Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Doomsday device

A doomsday device is a hypothetical weapon system engineered to automatically trigger global catastrophe, such as the extinction of human life through widespread radioactive contamination or nuclear devastation, serving as an ultimate deterrent in strategic conflicts.^[1] The concept was first articulated by physicist Leo Szilard in a 1950 radio broadcast, where he described encasing a thermonuclear bomb in cobalt to produce long-lived fallout capable of rendering Earth's surface uninhabitable for decades, not as a blueprint for construction but to underscore the horrifying scalability of hydrogen bomb technology.^[2] Popularized in Stanley Kubrick's 1964 film Dr. Strangelove, the idea evokes automated "fail-deadly" mechanisms that bypass human decision-making to ensure retaliation, even against decapitated leadership.^[3] In reality, while no such total-extinction device has been confirmed, the Soviet Union's Perimeter system—nicknamed "Dead Hand"—represents a partial analog, designed in the 1970s and reportedly still operational, to detect nuclear attacks via seismic and radiation sensors and autonomously authorize missile launches if political command is lost.^[4]^[5] These systems highlight tensions between deterrence credibility and the perils of algorithmic escalation, where false positives or malfunctions could precipitate unintended apocalypse, though empirical assessments question the technical feasibility of achieving literal planetary sterilization without massive, coordinated deployments beyond current arsenals.^[6]

Definition and Conceptual Foundations

Core Definition and Characteristics

A doomsday device refers to a theoretical or automated nuclear command-and-control system engineered to detect an incoming attack—through sensors monitoring seismic activity, radiation levels, atmospheric brightness, or loss of communication with central authorities—and automatically authorize a full-scale retaliatory launch of a nation's entire nuclear arsenal, irrespective of human intervention.^[7]^[5] This design ensures retaliation even if political or military leadership has been eliminated or incapacitated, addressing vulnerabilities in human-dependent deterrence where hesitation, miscalculation, or decapitation strikes could undermine credibility.^[8] Central characteristics include automation and autonomy, which remove discretionary decision-making to heighten deterrence reliability: once activated, the system operates on predefined thresholds without requiring authentication codes or overrides, programmed to interpret silence or attack signatures as triggers for indiscriminate, civilization-ending response.^[4]^[8] It typically incorporates hardened, survivable components—such as buried command modules resistant to electromagnetic pulses and blasts—to maintain functionality amid initial strikes.^[7] The payload emphasizes maximal destructive scope, often envisioning "salted" warheads that amplify long-term fallout via materials like cobalt, rendering vast regions uninhabitable beyond immediate blast effects, though practical implementations prioritize existing strategic missiles over exotic enhancements.^[5] From a strategic standpoint, the device's rationale rests on game-theoretic deterrence: by committing to inevitable, uncontrollable escalation, it compels adversaries to forgo first strikes, as the probability of survival drops to near zero, outperforming fallible human chains of command susceptible to paralysis under duress.^[8] However, this rigidity introduces risks of accidental activation from false positives, such as natural disasters mimicking attack indicators, underscoring a tension between enhanced credibility and potential for unintended apocalypse.^[7] Real-world analogs, like the Soviet Perimeter system operationalized in the early 1980s, demonstrate these traits in practice, with sensors cross-verifying data before unleashing pre-programmed salvoes.^[5]^[4]

Origins in Nuclear Strategy and Deterrence Theory

The notion of a doomsday device originated as a theoretical construct in nuclear strategy to address vulnerabilities in deterrence, particularly the risk of a decapitation strike that could eliminate a nation's leadership and command structure, thereby undermining second-strike credibility. Early Cold War deterrence thinking, evolving from the U.S. atomic monopoly ending with the Soviet test of RDS-1 on August 29, 1949, emphasized survivable retaliatory forces to impose unacceptable costs on an aggressor, as articulated in strategies like John Foster Dulles's "massive retaliation" doctrine announced in 1954. However, strategists recognized that human-operated systems remained susceptible to hesitation, communication failures, or targeted elimination, prompting exploration of automated mechanisms to enforce retaliation inexorably. Herman Kahn formalized the doomsday machine concept in his 1960 book On Thermonuclear War, portraying it as an immense, stationary cobalt-salted nuclear arsenal—far exceeding deliverable warheads—linked to sensors that would autonomously detect an attack and initiate global annihilation, bypassing presidential or military authorization to ensure foolproof deterrence. Kahn, a physicist at the RAND Corporation, employed the device as a stark hypothetical to compel policymakers to confront "unthinkable" scenarios, arguing it would render aggression irrational by guaranteeing planetary extinction, yet he critiqued its deployment for amplifying accident risks and eroding escalation control in finite or limited wars. This idea drew from game-theoretic foundations of deterrence, including John von Neumann's minimax strategies in Theory of Games and Economic Behavior (1944), but applied them to thermonuclear scales where rational calculation falters under existential stakes.^[9]^[10] The doomsday machine intertwined with emerging mutually assured destruction (MAD) principles, which Donald G. Brennan later termed in 1962 while critiquing Kahn's work, positing that symmetric vulnerability to total societal obliteration—rather than victory—sustains peace through mutual fear. Unlike conventional second-strike assets like the Polaris submarine program, operationalized by the USS George Washington on November 15, 1960, the doomsday variant eliminated agency, theoretically perfecting deterrence by nullifying bluffing or restraint, though Kahn himself deemed it morally abhorrent and strategically brittle due to false positives from natural events or sabotage. This theoretical extremity highlighted causal tensions in deterrence: while automating response enhances credibility against irrational or desperate foes, it risks preemptive escalation from perceived instability, as evidenced in subsequent simulations like the RAND Corporation's 1960s crisis games revealing command breakdown probabilities exceeding 10% in high-stress exchanges.^[11]^[12]

Historical Development

Pre-Cold War Precursors and Early Ideas

In H.G. Wells' 1914 novel The World Set Free, atomic energy is harnessed to create bombs that release disintegrating radioactive material, causing explosions that persist for days and render targeted areas permanently uninhabitable due to ongoing atomic decay.^[13] These fictional weapons, dispersed from aircraft, devastate cities across Europe in a predicted 1950s war, leading to widespread famine and societal collapse, though not total planetary extinction.^[14] Wells' depiction, based on emerging radium research and extrapolated chain reactions, anticipated nuclear fission's destructive scale decades before its discovery, influencing later scientific discourse on atomic weaponry.^[15] During the Manhattan Project in 1942, physicist Edward Teller proposed that a nuclear detonation might initiate a runaway fusion reaction in atmospheric nitrogen, potentially igniting the entire air envelope and incinerating Earth.^[16] This concern prompted calculations by Hans Bethe and Emil Konopinski, who determined the reaction's energy threshold exceeded fission yields by factors of millions, rendering ignition improbable under test conditions.^[17] The assessment, refined through models of temperature, density, and quantum cross-sections, alleviated fears prior to the Trinity test on July 16, 1945, but underscored early recognition of nuclear experiments' existential risks.^[18] These pre-Cold War notions—literary visions of sustained atomic havoc and scientific evaluations of atmospheric catastrophe—foreshadowed doomsday device concepts by illustrating how unchecked nuclear processes could escalate to global annihilation, distinct from targeted warfare.^[16] Unlike later automated systems, they emphasized inherent technological perils rather than deliberate fail-deadly mechanisms, yet highlighted deterrence through mutual catastrophe awareness in nascent atomic strategy.^[15] No engineered precursors to automated world-ending devices existed before 1945, as nuclear feasibility remained theoretical until wartime efforts.^[17]

Cold War Era Theorization and Proposals

During the early Cold War period, physicist Leo Szilard conceptualized a cobalt-salted nuclear bomb in February 1950 as a theoretical doomsday weapon designed to produce massive global radioactive fallout, rendering large portions of Earth uninhabitable for decades and deterring aggression by ensuring mutual extinction rather than victory.^[19] Szilard, a key figure in the Manhattan Project, proposed encasing a thermonuclear device in cobalt-59, which upon detonation would transmute into highly radioactive cobalt-60, dispersing fallout via prevailing winds to contaminate the planet's biosphere; he intended this not as a buildable weapon but as a stark illustration of escalating nuclear destructiveness to pressure policymakers toward arms control.^[3] In 1960, RAND Corporation strategist Herman Kahn formalized the "doomsday machine" in his book On Thermonuclear War as a hypothetical automated system linking sensors to a global arsenal of cobalt-enhanced or standard nuclear weapons, programmed to trigger planetary annihilation upon detecting an attack on the host nation, thereby achieving perfect deterrence credibility by eliminating human hesitation or recall. Kahn, collaborating with RAND engineers, determined such a device was technically feasible with 1960s technology—requiring buried or submarine-based cobalt bombs totaling around 10,000 megatons for biosphere sterilization—but critiqued it as strategically flawed, arguing it undermined rational escalation options and risked accidental global suicide without enhancing national survival odds.^[20] His analysis drew on game-theoretic principles, highlighting how the machine's irrevocability solved the "credibility problem" in mutually assured destruction (MAD) by pre-committing to retaliation even post-decapitation, yet he advocated instead for survivable forces and graduated responses to avoid doomsday logic.^[21] Throughout the 1960s, U.S. nuclear planners at RAND and the Pentagon grappled with doomsday-like contingencies in Single Integrated Operational Plan (SIOP) formulations, which envisioned strikes destroying the Soviet Union, Warsaw Pact allies, China, and potentially neutral states, projecting over 100 million immediate deaths and risking nuclear winter from atmospheric effects.^[22] Former RAND consultant Daniel Ellsberg, who reviewed top-secret SIOP documents in 1961, later disclosed that President Eisenhower had authorized options for such total-war plans, including discussions of salting warheads with cobalt to enforce long-term habitability denial, though no full doomsday system was deployed due to concerns over command delegation and false positives.^[23] These deliberations reflected causal tensions in deterrence theory: while human-in-the-loop systems preserved flexibility, they invited preemptive strikes fearing decapitation, prompting theoretical shifts toward semi-automation, as evidenced in declassified memos warning of hair-trigger alerts amplifying doomsday risks.^[24] Soviet theorists mirrored these debates, with early proposals like a 1960s "doomsday ship" carrying fissile material for automatic detonation upon seismic detection of U.S. launches, though implementation lagged until later decades.^[25]

Real-World Implementations

Soviet Perimeter System (Dead Hand)

The Perimeter system, known in Western intelligence as the "Dead Hand," was a Soviet semi-automated nuclear command-and-control mechanism designed to guarantee retaliatory strikes against a decapitating first strike by detecting the destruction of political and military leadership while monitoring for signs of nuclear attack.^[26] Development began in the mid-1970s amid fears of U.S. advances in precision-guided munitions and submarine-launched ballistic missiles that could potentially neutralize Soviet command centers in Moscow, with the system intended as a "last resort" to preserve deterrence under mutually assured destruction principles.^[4]^[27] Perimeter's operational logic required manual activation by authorized Soviet high command personnel—typically the General Staff—during periods of heightened alert, after which it entered a passive monitoring mode rather than functioning as a fully autonomous trigger.^[28] The system relied on a distributed network of hardened sensors across the USSR to assess attack indicators, including seismic vibrations from explosions, sudden rises in atmospheric radiation, overpressure waves, and the absence of communication links to predefined leadership nodes; only if multiple independent criteria confirmed a nuclear assault and verified command decapitation would Perimeter authorize action.^[26] Upon validation, it would launch a single "command rocket" from a silo—equipped with radio transmitters rather than warheads—to broadcast pre-coded launch orders to surviving intercontinental ballistic missiles, bomber fleets, and submarine forces, bypassing disrupted human chains of command.^[4] Commissioned into service on January 19, 1985, Perimeter was integrated into the Soviet Strategic Rocket Forces' infrastructure, with its existence kept as a state secret until partial disclosures by former officials like Colonel Valery Yarynich in the early 1990s, who described it as a safeguard against irrational escalation rather than an inevitable doomsday trigger.^[26]^[29] Post-Soviet Russia has maintained and modernized the system, incorporating compatibility with updated missile types like the RS-24 Yars, as confirmed by Russian Ministry of Defense statements, ensuring its role in preserving second-strike credibility amid ongoing geopolitical tensions.^[26] Yarynich, a key designer, emphasized in interviews that Perimeter included fail-safes to prevent false positives, such as cross-verification protocols, underscoring its engineering focus on reliability over unchecked autonomy despite inherent risks of sensor misinterpretation in ambiguous scenarios.^[29]

Russian Poseidon Torpedo and Other Post-Soviet Systems

The Poseidon (previously designated Status-6) is a Russian intercontinental, nuclear-powered, nuclear-armed unmanned underwater vehicle developed as a strategic deterrent weapon capable of delivering a massive radiological strike against coastal targets.^[30] Announced by President Vladimir Putin on March 1, 2018, as part of a suite of new strategic systems, it is designed to evade detection and anti-submarine defenses, traveling at speeds exceeding 100 knots and depths up to 1,000 meters, with virtually unlimited range enabled by its compact liquid-metal-cooled nuclear reactor.^[31] The system's warhead, estimated at 2 megatons by independent analysts though claimed by Russian sources to be multi-megaton, incorporates cobalt additives to maximize long-term radioactive contamination, potentially rendering targeted areas uninhabitable for decades via induced tsunamis and fallout.^[32] Its autonomous navigation allows pre-programmed strikes on enemy ports and cities, functioning as a survivable second-strike option in scenarios where command infrastructure is decapitated, akin to a doomsday mechanism by ensuring retaliatory devastation even post-first strike.^[33] Development traces to at least 2015, when a Russian state television broadcast inadvertently revealed a diagram of the project during a segment on weapon responses to U.S. missile defenses, indicating origins in countering perceived encirclement threats.^[31] Testing has included sea trials from special-purpose submarines like the Sarov (Project 20120), with full operational capability projected for deployment via the Belgorod submarine (Project 09852), a converted Oscar II-class vessel capable of carrying up to six Poseidon units, launched in 2022 after delays from technical challenges including reactor miniaturization.^[30] As of 2025, Russia aims to produce around 30 units, though production bottlenecks and sanctions have slowed progress, with satellite imagery confirming mooring and testing infrastructure at Severodvinsk shipyards.^[32] In deterrence doctrine, Poseidon emphasizes asymmetry, targeting naval bases and economic hubs to impose unacceptable costs, but its slow deployment speed relative to missiles raises questions about vulnerability during transit, potentially limiting it to patrol-based launches rather than rapid response.^[31] Beyond Poseidon, post-Soviet Russia has pursued limited enhancements to automated retaliation frameworks, primarily through maintenance and incremental upgrades to the inherited Soviet Perimeter system rather than entirely new doomsday architectures. Reports indicate ongoing integration of modern sensors and communication redundancies into Perimeter-like dead-hand mechanisms to counter cyber and decapitation risks, ensuring automatic escalation if leadership silence is detected amid nuclear attack signatures.^[30] No other fully autonomous post-Soviet systems matching doomsday criteria—such as unconditional mass retaliation—have been publicly verified, though experimental drone swarms and hypersonic delivery vehicles like Avangard incorporate partial automation for penetration, serving complementary roles in assured destruction without independent triggering authority.^[33] These developments reflect a doctrinal shift toward "escalate to de-escalate," where automated elements amplify uncertainty to deter aggression, but empirical evidence of testing remains classified, with Western assessments questioning reliability due to historical Soviet-era failures in similar complex systems.^[32]

Strategic Role and Effectiveness

Integration with Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)

The concept of a doomsday device aligns with mutually assured destruction (MAD) by automating the retaliatory strike, thereby eliminating uncertainties in human command chains that could undermine second-strike credibility. Under MAD, deterrence hinges on the certainty that any nuclear first strike would provoke overwhelming retaliation, rendering victory impossible for the aggressor; a doomsday system enforces this by triggering launches based on predefined sensors detecting attack signatures—such as seismic activity, radiation levels, or severed communications—without requiring surviving leadership approval. This automation addresses vulnerabilities like decapitation strikes targeting command posts, ensuring the "assured" destruction component of MAD persists even if political or military decision-makers are neutralized. The Soviet Perimeter system, operationalized in 1985, exemplifies this integration, functioning as a semi-automatic "dead hand" that would command a full-scale counterattack if it registered a nuclear detonation alongside the loss of high command signals. Soviet strategists viewed Perimeter not as an offensive tool but as a safeguard for MAD parity, compelling adversaries to accept the inevitability of mutual annihilation and thus deterring preemptive attacks amid fears of U.S. technological superiority in precision strikes.^[34] By embedding fail-deadly logic into nuclear posture, such devices shifted MAD from reliance on human resolve—potentially faltering under stress or misinformation—to mechanical inevitability, theoretically stabilizing deterrence during crises like the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis or Able Archer 83 exercise. In practice, this integration amplified MAD's psychological leverage, as public disclosures or leaks about doomsday capabilities signaled unbreakable resolve, though declassified analyses indicate Soviet deployments prioritized redundancy over full autonomy to mitigate false positives. U.S. nuclear planners, while eschewing explicit doomsday machines, incorporated analogous delegation protocols during the Cold War—pre-authorizing submarine commanders for retaliation—which Ellsberg critiqued as creating de facto automated risks akin to MAD enforcement. Overall, doomsday integration fortified MAD by transforming deterrence from probabilistic human judgment to deterministic systemic response, though it presupposed flawless sensor reliability amid evolving threats like cyber interference.

Empirical Evidence of Deterrence Success

The absence of direct nuclear conflict between major powers since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, despite intense geopolitical rivalries, constitutes key empirical evidence supporting the efficacy of deterrence strategies, including doomsday systems intended to automate retaliation.^[35] Over the subsequent 80 years, no peer nuclear exchange has occurred, a period marked by proxy wars, conventional conflicts, and crises that could have escalated, such as the Korean War (1950–1953), the Berlin Crisis (1961), and the Yom Kippur War (1973), where U.S. nuclear alerts deterred Soviet intervention.^[36] This "long peace" among great powers aligns with the predictions of mutually assured destruction (MAD), where the certainty of catastrophic retaliation—guaranteed by survivable second-strike capabilities and automated safeguards—prevented first strikes.^[37] The Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 exemplifies deterrence success in a high-stakes scenario, as Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba prompted a U.S. naval blockade, yet both sides de-escalated without launch, with post-crisis analyses attributing avoidance to the perceived inevitability of mutual devastation.^[36] Declassified documents reveal U.S. assessments of Soviet capabilities emphasized robust command-and-control redundancies, mirroring the rationale for doomsday devices like the Soviet Perimeter system, which, activated around 1983, monitored seismic, radiation, and communication signals to trigger automatic missile launches if leadership decapitation was detected amid an attack.^[4] No verified decapitation attempts against the USSR or Russia followed its deployment, consistent with deterrence theory's expectation that assured retaliation raises the costs of preemptive strikes beyond rational thresholds.^[27] Quantitative indicators further substantiate this: interstate war fatalities declined sharply post-1945, with nuclear-armed states engaging in zero direct great-power wars, a statistically anomalous stability given historical baselines of frequent major conflicts (e.g., 16 great-power wars from 1495–1945).^[38] Empirical models of crisis bargaining, drawing on Cold War data, show that nuclear possession correlates with lower escalation probabilities in dyadic disputes, as leaders on both sides weighed the risks of automated or surviving retaliatory arsenals.^[39] While causal attribution remains debated—alternative explanations include diplomatic norms or economic interdependence— the consistent non-use of strategic nuclear weapons in over 70 years of rivalry provides correlative support for deterrence's role, particularly for systems eliminating human hesitation in retaliation.^[35]^[37]

Criticisms and Risks

Technical Failures and Near-Misses

The Perimeter system's reliance on automated sensors for detecting nuclear attacks—such as seismic, light, and radiation detectors—introduces inherent risks of malfunction from environmental factors, electromagnetic interference, or component degradation, potentially leading to erroneous activation in non-apocalyptic scenarios.^[40] Declassified analyses indicate that Soviet-era command-and-control architectures, including redundancies like Perimeter, were susceptible to false positives from technical glitches, mirroring U.S. experiences where computer errors simulated inbound missile salvos.^[41] On November 9, 1979, a NORAD training tape inadvertently loaded into live systems triggered alarms indicating a massive Soviet ICBM launch, prompting U.S. strategic forces to elevate readiness levels for six minutes until verified as false; similar glitches recurred on June 3-6, 1980, due to chip failures and software errors, elevating alert postures amid heightened U.S.-Soviet tensions.^[41] These incidents underscore the fragility of automated early-warning networks, which Perimeter integrates for retaliation triggers, where a undetected fault could bypass human overrides in a decapitation scenario. Soviet counterparts faced analogous issues, including radar malfunctions that nearly escalated crises, though specific Perimeter test failures remain undisclosed due to classification.^[42] Post-Soviet maintenance challenges have compounded reliability concerns, with reports of degraded early-warning radars and inconsistent funding leading to unverified system states during upgrades. In January 1995, a Norwegian scientific rocket launch mimicked an inbound warhead on Russian radars, prompting President Yeltsin to activate the nuclear "football" for the first time, highlighting sensor misinterpretation risks that could interface with Perimeter's fail-deadly logic if leadership communication lapsed.^[43] No confirmed Perimeter near-activations have been declassified, but expert assessments warn that its semi-autonomous design—intended to ensure retaliation—amplifies the peril of isolated technical anomalies propagating to global catastrophe without real-time human veto.^[40]

Ethical Concerns and Loss of Human Control

The semi-automated nature of doomsday devices, such as the Soviet Perimeter system operationalized in the 1980s, inherently erodes human moral agency by delegating existential decisions to algorithmic thresholds rather than deliberate judgment. Perimeter was engineered to detect command disruption alongside environmental signals like seismic activity, radiation, or light flashes indicative of nuclear strikes, whereupon it would dispatch command missiles to authorize retaliatory launches from surviving silos, potentially without direct human intervention beyond initial activation or limited abort options under extreme duress.^[4] This design, detailed in David E. Hoffman's 2009 account drawing from declassified Soviet archives, prioritizes mechanical reliability over ethical discernment, as algorithms cannot assess intent, proportionality, or opportunities for negotiation—core elements of just war theory that demand human evaluation of civilian impacts and escalation ladders.^[27] Critics, including strategists analyzing Cold War command systems, argue this constitutes a form of preemptive abdication, where leaders preemptively relinquish control to avert perceived coercion, yet in doing so, they impose a rigid, unforgiving logic incapable of mercy or contextual adaptation.^[44] Ethically, such systems challenge foundational principles of human dignity and accountability, as machines lack the capacity for moral reasoning or empathy, reducing billions of lives to binary sensor data. The International Committee of the Red Cross has emphasized that meaningful human control over lethal force is essential not merely for legal compliance but to preserve ethical integrity, ensuring decisions align with humanitarian imperatives rather than inexorable programming.^[45] In the nuclear domain, this translates to profound risks: a false positive from sensor malfunction or deception—unverifiable by human oversight in a decapitated scenario—could cascade into indiscriminate annihilation, devoid of the restraint possible through interpersonal diplomacy or verified intelligence. Nuclear policy analysts further contend that automating retaliation normalizes the delegation of species-level extinction to fallible technology, undermining the intrinsic value of human life by treating it as collateral in deterrence calculus.^[46] Proponents of these systems, often from deterrence-focused military circles, justify the loss of granular control as a bulwark against first-strike vulnerabilities, claiming it restores credibility to mutually assured destruction by ensuring response inevitability.^[44] However, this rationale falters under scrutiny of causal chains: empirical precedents from non-nuclear automated defenses, such as erroneous intercepts in conventional conflicts, illustrate how degraded human loops amplify error propagation, while philosophical critiques highlight the moral hazard of preemptively endorsing machine-driven apocalypse to deter human actors. Absent robust human veto mechanisms—hampered by the very isolation Perimeter exploits—these devices embody a Faustian bargain, trading immediate agency for illusory security and eroding the ethical norm that ultimate destructive authority resides with accountable individuals.^[47]

Fictional and Cultural Depictions

Key Works in Film, Literature, and Media

In Stanley Kubrick's 1964 satirical film Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb, the Soviet Union deploys a cobalt-salted "Doomsday Machine" designed to automatically encase Earth in lethal radiation upon detecting any nuclear strike against Soviet territory, rendering the planet uninhabitable for all human and animal life; this device exemplifies automated retaliation as a deterrent, mirroring mutual assured destruction concepts but taken to absurd extremes for comedic effect.^[5]^[48] Kurt Vonnegut's 1963 novel Cat's Cradle introduces ice-nine, a synthetic polymorph of water that crystallizes and freezes any liquid water it contacts at room temperature, capable of chain-reacting to solidify Earth's oceans, atmosphere, and biological fluids in a self-sustaining global catastrophe; the substance originates from military research intended for portable ice but spirals into existential threat through human error and proliferation.^[49] The 1967 Star Trek: The Original Series episode "The Doomsday Machine" portrays an ancient alien automated weapon—a massive, planet-devouring robot that consumes stellar bodies for energy and self-replicates—left dormant until reactivated, highlighting themes of unchecked technological legacy and the imperative for intervention to avert interstellar annihilation.^[50] In the 1954 Japanese film Gojira (known internationally as Godzilla), the Oxygen Destroyer—a chemical agent developed by a scientist to break molecular bonds in water, eradicating all oxygen-dependent life in targeted seas—serves as a doomsday prototype deployed against the titular monster but raises prescient warnings about irreversible ecological devastation from advanced weaponry.^[49]

Impact on Public and Policy Perceptions

Fictional portrayals of doomsday devices, exemplified by the automated Doomsday Machine in Stanley Kubrick's Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (1964), have fostered public skepticism toward automated nuclear retaliation systems by depicting them as catalysts for accidental apocalypse driven by human folly and technological rigidity.^[51] ^[52] The film's satire of mutually assured destruction (MAD) doctrines and rigid command structures amplified perceptions of nuclear arsenals as inherently unstable, contributing to a post-1964 decline in widespread public hysteria over atomic annihilation while simultaneously galvanizing anti-war activism and demands for de-escalation safeguards.^[53] In broader cultural media, such as science fiction literature and films like Fail-Safe (1964) and The Bed Sitting Room (1969), doomsday mechanisms are routinely shown as eroding human agency, which has shaped policy discourse by underscoring risks of delegation to semi-autonomous systems and bolstering arguments for bilateral verification in arms control agreements.^[54] ^[55] These narratives, while often sensationalized, have indirectly influenced elite perceptions by highlighting causal pathways to escalation—such as false alarms or pre-delegated launches—prompting U.S. and Soviet policymakers in the 1970s to prioritize hotlines and treaties like SALT I (1972) to mitigate perceived fictional-real overlaps in vulnerability.^[56] Modern depictions in video games and streaming media, including series like The Day After (1983 TV film) and games such as the Fallout franchise, perpetuate a dual public view: nuclear doomsday tools as both taboo horrors deterring aggression and normalized instruments of power, which sustains deterrence credibility but complicates advocacy for total disarmament.^[57] ^[58] Empirical surveys post-exposure indicate heightened short-term anxiety and support for non-proliferation, yet long-term policy inertia persists, as cultural emphasis on survivable aftermaths reinforces resilience narratives over abolitionist ones.^[59] This ambivalence has informed contemporary debates on AI-augmented systems, where fictional precedents caution against "dead hand" automation without demonstrably altering deployment trajectories.

Modern Developments and Future Implications

Advances in Automation and AI Integration

Russia's Perimeter system, known as "Dead Hand," represents a longstanding advance in nuclear automation, originally developed during the Cold War to enable semi-automatic retaliation if command structures are decapitated and an attack is detected via seismic, radiation, and communication sensors.^[26] Upgrades reported as of 2025 have integrated modern radar early-warning systems and enhanced compatibility with Russia's nuclear triad, ensuring the system's operational viability amid contemporary threats.^[60] This automation aims to guarantee deterrence by removing human delay in response, though it relies on predefined thresholds rather than real-time adaptability. In the United States, nuclear command, control, and communications (NC3) modernization efforts as of 2025 incorporate increasing automation for reliability, including digitized early-warning satellites and submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) systems with automated targeting updates, but retain strict human oversight to prevent unauthorized launches.^[61] The Department of Energy's 2023 strategy evaluates artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning for accelerating nuclear stockpile design and production, potentially reducing maintenance timelines from years to months through simulation-based predictions.^[62] However, full automation remains limited due to risks of cyber vulnerabilities and false positives in automated threat detection. AI integration into NC3 systems has advanced primarily in supportive roles, such as machine learning algorithms for analyzing satellite imagery and intelligence fusion to enhance "left-of-launch" threat neutralization, where AI processes vast datasets faster than humans to inform preemptive decisions.^[63] By September 2025, U.S. efforts focus on AI for mitigating human error in threat assessment, with pilot programs testing neural networks for anomaly detection in missile warning data, though experts emphasize that AI outputs require human validation to avoid escalation from misinterpretation.^[46] Russian and Chinese programs similarly explore AI for nuclear force management, including autonomous elements in tactical systems, but public analyses indicate no delegation of launch authority to AI, prioritizing deterrence stability over speed.^[64] These developments carry dual-edged implications: automation bolsters resilience against decapitation strikes, as seen in Russia's Perimeter enhancements, while AI promises refined deterrence through predictive analytics, yet both introduce escalation risks from compressed decision timelines and potential algorithmic biases.^[65] Policy recommendations from 2023-2025, including P5 dialogues, advocate for transparency in AI-NC3 integration to preserve mutual assured destruction's stabilizing effects, underscoring that unchecked automation could erode human judgment in doomsday scenarios.^[66]

Ongoing Nuclear Modernization Efforts

The United States is pursuing a comprehensive nuclear modernization program to replace aging delivery systems and warheads, with plans encompassing intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), strategic bombers, and supporting infrastructure. This includes development of the Ground Based Strategic Deterrent (Sentinel) ICBM to succeed the Minuteman III by the 2030s, the Columbia-class ballistic missile submarine to replace Ohio-class vessels starting in the late 2020s, and the B-21 Raider bomber as a dual-capable platform.^[67] Warhead updates feature the W87-1 for Sentinel and life-extension programs for existing types, alongside modernization of nuclear command, control, and communications (NC3) systems to enhance cybersecurity and integration.^[68] The Congressional Budget Office projects total costs for operating, sustaining, and modernizing U.S. nuclear forces at $946 billion from 2025 to 2034, averaging approximately $95 billion annually.^[69] Russia maintains a nuclear triad modernization effort focused on replacing Soviet-era systems, achieving about 95% update of strategic forces as of early 2025, though progress on ICBMs and bombers has slowed compared to prior rates.^[70] ^[71] Key developments include deployment of the RS-28 Sarmat ICBM, upgrades to Borei-class submarines with Bulava SLBMs, and testing of novel systems such as a nuclear-powered cruise missile in late October 2025.^[72] A 2025 security breach revealed extensive documentation on Russia's nuclear expansion, highlighting investments in silo-based and mobile launchers despite resource constraints in microelectronics and other components.^[73] These efforts occur amid strained arms control, with Russia proposing a one-year extension of the New START treaty, set to expire in February 2026, which caps deployed strategic warheads at 1,550 per side.^[74] China's nuclear arsenal has expanded rapidly to approximately 600 operational warheads by mid-2024, with projections for continued growth beyond 2030 through silo construction, missile diversification, and warhead production increases.^[75] ^[76] Modernization emphasizes road-mobile DF-41 ICBMs, Jin-class submarines with JL-3 SLBMs, and the H-20 stealth bomber, alongside hypersonic delivery systems and potential increases in fissile material output.^[77] This buildup, the fastest among nuclear states, aims to enhance survivability and second-strike capability but remains far below U.S. or Russian levels, with no verified pursuit of parity.^[78] Globally, all nine nuclear-armed states are modernizing arsenals amid weakening arms control frameworks, contributing to an estimated 12,241 warheads as of January 2025, of which about 9,614 are in military stockpiles.^[79] Smaller nuclear powers like India (around 180 warheads) and Pakistan are also advancing delivery systems, while France and the United Kingdom pursue submarine and missile upgrades.^[80] These parallel efforts, documented by organizations such as the Federation of American Scientists and Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, signal an emerging arms race dynamic, with implications for escalation risks in doomsday scenarios tied to mutually assured destruction doctrines.^[81]

References

[1]
Doomsday-device Definition & Meaning | YourDictionary
Doomsday-device definition: A weapon (often a bomb) programmed to automatically be used in response to certain attacks, usually with very dire consequences ...
[2]
Mankind's strange love of superweapons - Nature
Aug 22, 2007 · Leo Szilard was among the first to conceive of a nuclear weapon. ... Smith from making the cobalt bomb the centrepiece of his book.
[3]
Inventing the Doomsday Machine - by Alex Wellerstein
Sep 26, 2025 · It is a specific weapons concept (a “salted” or “Cobalt” bomb) that could have radioactive effects far beyond those of “normal” thermonuclear ...
[4]
Russia's 'Dead Hand' Is a Soviet-Built Nuclear Doomsday Device
Mar 9, 2022 · The Soviet Union developed a world-ending mechanism that would launch all of its nuclear weapons without any command from an actual human.Missing: examples | Show results with:examples
[5]
Dr. Strangelove's 'Doomsday Machine': It's Real - NPR
Sep 26, 2009 · What few knew until recently is that in 1984, the Soviet Union actually did build a doomsday machine of sorts. They called it Perimeter. It's ...
[6]
Soviet Doomsday Device Still Armed and Ready - WIRED
a giant cobalt bomb rigged to explode were Russia ever nuked, rendering the earth's surface uninhabitable ...Missing: examples | Show results with:examples
[7]
Inside the Apocalyptic Soviet Doomsday Machine - WIRED
Sep 21, 2009 · Hidden in hardened silos designed to withstand the massive blast and electromagnetic pulses of a nuclear explosion, these missiles would launch ...Missing: characteristics | Show results with:characteristics
[8]
[PDF] Some Thoughts on Deterrence - RAND
In the case of a doomsday machine, removal of the decision to retaliate from human hands improves deterrence. Once the machine detects an attack it launches ...
[9]
Scientist of the Day - Herman Kahn, American Futurist
Feb 15, 2022 · In the first book, Kahn proposed the idea of a Doomsday Machine, a stay-at-home nuclear weapon that, since it did not have to be delivered, ...
[10]
[PDF] ON THERMONUCLEAR WAR BY HERMAN KAHN
the Doomsday-in-a-Hurry Machine, and the Homicide Pact Machine. Discussing ... facilitating ahead of time the machinery by which wars are ended before they become ...
[11]
[PDF] The Doomsday Machine
The integration of automation and artificial intelligence into military systems raises important questions about the doomsday machine's feasibility and dangers.
[12]
The Heart of Deterrence | Restricted Data - The Nuclear Secrecy Blog
Sep 19, 2012 · Deterrence theory is one of those ideas that seems pretty easy at first glance but gets more deeply muddled on closer inspection.Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
[13]
Was HG Wells the first to think of the atom bomb? - BBC News
Jul 4, 2015 · HG Wells first imagined a uranium-based hand grenade that would continue to explode indefinitely in his 1914 novel The World Set Free.Missing: doomsday | Show results with:doomsday
[14]
H.G. Wells' novel 'The World Set Free' predicts atomic warfare
More than 30 years before the first atomic bombs were made, H.G. Wells' 1914 novel, “The World Set Free,” depicted a war where atomic energy fueled powerful ...
[15]
The Many Futuristic Predictions of H.G. Wells That Came True
Sep 21, 2016 · Wells also clearly saw the dangers of nuclear proliferation, and the doomsday scenarios that might arise both when nations were capable of “ ...
[16]
The fear of a nuclear fire that would consume Earth - BBC
Sep 7, 2023 · In the early years of nuclear research, some scientists feared breaking open atoms might start a chain reaction that would destroy Earth.
[17]
Could a nuclear explosion set Earth's atmosphere on fire?
Feb 16, 2024 · Aside from the boon to carbon-14 dating, Wiescher says that the fear of atmospheric ignition helped advance nuclear astrophysics. “The fear ...
[18]
The Fear That a Nuclear Bomb Could Ignite the Atmosphere
Sep 12, 2019 · Early on in the Manhattan Project, the scientists taking part knew that they were pursuing a weapon that could give humankind the ...
[19]
https://www.mirasafety.com/blogs/news/the-cobalt-bomb-concept-from-dr-strangelove-is-back-1
[20]
Herman Kahn and the Bomb - Dan Wang
Nov 15, 2014 · Along with an engineer at RAND, Kahn figured out on paper that such a Doomsday Machine was technologically feasible. In the early-to-mid 1960s, ...
[21]
Doomsday machine | Nuclear Deterrence & Cold War History
Doomsday machine, hypothetical device that would automatically trigger the nuclear destruction of an aggressor country or the extinction of all life on Earth.
[22]
Daniel Ellsberg on dismantling the doomsday machine
Feb 26, 2018 · In the book, Ellsberg chronicles his early career as a RAND Corporation analyst deeply involved in the crafting of American nuclear war plans in ...
[23]
The Doomsday Machine: Confessions of a Nuclear War Planner
30-day returnsFormer defense analyst Daniel Ellsberg reveals firsthand accounts of America's nuclear program, exposing dangerous policies from the 1960s that continue to ...
[24]
U.S. Nuclear War Plan Option Sought Destruction of China and ...
Aug 15, 2018 · US nuclear war plans during the Johnson administration included the option of a retaliatory strike against nuclear, conventional military, and urban-industrial ...
[25]
TIL The USSR proposed a doomsday ship; full of fissile material ...
Aug 10, 2016 · It would have consisted of a ship full of fissile material navigating the soviet waters, which would automatically detonate if it detected ...<|separator|>
[26]
Perimetr - GlobalSecurity.org
Sep 25, 2023 · The related "Dead Hand" system was an automated system to determine whether Russia was under nuclear attack. Although these two systems operated ...
[27]
The Dead Hand: The Untold Story of the Cold War Arms Race and ...
The Soviet Union secretly plotted to create the “Dead Hand,” a system designed to launch an automatic retaliatory nuclear strike on the United States, and ...Missing: Perimeter | Show results with:Perimeter
[28]
https://warontherocks.com/2019/08/america-needs-a-dead-hand/
[29]
Valery Yarynich, the man who told of the Soviets' doomsday machine
Dec 20, 2012 · Yarynich was a son of the nuclear age. He served in the first Soviet ICBM division, carving a rocket base out of the forest north of Kirov.
[30]
Russian nuclear weapons, 2025 - Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
May 13, 2025 · Satellite imagery indicates that construction at the site began in 2021 and many features had likely been completed by the end of 2024, although ...Missing: date | Show results with:date
[31]
New Satellite Images Hint How Russian Navy Could Use Massive ...
Aug 31, 2021 · The Russian Navy continues to develop how it intends to deploy its latest strategic weapon – a bus-sized torpedo tipped with a nuclear warhead.Missing: Status- | Show results with:Status-
[32]
One nuclear-armed Poseidon torpedo could decimate a coastal city ...
Jun 14, 2023 · Russia's nuclear-armed autonomous torpedoes Poseidon may never be used. But they may still provoke uncertainty, speculation, and fear.Missing: history specifications
[33]
Buried In Trump's Nuclear Report: A Russian Doomsday Weapon
Feb 2, 2018 · Status-6 appears to be a kind of doomsday device. The report refers to it as a new intercontinental, nuclear-armed, nuclear-powered, undersea autonomous ...Missing: Poseidon development specifications
[34]
[PDF] BDM Federal, Inc. - II. SOVIET VIEW OF THE STRATEGIC ...
Union did not share the U.S. view of mutually assured destruction, December 11, 1991, Vol. ... 74 Bruce Blair, "Doomsday Machine." 21.
[35]
U.S. Nuclear and Extended Deterrence: Considerations and ...
Many argue that MAD worked and kept the United States and Soviet Union from an all-out war—despite the intense political, economic and ideological competition ...
[36]
https://oxfordre.com/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-313
[37]
Deconstructing Deterrence - Global Security Review
Sep 18, 2025 · This ignores decades of evidence that nuclear deterrence has prevented great-power war. The risks of nuclear use are real, but declaring ...
[38]
The Power of Deterrence | YIP Institute
Due to their power as nuclear deterrents, we have seen a 95% reduction in deaths from conventional warfare.Missing: effectiveness studies
[39]
David J. Lonsdale, Extended Deterrence: Back to the Future, No ...
Dec 1, 2022 · [7] The Cold War provides a rich source of empirical evidence on extended nuclear deterrence, and proved to be a fertile ground for ...
[40]
[PDF] False Alarms, True Dangers? - RAND
Given the possibilities of tampering or simple command and control system failure, a reliable Dead Hand system would also need to be essentially immune to ...
[41]
False Warnings of Soviet Missile Attacks Put U.S. Forces on Alert in ...
Mar 16, 2020 · The false alarms of 1979 and 1980 instigated major efforts to ensure that computers did not generate mistaken information that could trigger a nuclear war.
[42]
Nuclear False Warnings and the Risk of Catastrophe
The nuclear strategies that could lead to the firing of hundreds of nuclear weapons remain susceptible to false alarms.
[43]
Deep Fakes and Dead Hands: Artificial Intelligence's Impact on ...
Aug 1, 2022 · A cyberattack on the command-and-control structure could erode confidence in deterrence capabilities if the system is not reliable. As a ...
[44]
America Needs a Dead Hand More than Ever - War on the Rocks
Mar 28, 2024 · We can only conclude that America needs a dead hand system more than ever. Such a system would both detect an inbound attack more rapidly than the current ...Missing: MAD | Show results with:MAD
[45]
[PDF] Ethics and autonomous weapon systems - ICRC
Apr 3, 2018 · The ICRC believes human control is needed for ethical reasons, to ensure compliance with law, and to maintain human dignity and moral ...
[46]
Artificial Intelligence and Nuclear Command and Control: It's Even ...
Sep 1, 2025 · Ultimately, the decision to launch nuclear weapons must remain a distinctly human responsibility. National decision-makers, whether in the ...
[47]
Worried about the autonomous weapons of the future? Look at ...
Apr 21, 2021 · A study of air defense systems reveals three real-world challenges to human-machine interaction that automated and autonomous features have already created.
[48]
Stanley Kubrick's doomsday machine and 'Dr. Stangelove'
Kubrick's dark satire “Dr. Strangelove” is about a psychotic US Air Force general who deliberately sets off nuclear war.
[49]
The Best Fictional Doomsday Devices - WIRED
Dec 13, 2008 · From earth-shattering fusion reactors to catastrophic earthquake machines to planet-destroying space stations, here's a list of some of our ...
[50]
Doomsday Device - TV Tropes
The Doomsday Device is the crowning achievement of any self-respecting Omnicidal Maniac and Mad Scientist. He is usually in the process of creating one at all ...
[51]
Almost Everything in “Dr. Strangelove” Was True | The New Yorker
Jan 17, 2014 · Its plot suggested that a mentally deranged American general could order a nuclear attack on the Soviet Union, without consulting the President.Missing: opinion | Show results with:opinion
[52]
The Kubrick Site: Jeremy Boxen on 'Dr. Strangelove'
Strangelove helped to fuel a generation of dissent. Dr. Strangelove, then, effectively addressed the rational and irrational fears of the American public ...
[53]
DR. STRANGELOVE, OR, HOW I LEARNED TO STOP WORRYING ...
Strangelove itself was partly responsible for the dramatic downturn in nuclear fear among the American population from 1964 onward. Meanwhile, American society ...Missing: influence opinion
[54]
Beyond Oppenheimer: Nuclear Weapons in U.S. Popular Media
Jun 7, 2024 · One fictional depiction of nuclear weapons may not drastically change a viewer's personal beliefs about those weapons, but the viewer's ...Missing: literature | Show results with:literature
[55]
TV and the Bomb - Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
Aug 13, 2018 · But public perception of the atomic bomb and the Cold War began to shift in the late 1960s, something which was mirrored on the small screen.
[56]
From Trauma to Paranoia: Nuclear Weapons, Science Fiction ... - jstor
Even those Americans who made nuclear weapons a reality could not separate these weapons from the science-fiction myths that had influenced them. Similarly, as ...
[57]
The ambivalent nuclear politics of Fallout video games
Oct 17, 2018 · Making these weapons too realistic would ultimately be counterproductive—plainly, there is nothing fun about using nuclear weapons in real life.<|separator|>
[58]
Playing doomsday: Video games and the politics of nuclear weapons
Mar 21, 2025 · This article examines how nuclear weapons are depicted in video games. While the literature has explored the social and symbolic meanings of nuclear weapons.Missing: machines | Show results with:machines
[59]
[PDF] A Damaged Reputation: Nuclear Depictions in Entertainment Media
Following this, I dedicate a section to analyzing and interpreting nuclear depictions in each set of media artifacts (films, television and video games). I ...Missing: doomsday | Show results with:doomsday
[60]
https://x.com/World_At_War_6/status/1981027775491309664
[61]
[PDF] Artificial Intelligence, and Nuclear Command, Control, and ...
Jul 14, 2025 · It was noted that US NC3 system modernization was still at a relatively early stage, with two important implications for possible AI integration ...
[62]
[PDF] Artificial Intelligence for Nuclear Deterrence Strategy 2023
DETERRENCE MISSION AI and ML will be evaluated for potentially accelerating the design and production of systems that support the U.S. nuclear stockpile, and ...Missing: 2023-2025 | Show results with:2023-2025
[63]
AI at the Nexus of Nuclear Deterrence: Enhancing Left of Launch ...
May 23, 2025 · Artificial intelligence (AI) can enhance “left of launch” operations—preemptive strategies aimed at neutralizing missile threats before ...Missing: 2023-2025 | Show results with:2023-2025
[64]
The AI-Nuclear Nexus: New CNAS Report on Managing Artificial ...
Feb 13, 2025 · The report explores the technical aspects of each category and analyzes how each country's nuclear AI integration could exacerbate these risks.
[65]
[PDF] Impact of Military Artificial Intelligence on Nuclear Escalation Risk
Sep 10, 2024 · 40 This limitation of. AI is especially relevant for nuclear escalation risk given the importance of signalling in deterrence and credibility of ...
[66]
AI and nuclear command, control and communications: P5 ...
Nov 13, 2023 · The report offers a series of recommendations to help mitigate the risks of integrating AI into NC3 systems, including: Nuclear-weapon states ...
[67]
United States nuclear weapons, 2025 - Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
Jan 13, 2025 · The United States has embarked on a wide-ranging nuclear modernization program that will ultimately see every nuclear delivery system replaced ...
[68]
War Department continues nuclear modernization - AF.mil
Sep 23, 2025 · Modernization of NC3, Parker said, will include incorporating cybersecurity, designing it to integrate with existing and future systems, and ...
[69]
Projected Costs of U.S. Nuclear Forces, 2025 to 2034
Apr 24, 2025 · Plans to operate, sustain, and modernize current nuclear forces and purchase new forces would cost a total of $946 billion over the 2025–2034 period.
[70]
Why Russia's Nuclear Forces Are No Longer Being Updated
Jan 23, 2025 · Russia's strategic nuclear forces are 95 percent updated—just as in the year before. Previously, they were being modernized 25 percent faster ...
[71]
Nuclear Notebook: Russian Nuclear Weapons 2025 Federation of ...
Russia continues to modernize its nuclear triad, replacing Soviet-era weapons with newer types, but modernization of ICBMs and strategic bombers has been slow.
[72]
https://aviationnews.eu/news/2025/10/russia-successfully-tests-nuclear-powered-cruise-missile/
[73]
Russia's Vast Nuclear Modernization Exposed in 'Unprecedented ...
May 28, 2025 · A massive tranche of over 2 million documents found in a public database sheds light on Russia's expansion and modernization of its highly sensitive nuclear ...<|separator|>
[74]
Russia Proposes One-Year New START Extension
New START, which limits U.S. and Russian nuclear forces to 1,550 strategic warheads and 700 strategic launchers deployed on each side, will expire Feb. 5, 2026.
[75]
Pentagon Says Chinese Nuclear Arsenal Still Growing
China's nuclear arsenal likely exceeds 600 operational nuclear warheads as of mid-2024, part of a diversified buildup that is projected to continue after 2030.
[76]
Chinese Nuclear Weapons, 2025 - Federation of American Scientists
Mar 12, 2025 · The total number of Chinese nuclear warheads is now estimated to include approximately 600 warheads. The vast majority of these are in storage ...Missing: expansion | Show results with:expansion
[77]
SPECIAL REPORT China's growing nuclear arsenal | Reuters
Aug 22, 2025 · China is expanding and modernizing its weapons stockpile faster than any other nuclear-armed power and has accumulated about 600 warheads, ...
[78]
Chinese nuclear weapons, 2025 - Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
Mar 12, 2025 · This is a gross exaggeration, however: There is no evidence that China's ongoing nuclear expansion will result in parity with the US arsenal.
[79]
Nuclear risks grow as new arms race looms—new SIPRI Yearbook ...
Jun 16, 2025 · Key findings of SIPRI Yearbook 2025 are that a dangerous new nuclear arms race is emerging at a time when arms control regimes are severely weakened.
[80]
[PDF] 6. World nuclear forces - SIPRI
Dec 6, 2024 · India was estimated to have a growing stockpile of about 180 nuclear weapons as of January 2025—a small increase from the previous year (see ...
[81]
Status of World Nuclear Forces - Federation of American Scientists
Mar 26, 2025 · For an overview of global modernization programs, see our contributions to the SIPRI Yearbook and the Nuclear Weapons Ban Monitor. Individual ...