 2 |
| July | 32 | 23 | 1 |
| August | 33 | 24 | 2 |
| September | 30 | 22 | 10 |
| October | 26 | 19 | 35 |
| November | 21 | 14 | 30 |
| December | 17 | 11 | 25 |
Environmental Challenges
Djerba faces chronic water scarcity due to its semi-arid climate and limited freshwater resources, historically addressed through ancient cistern systems like fsegui, which are now being restored to capture rainwater amid declining precipitation.[29][8] A seawater desalination plant operational since around 2010 supplies the island's drinking water, producing 50,000 cubic meters per day with expansion plans to 75,000 cubic meters, though this relies on energy-intensive reverse osmosis processes that raise operational costs and environmental concerns from brine discharge.[30][31] Tourism intensifies demand, with peak-season hotel usage straining supplies and contributing to groundwater depletion in coastal aquifers.[32] Waste management failures exacerbate pollution, with tourism accounting for approximately 25% of Djerba's municipal solid waste in 2017, much of it unmanaged due to inadequate landfills and leading to open dumping and plastic accumulation on beaches and marine areas.[33] The economic cost of waste-related environmental degradation reached 14.1 million Tunisian dinars in 2014, highlighting systemic issues in collection and disposal amid rapid urbanization and seasonal visitor influxes since the 1960s mass tourism boom.[34] Garbage crises, including overflows in 2023-2024, have prompted local mobilization but underscore governance shortcomings in handling tourism-generated refuse.[35] Climate change compounds these pressures through rising sea levels and coastal erosion, with local rates estimated at 5.7 mm per year—faster than the global average—and affecting 14% of beaches as highly vulnerable to submersion by 2022 assessments.[36][37] Shoreline analysis from 1984 to 2019 shows average erosion of -4.09 meters per year in vulnerable zones like Rass Errmall, driven by stronger storms, reduced sediment supply from dams, and unchecked coastal development, while accretion occurs in some southeastern areas at +11.7 meters per year.[38] Droughts and shrinking rainfall further threaten agriculture and exacerbate salinization, prompting adaptation efforts like beach nourishment north of the island to counter losses observed in recent years.[39][40] Over-tourism amplifies erosion risks by altering natural dunes and increasing impervious surfaces that accelerate runoff.[41]History
Antiquity and Pre-Islamic Era
Djerba's earliest recorded associations trace to ancient Greek mythology, where the island is traditionally identified as the homeland of the Lotophagi, a people described in Homer's Odyssey (ca. 8th century BC) as consuming lotus fruits that induced lethargy and amnesia among Odysseus's crew.[42] This identification, echoed by later historians like Herodotus in his Histories (ca. 430 BC), reflects Djerba's position as a coastal waypoint in the Mediterranean, though no archaeological evidence confirms the mythical elements. Indigenous Berber populations, part of the broader Numidian and Libyan groups, likely occupied the island prior to external settlements, engaging in subsistence agriculture and pastoralism amid its semi-arid landscape.[43] Phoenician traders from Tyre and Sidon established early outposts on Djerba by the late 5th to mid-4th century BC, leveraging its sheltered harbors for maritime commerce.[44] The principal settlement, Meninx, emerged as a Punic emporium under Carthaginian influence, with initial evidence including Greek amphorae fragments from the end of the 5th century BC and murex shells indicating purple dye production—a key industry noted by Pliny the Elder ( Natural History 9.127).[44] Urban activity intensified in the mid-1st century BC, coinciding with the Roman destruction of Carthage in 146 BC, as Meninx served as a trading hub linking North Africa to Sicily and the Levant, spanning over 1.5 km along the southeast coast with workshops and cisterns.[44] [45] Under Roman rule, integrated into the province of Africa Proconsularis, Meninx flourished from the 1st century AD onward, becoming Djerba's eponymous capital and a major exporter of purple dye and agricultural goods.[46] Monumental construction peaked in the late 1st to early 2nd centuries AD, featuring a coastal forum (approximately 36 by 55 meters) with basilica and temples, a macellum market, thermal baths, and a Flavian-era jetty for maritime access.[44] The city's grid-like layout, revealed by magnetometer surveys, extended parallel to the shoreline, supporting a population engaged in trade between Thaenae and Lepcis Magna.[44] Prosperity endured into the Late Antique period under Byzantine administration until the mid-7th century AD, when Arab invasions marked the transition to Islamic rule, with Meninx abandoned by the late 7th century.[44]Islamic Conquest and Medieval Period
The Arab Muslim conquest of Djerba formed part of the Umayyad Caliphate's expansion into Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia and eastern Algeria) during the mid-to-late 7th century. Initial raids began under commanders like Abd Allah ibn Sa'ad ibn Abi Sarh around 647 CE, but sustained control was achieved through Uqba ibn Nafi's campaigns, which reached the region by 670 CE, establishing Kairouan as a base for further advances into Berber territories including coastal areas like Djerba.[47] Local Berber tribes, predominant on the island, mounted resistance, but the strategic island position facilitated naval integration into the caliphal domain, with Islamization proceeding through Arab settlement, taxation incentives, and conversion pressures on non-Muslims. By the 690s, under Hasan ibn al-Nu'man, Ifriqiya's consolidation included Djerba, marking the end of Byzantine remnants and the onset of Islamic governance, though Berber revolts persisted intermittently.[48] In the early medieval period (8th–10th centuries), Djerba fell under the Aghlabid dynasty (800–909 CE), Arab governors of Ifriqiya who prioritized coastal ribats (forts) for defense against Byzantines and to support naval raids into Sicily and Italy. Archaeological evidence indicates Aghlabid-era settlements and fortifications on the island, reflecting its role in maritime trade and military logistics, with products like dates, olives, and fish sustaining local economies tied to Kairouan.[49] The island's Berber Ibadi (a Kharijite offshoot) communities, emphasizing egalitarian piety over caliphal hierarchy, maintained semi-autonomy, occasionally aligning with the Ibadi Rustamid Imamate in Tahert (779–909 CE) rather than fully submitting to Sunni Aghlabid authority; this Ibadi presence, rooted in 8th-century migrations fleeing Abbasid persecution, preserved distinct religious practices amid broader Sunni dominance. The Fatimid Caliphate overthrew the Aghlabids in 909 CE, incorporating Djerba into their Ismaili Shia realm until 973 CE, when they relocated to Egypt, delegating rule to the Sunni Zirid dynasty (973–1148 CE), Sanhaja Berbers who shifted allegiance to Abbasid orthodoxy, provoking Hilali Bedouin invasions that disrupted Ifriqiya's agriculture and trade. Almohad Berbers conquered the Zirids by 1160 CE, imposing strict Malikite orthodoxy and centralizing administration, though Djerba's Ibadi enclaves resisted full assimilation, fostering localized governance. The Hafsid dynasty, Almohad viceroys who declared independence in 1230 CE, ruled until 1574 CE, with Djerba serving as a peripheral outpost; Hafsids promoted maritime commerce via ports like Ajim, but internal revolts and external pressures from Aragon and the Marinids highlighted the island's vulnerability, while its Ibadi population endured as a conservative minority, safeguarding manuscripts and traditions against orthodoxy. Throughout, Djerba's economy relied on oasis farming, pottery, and piracy, with Jewish dhimmi communities contributing to crafts under Islamic legal protections, though subject to jizya taxes and periodic restrictions.[50]Ottoman Rule and Early Modern Era
Djerba came under Ottoman influence in the early 16th century, when the corsair brothers Oruç and Hayreddin Barbarossa established a base on the island around 1510 amid their campaigns to extend Ottoman naval power in the western Mediterranean.[51] Full incorporation followed the Ottoman reconquest of Tunis in 1574, after which the island was administered as part of the semi-autonomous Regency of Tunis, with local governance by deys initially and later hereditary beys who collected taxes and maintained order while paying nominal allegiance to the Ottoman sultan.[52] [7] A pivotal event reinforcing Ottoman dominance was the Battle of Djerba in May 1560, during which the Ottoman fleet under Piyale Pasha annihilated a Habsburg-led Holy League armada of approximately 50 galleys off the island's coast, capturing or destroying over 30 Christian vessels and securing Ottoman control over key North African ports.[53] The Regency treated Djerba as a peripheral outpost, leveraging its strategic position for maritime trade and occasional corsair operations, though its Ibadi Berber inhabitants, descendants of Kharijite settlers, retained customary tribal autonomy under Ottoman overlordship.[54] The Jewish community, numbering in the thousands by the 17th century, prospered under the Ottoman millet system, which afforded religious minorities internal self-rule in civil matters, judicial affairs, and education, fostering the expansion of synagogues and rabbinical scholarship while integrating Jews into trade networks linking Europe and North Africa.[7] In the 17th and 18th centuries, European Jewish merchants from Livorno settled on the island, invigorating commerce in textiles, dyes, and olives, alongside the development of vaulted bazaars like Souk Erbaa, which served as hubs for caravanserais and regional exchange.[52] Agriculture dominated the local economy, with date palms and olive groves supporting export-oriented production, though intermittent piracy and tribal levies underscored the Regency's loose administrative grip until the late 18th century.[51]Colonial Period and Independence
In 1881, Tunisia, including the island of Djerba, became a French protectorate following the Treaty of Bardo, which established French control over foreign affairs and internal administration while nominally preserving the Bey's sovereignty.[55] Djerba initially fell under direct military administration from 1881 to 1890 to secure the island against potential resistance, after which it transitioned to civilian oversight integrated into the broader French colonial structure in Tunisia.[1] This period introduced infrastructural developments, such as improved roads and ports, alongside the gradual adoption of French-style secular education systems that supplanted traditional Qur'anic schooling in some areas, influencing local Berber and Arab communities. The Jewish community in Djerba, numbering around 5,000 by the early 20th century, experienced significant cultural shifts under French rule, with exposure to French language and customs through institutions like the Alliance Israélite Universelle schools, which promoted Western education while maintaining religious traditions.[7] French policies granted Jews relative protections and economic opportunities compared to the Ottoman era, contributing to a peak in the community's prosperity and population during the protectorate years, though underlying tensions persisted amid broader Arab nationalist stirrings.[56] Djerba's residents participated in the escalating independence movement from the 1930s onward, aligned with the Neo-Destour Party led by Habib Bourguiba, which organized strikes, protests, and armed resistance against French authority, particularly intensifying after World War II.[57] Tunisia, encompassing Djerba, achieved full independence on March 20, 1956, through negotiations culminating in the dismissal of French resident-general Pierre Boyer de la Tour du Moulin and the recognition of Tunisian sovereignty, marking the end of 75 years of protectorate rule.[55] Post-independence, Djerba integrated into the Republic of Tunisia without distinct separatist movements, though its traditional economy and communal structures faced modernization pressures from the central government in Tunis.[1]Post-Independence Developments
Following Tunisia's achievement of independence from France on March 20, 1956, Djerba integrated into the new republic under Prime Minister Habib Bourguiba, who pursued policies aimed at modernization and economic diversification. The island's economy, previously reliant on agriculture, fishing, and traditional crafts such as pottery and weaving, began shifting toward tourism as a key growth sector, with successive governments promoting mass tourism to drive employment and foreign exchange. This included the construction of dozens of hotels and the development of an international airport to accommodate growing numbers of European visitors, transforming Djerba into a prominent beach resort destination.[58][59] The Jewish community in Djerba, which had thrived alongside the Muslim majority, encountered emigration waves post-independence, driven by Zionist aspirations, economic uncertainties, and regional tensions; Tunisia's overall Jewish population declined from around 100,000 in 1956 to approximately 1,500 by the early 21st century, though Djerba retained the largest concentration, with about 1,100 residents maintaining distinct villages like Hara Sghira and Hara Kebira. Bourguiba's administration sought to mitigate intercommunal strains by granting citizenship rights and integrating some Jews into public roles, fostering relative stability compared to neighboring countries. Despite this, periodic violence, including Islamist attacks, tested resilience, yet the community preserved its synagogues and annual Lag BaOmer pilgrimage to El Ghriba, one of Africa's oldest.[56][60][61] Tourism infrastructure expanded rapidly, exemplified by the opening of the Coralia Hotel in 1964 with 350 rooms in Sidi Mahrez, signaling the onset of large-scale resort development tailored initially to Western preferences. By the late 20th century, Djerba hosted thousands of visitors annually, contributing significantly to Tunisia's GDP through beach resorts and cultural sites, though vulnerability to political instability—such as the 2011 revolution and subsequent security concerns—periodically disrupted growth. Traditional sectors persisted, with olive oil production and handicrafts complementing tourism, but the sector's dominance underscored Djerba's evolution from insular outpost to integrated economic hub within Tunisia.[62][63]Demographics and Communities
Population Composition
The population of Djerba totaled 163,726 according to Tunisia's 2014 census, with subsequent estimates placing it between 165,000 and 175,000 amid ongoing growth driven by natural increase and limited migration.[64][4] This figure encompasses residents across the island's delegations, including Houmt El Souk (75,904 in 2024) and Midoun (74,437 in 2024), reflecting a density of roughly 320 persons per square kilometer on the 514-square-kilometer island. Ethnically, the inhabitants are predominantly of Arab and Berber (Amazigh) descent, with the latter forming a distinct minority estimated at 11,000 individuals who maintain the Djerbi Berber language and cultural practices in villages such as Guellala and Sedouikech.[65] These Berbers, indigenous to the region, differ from the Arab majority through their adherence to Ibadi Islam, a moderate sect originating from early Kharijite traditions that emphasizes community consensus and has persisted as a minority faith amid Tunisia's overwhelming Sunni dominance.[65] Historical intermixing has led to Arabized Berbers comprising much of the population, though self-identification as Amazigh remains low nationally (around 1%), with Djerba preserving higher visibility of Berber identity via dialect, crafts like pottery, and endogamous villages.[66] Religiously, over 99% of Djerbans are Muslim, split between Sunni Maliki adherents (the Arab coastal and urban majority) and Ibadis (concentrated among Berbers).[65] A small but historically significant Jewish community, numbering approximately 1,000 to 1,500 and tracing origins to at least the Second Temple period, resides primarily in the quarters of Hara Kebira and Hara Sghira, engaging in trade, agriculture, and pilgrimage to the El Ghriba synagogue.[48][67] This group has declined from peaks of tens of thousands due to 20th-century emigration to Israel and France following independence and conflicts, yet it maintains synagogues, kosher markets, and annual rituals amid a Muslim-majority context of relative tolerance. Negligible numbers of Christians or other faiths exist, with sub-Saharan African descendants integrated into the Muslim population via historical trade routes. Tunisia conducts no official ethnic or religious censuses beyond broad national Muslim majorities, rendering subgroup figures reliant on ethnographic surveys and community estimates.[67]Jewish Community History and Current Status
The Jewish community of Djerba maintains one of the oldest continuous Jewish presences outside the Land of Israel, with origins tracing to 586 BCE following the Babylonian destruction of the First Temple in Jerusalem, when a group of priests (kohanim) and other Jews reportedly fled to the island.[68][10] This settlement formed the basis for villages like Hara Sghira and Hara Kebira, where Jews developed distinct dialects, crafts such as silversmithing and jewelry, and religious institutions including yeshivot.[48] The community endured through successive rulers—Phoenician, Roman, Vandal, Byzantine, and Arab conquests in the 7th century CE—often under dhimmi status with taxes and restrictions, yet preserving Torah study and synagogue life.[69] Under Ottoman rule from the 16th century, Djerba's Jews enjoyed relative autonomy, operating courts and schools, though subject to periodic jizya taxes and occasional pogroms elsewhere in Tunisia.[70] French protectorate status from 1881 brought citizenship options, economic opportunities, and Alliance Israélite Universelle schools, elevating literacy and integration, but World War II Vichy laws imposed discriminatory measures until Allied liberation in 1943.[71] Post-independence in 1956, Arab nationalism, the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, and the 1967 Six-Day War triggered mass emigration, reducing Tunisia's Jewish population from about 100,000 in the 1940s to fewer than 2,000 by the 21st century, with most Djerba Jews relocating to Israel or France.[69][72] Today, Djerba hosts approximately 1,000 to 1,500 Jews, comprising nearly all of Tunisia's remaining Jewish population, concentrated in the traditional haras with over a dozen active synagogues, including the ancient El Ghriba, Africa's oldest, revered for its mystical significance and annual Lag BaOmer pilgrimage attracting thousands from abroad.[73][7][67] The community, predominantly Cohanim, sustains private religious schools teaching in Hebrew and Judeo-Arabic, kosher markets, and rabbinical seminaries, fostering a conservative Orthodox lifestyle amid a Muslim-majority island of 160,000.[74][7] Despite Tunisian government facilitation of religious practices and tourism-driven goodwill, the community faces persistent challenges from Islamist antisemitism, exemplified by al-Qaeda's 2002 truck bombing at Ghriba killing 20 (mostly Germans) and a 2023 shooting by a Tunisian guard killing six, including two Jewish cousins.[67][75] Escalated hostility post-October 7, 2023, including synagogue vandalism and rhetoric linking local Jews to Israel, has prompted renewed emigration considerations among youth seeking economic stability elsewhere.[75][9]Religion
Islamic Practices
The Muslim population of Djerba, comprising the vast majority of the island's approximately 150,000 residents, predominantly follows Sunni Islam adhering to the Maliki school of jurisprudence, which emphasizes community consensus and practical legal reasoning derived from the Quran, hadith, and customary practices.[76] [77] A distinct minority among the Berber (Amazigh) communities practices Ibadi Islam, a tradition originating from early Kharijite schisms but characterized by egalitarian governance structures, rejection of hereditary caliphates, and stricter ritual purity requirements compared to Sunni norms.[65] [78] These practices manifest in daily observance of the five pillars—shahada (profession of faith), salat (five daily prayers), zakat (almsgiving), sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca for those able)—with local variations influenced by Berber customs, such as communal iftars during Ramadan featuring traditional date-based dishes and extended family gatherings.[78] Djerba hosts 250 to 300 mosques, underscoring the integral role of Islamic worship in social and educational life, with structures often doubling as madrasas for Quranic instruction and community assembly.[79] Local lore claims one mosque per day of the year, totaling around 365, many dating to medieval periods and reflecting architectural diversity: fortified minarets for defense in rural areas, domed prayer halls in urban settings, and simpler hypostyle designs in villages.[80] [78] Notable sites include the Mosque Al Ghorba in Houmt Souk, a landmark exemplifying Djerban Maliki aesthetics with whitewashed walls and a square minaret, serving as a hub for Friday congregational prayers (jummah).[81] Ibadi mosques, such as those in Jaabira and Al-Gerea, historically functioned as both religious and educational centers, preserving texts on fiqh (Islamic law) and fostering scholarly debates distinct from Maliki orthodoxy.[78] Religious festivals like Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha involve widespread mosque attendance, animal sacrifices distributed to the needy per zakat obligations, and public processions blending Arab and Berber elements, such as pottery-adorned floats in rural areas.[79] Sufi influences, though subdued compared to mainland Tunisia, appear in veneration of local marabouts (saintly figures) at sites like rural zawiyas, where pilgrims seek baraka (blessing) through dhikr (remembrance of God) recitations, though orthodox Maliki scholars critique such practices as bid'ah (innovation).[78] Gender-segregated prayer spaces in mosques reinforce traditional roles, with women often participating in home-based rituals or dedicated sections, reflecting conservative interpretations amid the island's insularity.[82]Jewish Heritage and Synagogues
Djerba's Jewish heritage reflects a continuous Diaspora community dating to at least the second century CE, with traditions linking its origins to exiles from Jerusalem following the First Temple's destruction in 586 BCE.[48] [10] The community has preserved distinct liturgical practices and a high proportion of Kohanim—priests tracing descent from Aaron—throughout its history.[9] This heritage manifests in religious architecture, rituals, and annual pilgrimages that emphasize textual study and communal prayer amid a Muslim-majority setting.[83] The island hosts multiple synagogues, historically numbering around 20 active ones during periods of peak population, though fewer operate today.[83] Central to this network is the El Ghriba Synagogue in Hara Sghira, regarded as Africa's oldest, with the site in continuous use for approximately 1,900 years despite 19th- and 20th-century reconstructions.[61] Its architecture integrates Jewish elements like the Torah ark and central bimah with local Tunisian influences, such as whitewashed walls and simple geometric motifs, facilitating rituals tied to its reputed foundational stone from the ancient Temple.[68] El Ghriba anchors the community's spiritual life, serving not for regular services but as a pilgrimage destination.[84] Annually, El Ghriba draws thousands for the Lag BaOmer pilgrimage, held 33 days after Passover to honor Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai through all-night vigils, Torah readings, and festive gatherings that blend local customs with Jewish observance.[85] This event, one of North Africa's last major Jewish-Muslim interfaith expressions, underscores Djerba's role in sustaining pre-modern pilgrimage traditions amid modern challenges.[86] Other synagogues, such as those in Hara Kbira including the Synagogue of the Kohanim of Djirt, support daily worship and reflect the priestly demographic's emphasis on ritual purity and lineage-based roles.[9]