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Drift netting

Drift netting is a passive fishing technique utilizing gillnets suspended vertically in the water column, allowed to drift freely with ocean currents to entangle target species primarily by gilling, where fish are caught as their gills lodge in the mesh.^[1] These nets, often consisting of monofilament or multifilament materials, range from small-scale versions used nearshore to large-scale pelagic driftnets historically spanning kilometers, targeting migratory species such as tuna, salmon, and squid in open waters.^[2] Originating as one of the simplest and oldest fishing methods, drift netting has contributed significantly to global fishery yields but is characterized by low selectivity, capturing a broad range of sizes and species based on mesh configuration.^[1]^[3] The method's efficacy stems from its ability to cover vast areas passively, with studies indicating that mesh size and material influence catch composition, allowing optimization for specific pelagic fish like flyingfish or carangids through selective entanglement.^[4]^[5] However, its defining controversy arises from extensive bycatch of non-target marine life, including dolphins, sharks, seabirds, and sea turtles, earning large-scale variants the moniker "walls of death" due to indiscriminate mortality rates that exceed sustainable levels and disrupt ecosystems.^[6]^[7] This has prompted international regulations, including a 1991 United Nations moratorium on high-seas large-scale driftnetting longer than 2.5 km, enforced variably through measures like the U.S. High Seas Driftnet Fishing Moratorium Protection Act, which identifies and sanctions non-compliant nations, though illegal use persists in regions with weak oversight.^[8]^[9] Despite bans, small-scale driftnets remain in use for artisanal fisheries, balancing local livelihoods against ongoing ecological pressures.^[10]

Definition and Technique

Mechanism of Operation

Drift nets function as passive gillnets that drift freely with ocean currents or tidal flows, forming a vertical curtain in the water column to intercept migrating fish. The net is deployed from a fishing vessel by paying out the webbing, which is suspended vertically through buoyancy provided by floats attached to the headrope along the upper edge and沉ers or weights on the footrope along the lower edge, maintaining tautness and orientation without anchoring to the seabed.^[11]^[12] This configuration allows the net to cover depths from near-surface to midwater, with depth controlled by the ratio and positioning of floats and weights relative to the net's length.^[11] Fish encountering the drifting barrier swim into the mesh; species larger than the mesh openings cannot pass through and become entrapped primarily through gilling, where the mesh lodges behind the operculum and around the gill covers, or secondarily via tangling of fins, snouts, or eyes.^[13]^[12] The operational efficacy depends on water movement, as the net's drift speed matches currents typically between 0.5 and 2 knots, enabling it to sweep across paths of pelagic species without active pursuit by the vessel.^[11] In some configurations, one end remains attached to the boat for controlled drifting, while fully free nets may span several kilometers, retrieved periodically by hauling via winches to prevent excessive tangling or loss.^[14] Entanglement occurs due to the net's relative motionlessness in the fish's frame of reference during encounter, with mesh sizes calibrated (often 10-20 cm) to target specific species by matching head girth, ensuring higher selectivity than active gears but risking bycatch of non-target marine life sharing similar dimensions.^[15] Retrieval involves winching the net aboard, where caught fish are removed, often shaken or cut free, with the process repeating in sets lasting hours to days depending on gear scale and regulations.^[13]

Net Design and Deployment

Drift nets consist of a vertical curtain of gill netting suspended in the water column by floats attached to the headline and weights on the footrope, forming a wall that entangles fish as they attempt to pass through the mesh.^[12] The netting is typically constructed from monofilament nylon twine, which provides high strength and low visibility underwater, though multifilament options exist for specific applications.^[12] Mesh sizes are selected based on target species, ranging from 30 to 45 mm in many operations to selectively capture fish by gilling, where the mesh lodges behind the operculum or in the gills.^[16] In drift configurations, the design emphasizes buoyancy with additional floats along the headline and minimal weighting on the footrope to allow free movement with ocean currents, distinguishing it from anchored set nets.^[17] Dimensions of drift nets vary by fishery scale and target depth. Small-scale artisanal nets may measure 50 to 200 meters in length and 3 to 15 meters in depth, suitable for near-surface pelagic species.^[18] Larger commercial or historical high-seas variants extended up to 48 kilometers in length and 9 meters in depth, deployed as extended panels joined end-to-end to cover vast areas.^[8] Depth positioning is controlled by the length of buoy ropes or direct attachments, enabling operation at the surface, midwater, or near the bottom without anchoring.^[11] Deployment involves paying out the net from the vessel's stern, allowing it to unroll and drift passively with prevailing currents and winds.^[19] The process begins with the vessel moving forward to straighten the net, after which it is left adrift for periods ranging from hours to several days, depending on local regulations and target species behavior.^[11] Retrieval requires hauling the net aboard, often using winches, while monitoring for entangled marine mammals or birds, as the drifting nature can lead to unpredictable catch compositions.^[15] In some fisheries, buoys or radio beacons mark net positions to facilitate recovery amid open-ocean conditions.^[1]

Variations in Scale and Type

Drift nets, as a subset of gillnets, vary primarily in mesh size, panel dimensions, and construction materials to suit specific target species and fishing conditions. Mesh sizes commonly range from 100 to 180 mm stretched mesh in operations targeting larger pelagic fish, with panel lengths standardized at around 500 meshes and depths from 50 to 150 meshes for modular assembly.^[20] Polyamide (nylon) webbing predominates in modern designs due to its durability and lighter weight compared to traditional natural fibers, enabling longer deployments.^[21] Types of drift nets include surface-set variants suspended just below the water surface for pelagic species like tuna, where fish are captured via gilling or entanglement in vertical webbing buoyed by floats and weighted at the bottom.^[13] Deeper-set configurations adjust buoyancy ratios to target mid-water species, with net height and dropline lengths calibrated to water depth and current strength.^[22] In scale, small-scale drift netting employs nets typically under 1 km in total length, deployed from small inshore vessels on a seasonal basis for species like herring or mackerel, emphasizing simplicity and selectivity through mesh choice.^[14] These operations prioritize low fuel use and minimal gear, suiting artisanal fisheries with high species-specific targeting.^[10] Large-scale variants, by contrast, involve gillnet series exceeding 2.5 km, unanchored in open oceans to drift freely and intercept migratory schools of tuna or squid over vast areas.^[23] The distinction between small- and large-scale practices lies fundamentally in operational magnitude, with larger setups amplifying catch volume but requiring industrial vessels.^[1]

Historical Development

Origins and Traditional Practices

Drift netting, a passive gillnetting technique where nets are suspended vertically in the water column and allowed to drift with ocean currents to entangle fish by their gills, has origins that cannot be traced with certainty but align with the ancient development of net fishing during the Mesolithic period, with archaeological evidence of netting materials dating back approximately 8,000 to 5,000 years in regions like Finland.^[24]^[25] Earlier artifacts, such as the Antrea net from around 8,300 BCE in modern-day Russia, represent some of the oldest known fishing nets, likely used in freshwater settings but indicative of early passive capture methods that evolved into marine drift applications.^[26] These precursors relied on natural fibers like plant bast or animal sinew, twisted into cordage via thigh-rolling techniques observed in various indigenous groups, enabling the construction of lightweight, buoyant webs suited to drifting with water flow. Traditional practices emphasized artisanal craftsmanship and small-scale deployment, with nets hand-knotted from locally sourced materials such as hemp, nettle fibers, cedar bark, or coconut coir, often imported in regions like Southeast Asia where ramie from China supplemented local fibers for durability against saltwater degradation.^[27]^[28] In Pacific Northwest indigenous communities, such as the Columbia River tribes, fishers crafted dipnets and gillnets from cedar or nettle, weighted with stone sinkers and buoyed by wooden floats, deploying them from canoes to target salmon runs by allowing currents to carry the nets into fish paths—a method integral to seasonal subsistence and cultural rituals.^[29] European traditions, particularly in Scotland and the North Sea, involved suspending long "curtain-like" herring nets from cork floats on the surface, paid out from rowed or sailed boats to drift overnight, capturing pelagic species like herring and mackerel through entanglement as fish attempted to pass through mesh sizes typically larger than modern variants to selectively retain adults.^[30]^[1] These methods were inherently low-energy, leveraging tidal and current dynamics for efficiency without mechanical propulsion, and were community-based, with families or villages collaboratively mending nets and sharing catches to support livelihoods in coastal economies predating industrialization.^[27] In Mediterranean and Asian contexts, traditional drift nets incorporated spaced cork "windows" to permit juvenile escape, reflecting empirical adaptations for sustainability observed over generations, though enforcement varied by locale.^[31] Prior to mid-19th-century mechanized looms around 1850, all such nets were labor-intensively hand-woven, limiting scale to artisanal fleets and fostering localized knowledge of optimal deployment depths and timings tied to lunar cycles and migrations.^[32]

20th-Century Commercialization

The commercialization of drift netting in the 20th century marked a transition from localized, labor-intensive operations to industrialized fisheries, driven by technological advancements and expanding markets for pelagic species. In the North Sea, the herring driftnet fishery reached its zenith around 1908, with annual catches exceeding 500,000 tonnes, supported by fleets of specialized drifters deploying extensive netting arrays.^[1] By 1913, over 1,700 such vessels operated from English ports alone, each typically deploying approximately 3 kilometers of netting, 11 meters deep, set nightly in targeted fishing grounds.^[1] These operations exemplified commercial scale, with individual hauls yielding 1,000 to 3,000 herring from nets as short as 32 meters, reflecting efficient exploitation of dense shoals via steam-powered vessels that replaced earlier sail-based methods.^[2] Post-World War II innovations, particularly the adoption of synthetic nylon twines in the 1950s, further propelled commercialization by enhancing net durability, strength, and resistance to degradation compared to traditional cotton or hemp.^[1] Nylon's superior properties—stronger weight-for-weight and less prone to rot—allowed for cheaper production, longer net life, and deployment by smaller, low-powered vessels, reducing fuel costs and enabling broader participation in fisheries.^[1] This shift facilitated expansion beyond coastal herring grounds to open-ocean targeting of dispersed species like tunas and squid, as seen in Japan's large-mesh driftnet tuna fishery originating in 1905 but scaling up with synthetics.^[33] In regions such as the North Pacific, these changes supported industrial fleets, though mid-century competition from trawlers and purse seiners temporarily diminished herring driftnetting in Europe.^[1] By the latter half of the century, drift netting's commercial viability stemmed from its cost-effectiveness and high catch potential, underpinning livelihoods in both established and emerging fisheries. For instance, in the Columbia River salmon fishery, drift gillnets became the dominant gear by 1950, with synthetic replacements for linen nets adopted around 1955 to improve efficiency.^[34] Globally, the method's fuel savings—nets drifting passively with currents—contrasted with active gears, making it attractive for resource-limited operators amid rising demand for seafood.^[1] However, this commercialization laid groundwork for later controversies over bycatch, as larger synthetic nets amplified non-selective captures without corresponding regulatory oversight until the 1980s.^[2]

Peak Usage and Global Expansion

Large-scale drift netting underwent significant global expansion during the 1970s and 1980s, evolving from primarily coastal and small-scale operations to extensive high-seas fisheries, driven by technological advancements in synthetic netting materials and vessel capabilities that enabled deployment of nets spanning tens of kilometers.^[35] This period marked the proliferation of pelagic driftnet fleets targeting high-value species such as squid, tuna, and salmon across multiple ocean basins, with operations extending beyond national jurisdictions into international waters.^[36] In the North Pacific, the epicenter of expansion, Japanese, Taiwanese, and South Korean fleets rapidly scaled up activities; the Asian high-seas driftnet fleet grew from 592 vessels in 1980 to a peak of 782 vessels in 1988.^[36] Japan dominated with approximately 922 pelagic driftnet vessels in 1988, including 463 small-mesh vessels for squid and 459 large-mesh vessels for tuna and albacore.^[33] Taiwanese participation reached up to 130 vessels in key seasons, such as 1988-1989 for southern bluefin tuna.^[37] These operations involved mother ships coordinating fleets of catcher boats, deploying net arrays equivalent to "walls of death" totaling thousands of kilometers in length annually.^[33] Expansion extended to the South Pacific by the mid-1970s and the Mediterranean Sea during the 1980s, where driftnets targeted swordfish; by 1990, about 100 Spanish vessels operated in the Alboran Sea.^[38] By 1989, over 1,000 vessels employed drift nets across the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, reflecting the method's adaptation to diverse pelagic ecosystems and contributing to peak global usage in the late 1980s before regulatory interventions.^[39]

Applications and Target Species

Primary Fish Species Caught

Drift netting targets primarily pelagic fish species that aggregate in schools within the upper layers of the ocean, allowing nets to drift passively with currents to intercept them. Key species include tunas from the family Scombridae, such as albacore tuna (Thunnus alalunga), which are pursued in large-scale high-seas operations in the Pacific and other regions.^[40]^[41] Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) represent another major target, particularly in Mediterranean and Atlantic drift net fisheries where vessels deploy extensive nets to capture these migratory billfish.^[14]^[6] Cephalopods, especially squid from families like Ommastrephidae, are commonly harvested using drift nets in squid-directed fisheries across the Pacific, where the method exploits their vertical migrations and schooling behavior.^[40] Sharks, including various pelagic species such as blue sharks (Prionace glauca), are targeted in some operations, often as a secondary but economically significant catch alongside tunas and swordfish.^[42] In coastal and estuarine environments, drift nets have historically focused on anadromous species like Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.), including chinook and coho salmon, during their spawning runs in rivers feeding into the North Pacific.^[40] Smaller pelagic fish such as mackerels (Scomber spp.) and flying fish (family Exocoetidae) are also primary targets in regional fisheries, particularly in Southeast Asian waters, where mesh sizes are adjusted to suit their body dimensions.^[41] These species selections reflect adaptations to local ecology and market demands, though many drift net fisheries have faced restrictions due to overexploitation concerns.^[1]

Geographic and Seasonal Deployment

Drift nets are deployed across global marine environments, including open oceans, coastal zones, and select river systems, with concentrations in regions supporting high-value pelagic fisheries. In the North Pacific, Alaskan fisheries utilize drift gillnets extensively for salmon, operating in areas like Bristol Bay from June 17 to late August, capturing approximately 80% of the regional sockeye catch via this method.^[43] Similarly, in Southeast Alaska, drift gillnets target sockeye, pink, and chum salmon during summer runs, shifting to coho and chum in fall.^[44] On the U.S. West Coast, the California large-mesh drift gillnet fishery for swordfish and thresher sharks extends from the U.S.-Mexico border to Oregon waters, focusing on offshore deployment beyond 200 nautical miles during February to April to minimize marine mammal interactions.^[45] In riverine settings, such as the Columbia River basin in Washington and Oregon, non-treaty commercial drift net fisheries historically span multiple seasons—winter, spring, summer, and fall—aligning with anadromous salmon migrations.^[46] European inland waters, including Bulgaria's Danube River sections, employ drift nets year-round but with peaks during shad spawning periods, contributing to 50% of regional shad landings.^[47] In the Mediterranean and adjacent Atlantic, illegal large-scale operations persist off Morocco and around the Alboran Sea and Gibraltar Strait, with fleets exhibiting seasonal mobility to track migratory swordfish and tuna concentrations.^[38] Southern Hemisphere applications include Chilean coastal waters from Peru to 39°50'S, where swordfish driftnetting occurs from May to August or September, leveraging southward migrations.^[37] Overall, deployment patterns follow target species' behavioral cycles, with tuna-focused oceanic gillnets often set nocturnally and hauled at dawn to exploit diel vertical migrations, while salmonid efforts synchronize with annual runs in temperate latitudes.^[13] In colder regions, nets may remain deployed longer due to reduced currents, enhancing passive capture efficiency.^[11]

Small-Scale vs. Large-Scale Fisheries

Small-scale drift net fisheries typically employ nets shorter than 2.5 kilometers, operated from small vessels in coastal or nearshore waters, targeting local pelagic species such as sardines, herring, and mackerel for subsistence or regional markets.^[1] These operations, common in artisanal contexts like the Mediterranean and parts of Europe, emphasize manual deployment and retrieval, with mesh sizes providing selectivity for size and species, though bycatch of non-target marine life remains a concern.^[48] In contrast, large-scale drift net fisheries historically utilized nets exceeding 2.5 kilometers—often several miles long—deployed from industrial vessels on the high seas to capture high-value species like tuna, swordfish, and sharks.^[1]^[49] The operational scale amplifies environmental differences: small-scale efforts generate lower total catch volumes and bycatch rates per unit, with much incidental catch often retained for consumption, reducing waste but still contributing to localized overexploitation.^[2] Large-scale operations, however, resulted in substantial non-selective mortality of dolphins, seabirds, turtles, and juveniles of target stocks, prompting international alarm over ecosystem disruption and leading to the United Nations moratorium on high-seas large-scale driftnetting in 1989, followed by a global ban in 1992.^[1]^[50] While small-scale fisheries evade such outright prohibitions—relying instead on regional length limits and monitoring challenges—their cumulative impacts are understudied due to dispersed operations, underscoring that distinctions are often matters of degree rather than absolute separation.^[8]^[1] Economically, small-scale drift netting supports livelihoods for coastal communities, with lower capital requirements enabling participation by individual fishers or family units, though yields are constrained by vessel size and weather dependency.^[51] Large-scale variants, prior to bans, drove commercial exports from fleets in nations like Japan and Taiwan, achieving high-volume hauls but at greater fuel and gear costs, with post-ban shifts to alternatives like longlining reflecting regulatory pressures.^[52] Management responses highlight this divide: small-scale activities persist under frameworks like the European Union's technical reviews, permitting nets under specified lengths, whereas large-scale high-seas use is prohibited under U.S. law and international resolutions to curb destructive practices.^[10]^[49]

Economic and Operational Advantages

Cost Efficiency and Fuel Savings

Drift netting achieves cost efficiency through low capital investment in gear and vessels, as the passive deployment requires minimal equipment compared to active fishing methods. Nets, typically constructed from durable synthetic materials like nylon, incur lower production and replacement costs than traditional natural fibers such as cotton or hemp, with a standard 5 km driftnet costing around €25,000.^[6]^[1] This simplicity allows small-scale operators to enter the fishery with reduced upfront expenses, targeting dispersed pelagic stocks that might otherwise be uneconomical for higher-investment gears. Fuel savings stem primarily from the method's reliance on low-powered vessels, which eliminate the high propulsion demands of towing heavy nets as in trawling or encircling schools as in purse seining. Driftnet operations thus exhibit lower fuel consumption per unit of effort, with fuel costs comprising about 12% of income for UK driftnet fleets—lower than comparable figures for alternative methods—and contributing to a reduced carbon footprint via more economical engines.^[8]^[1] The passive drifting with ocean currents further minimizes ongoing energy use during deployment, enhancing operational viability in fuel-intensive environments like offshore swordfish fisheries.^[6] These advantages translate to higher net returns for fishers, particularly when high-quality, less-damaged catches command price premiums in markets, though they are contingent on effective targeting of dense fish aggregations to offset any variability in yields.^[8] Overall, drift netting's economic model favors efficiency in resource-limited settings, outcompeting more capital-intensive alternatives for certain species despite regulatory constraints.^[1]

Catch Volume and Market Contributions

Drift netting, particularly in forms permitted under national regulations, contributes modestly to global capture fisheries volumes, often embedded within broader gillnet statistics due to data aggregation and underreporting from illegal or unregulated activities. Comprehensive FAO capture data does not isolate drift nets, but gillnets and entangling nets collectively account for a portion of small pelagic and demersal catches, with regional examples highlighting targeted contributions. For instance, in Pakistani waters, drift gillnet operations targeting tuna and tuna-like species averaged 65,616 metric tons annually from 2015 to 2021, representing a segment of the Indian Ocean tuna fishery amid challenges from bycatch and enforcement.^[53] Similarly, Mediterranean driftnet fleets, despite widespread prohibitions, have been estimated to yield thousands of tons of swordfish and related pelagics seasonally, though official statistics are unreliable due to non-compliance.^[2] In North American contexts, Alaskan drift gillnet fisheries for salmon exemplify sustained market relevance where legal. The Bristol Bay sockeye salmon driftnet fishery, a cornerstone of regional production, generated significant economic output in 2022, serving as the largest income source for Southcentral Alaska residents and contributing to national seafood exports valued in billions overall.^[54] These operations target dispersed stocks efficiently, bolstering supplies for canned, frozen, and fresh markets, though volumes fluctuate with run sizes—e.g., peaking at over 50 million fish in strong years. In contrast, California's thresher shark and swordfish drift gillnet fishery has seen declining participation and value, dropping to marginal levels by the late 2010s amid low returns and regulatory scrutiny, underscoring variable economic viability.^[55] Market contributions from drift netting emphasize cost efficiency for high-value species in artisanal and semi-industrial fleets, supporting local processing and export chains in developing regions like Morocco and Pakistan, where it aids livelihoods despite global bans on large-scale variants. However, post-1991 UN moratorium, high-seas driftnet catches have neared zero in monitored areas, limiting overall share to under 1% of global marine capture (approximately 90 million metric tons in 2022), with emphasis shifting to alternatives like longlines.^[2] This niche role persists in supplying premium markets for albacore tuna (up to 99% of some hauls) and salmon, but environmental costs and IUU fishing erode long-term sustainability and market stability.^[56]

Livelihood Support for Fishers

Drift netting sustains livelihoods for numerous artisanal and small-scale fishers in coastal communities, particularly in Asia, where it deploys extensive fleets of modest vessels targeting species like squid and tuna. In Indonesia, fewer than 48,000 vessels, in Malaysia 18,000, and in India 156,000 engage in drift net operations, forming a cornerstone of local employment and income generation for fishers reliant on low-capital gear.^[2] These fisheries contribute meaningfully to household food security and economic stability in regions such as South Asia and Sri Lanka, where 3,500 vessels alone support community-based harvesting.^[2] In China, drift gill-net vessels number nearly 15,000, comprising over 60% of the provincial fleet and enabling annual catches that bolster fisher incomes despite regulatory pressures.^[57] In commercial contexts like Alaska's Bristol Bay sockeye salmon fishery, drift netting drives substantial revenue and seasonal employment, outperforming alternatives such as set nets in landings and participation. The sector generated $309.7 million in ex-vessel value in 2018 and $275.6 million in 2019, sustaining around 1,500 permit holders annually, with participation peaking at 1,605 in 2019.^[58] About 16% of 2020 permits were held by local residents, underscoring its role in regional economic resilience, where it accounted for the majority of fishery output and contributed to over half of the area's GDP from salmon activities.^[58] This method's efficiency in capturing high-value migratory species allows fishers to achieve viable returns with relatively accessible entry, though permit values—averaging $102,000 for drift nets in 2010—reflect its competitive economic draw.^[59] Overall, drift netting's low operational barriers relative to more capital-intensive gears enable broader participation, particularly among resource-limited households, fostering diversified income streams in fisheries-dependent areas.^[2] Historical data from Malaysia, for instance, highlight over 10,000 drift net units in 1983 as key to landings and fisher welfare.^[60] However, transitions away from the practice, as seen in bass drift netting halts, have induced short-term income disruptions for affected communities, affirming its embedded role in sustaining employment.^[61]

Environmental Impacts and Criticisms

Bycatch of Non-Target Species

Drift netting, characterized by large, free-floating gillnets extending up to 55 kilometers, indiscriminately entangles non-target marine species comparable in size to target fish, leading to high mortality rates through drowning, injury, or exhaustion.^[37] Primary victims include cetaceans such as common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) and striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba), with observed entanglement rates of approximately 48 individuals per 1,000 kilometers of net for common dolphins and 9 per 1,000 kilometers for striped dolphins in albacore tuna driftnet fisheries.^[37] These rates stem from the nets' passive deployment in surface waters, where marine mammals aggregate near prey schools targeted by the gear.^[56] Global estimates indicate that entanglement in fishing nets, including driftnets, accounts for over 300,000 deaths of small cetaceans annually, representing the leading direct human cause of cetacean mortality.^[62] In the Indian Ocean, drift gillnet fisheries have been documented to sink multiple cetacean species, exacerbating population declines in vulnerable stocks.^[63] Peer-reviewed observations from Mediterranean and Atlantic operations confirm at least eight cetacean species affected, with immediate mortality often exceeding 10-20% for entangled individuals due to the nets' mesh sizes (160-200 mm) constricting vital areas.^[56]^[64] Sharks and rays frequently suffer bycatch in driftnets, as the gear captures large-bodied elasmobranchs unintended for commercial harvest, contributing to overexploitation in regions like the Mediterranean where driftnet use persists despite restrictions.^[65] Sea turtles and seabirds also incur fatalities, with turtles becoming trapped in surface-set nets and seabirds colliding or snagging during foraging; however, quantitative data specific to driftnets remains sparser compared to cetacean records, though incidental captures disrupt migration and breeding cycles.^[65] For instance, in U.S. Northeast shelf fisheries, drift gillnets exhibited higher bycatch rates of protected species like Atlantic sturgeon (up to 10% immediate mortality) relative to other gears, highlighting the method's inefficiency in selectivity.^[64] These impacts arise causally from the nets' unselective design and deployment in biologically rich, mixed-species zones, where target pelagic fish coexist with protected fauna, amplifying ecological costs beyond target catches.^[37] While some fisheries report variable bycatch based on operational factors like net length and location, empirical data consistently underscore drift netting's role in non-target mortality, prompting international scrutiny despite claims of underreporting in self-monitored operations.^[63]^[66]

Ghost Netting and Long-Term Damage

Ghost nets, or abandoned, lost, or discarded drift nets, continue to entrap and kill marine organisms through a process known as ghost fishing, often persisting for years due to the durability of synthetic materials like nylon.^[6] In pelagic drift net fisheries, nets can drift uncontrollably with ocean currents, increasing the likelihood of loss from snags, storms, or operational errors, leading to widespread distribution across ocean basins.^[52] Once adrift, these nets maintain their entangling capacity as marine growth partially preserves mesh openings, allowing continued capture of fish, seabirds, marine mammals, and reptiles until structural degradation occurs, which can take 4–60 years depending on net size and environmental conditions.^[67] ^[68] The long-term ecological damage from drift net ghost fishing includes sustained mortality rates that exacerbate population declines in vulnerable species. For instance, in the North Pacific, annual losses of approximately 7,000 kilometers of drift nets contribute to ongoing entanglements, with recovered ghost nets from similar fisheries containing tens of thousands of organisms, such as over 32,000 marine animals in 870 nets off Washington State.^[69] ^[70] Estimates suggest ghost nets kill hundreds of thousands of animals annually through drowning, starvation, or injury, with specific projections for marine turtles ranging from 14,600 to 48,660 deaths per year based on stranding data from entangled individuals.^[71] ^[72] This attrition creates a feedback loop where decaying catches attract scavengers, further entangling new victims and amplifying biomass loss over time.^[73] Beyond direct mortality, ghost drift nets inflict habitat degradation and trophic disruptions. They smother seafloor structures and coral reefs by draping over them, abrading tissues, blocking sunlight, and promoting disease, with studies showing consistent coral loss irrespective of net size or biofouling.^[74] Globally, derelict gear from all fisheries, including drift nets, totals around 640,000 tonnes annually entering oceans, fragmenting into microplastics that enter food webs and cause sublethal effects like ingestion-induced blockages and toxicity in predators.^[70] In drift net hotspots like the Mediterranean, recovered ghost nets reveal impacts on over 557 species, underscoring persistent biodiversity threats from non-degradable gear that outlasts natural recruitment cycles for many targeted populations.^[75]^[6]

Ecosystem-Wide Effects and Data on Mortality Rates

Drift netting in pelagic fisheries exerts broad ecosystem-wide effects by indiscriminately capturing and killing non-target species across multiple trophic levels, including planktivorous fish, mid-level predators, and apex consumers such as marine mammals and seabirds, which disrupts food web dynamics and reduces biodiversity.^[2] This non-selective mortality can lead to localized depletions of keystone species, altering predator-prey balances and potentially cascading to lower trophic levels through compensatory mechanisms or competitive release.^[67] Lost or abandoned drift nets, known as ghost nets, perpetuate these impacts indefinitely by continuing to entangle and suffocate marine life, contributing to chronic habitat degradation and plastic pollution that bioaccumulates through the food chain.^[74] In reef-adjacent ecosystems, ghost drift nets have been documented to cause significant coral mortality through physical abrasion and smothering, thereby diminishing habitat complexity and associated biodiversity.^[76] Quantitative data on mortality rates highlight the severity of these effects, particularly for vulnerable taxa. In the Indian Ocean, pelagic drift gillnets targeting tuna are estimated to have killed over 4 million cetaceans cumulatively from 1970 to 2019, with annual bycatch rates posing a substantial sink for populations of dolphins and whales already pressured by other anthropogenic factors.^[63] Globally, gillnet bycatch—including drift nets—accounts for approximately 50,000 toothed whales annually from 1990 to 2020, contributing to population declines that impair ecosystem roles such as nutrient cycling and control of prey populations.^[77] For Atlantic sturgeon in the Northeast U.S. continental shelf, observer data indicate immediate post-release mortality rates of 10% in drift gill nets, lower than sink gill nets at 22% but still significant given the species' endangered status and low reproductive rates.^[64] Seabird and sea turtle mortality further amplifies ecosystem disruptions, as drift nets create "walls of death" that entangle diving species during foraging. Hundreds of thousands of seabirds are killed annually worldwide in gillnets, including drift configurations, with fishery closures demonstrating reduced incidental mortality and subsequent population recoveries.^[78] Turtle bycatch mortality in entangling nets can exceed 40% in some gear types, though specific drift net data vary by region; combined with ghost fishing, this exacerbates declines in herbivorous and predatory turtles that maintain seagrass beds and coral health.^[79] These rates underscore how drift netting not only removes biomass but also selects against resilient phenotypes, potentially reducing genetic diversity and adaptive capacity in affected populations.^[80]

Regulatory Framework and Bans

United Nations Moratorium (1991)

In response to growing concerns over the environmental impacts of large-scale pelagic drift-net fishing, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 46/215 on December 20, 1991, urging a global moratorium on such practices on the high seas.^[81] The resolution specifically targeted drift nets exceeding 2.5 kilometers in length, which were deployed to indiscriminately capture migratory species like tuna, squid, and billfish, often resulting in substantial bycatch of non-target marine life including dolphins, seabirds, and sharks.^[82] Building on prior resolutions 44/225 (1989) and 45/197 (1990), it emphasized the need for immediate action to prevent further depletion of living marine resources, despite acknowledging potential economic hardships for affected fishing nations such as Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea.^[83] The operative provisions directed states to refrain from expanding drift-net fishing efforts and to reduce operations starting January 1, 1992, with a complete cessation targeted by December 31, 1992, to allow for effective conservation and management of high seas stocks.^[81] It called for bilateral and multilateral cooperation, including data sharing on fishing activities, and requested the UN Secretary-General to monitor compliance through reports from member states and relevant organizations like the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).^[82] While not legally binding under international law, the moratorium exerted diplomatic pressure, prompting several nations to phase out or restrict their fleets; for instance, Taiwan committed to halting South Pacific operations by mid-1991 in alignment with UN appeals.^[84] Enforcement relied on voluntary state action and subsequent national legislation, such as the U.S. High Seas Driftnet Fisheries Enforcement Act of 1992, which authorized sanctions against non-compliant countries and vessel seizures.^[85] Reports to the UN highlighted partial successes, including fleet reductions, but persistent challenges from illegal operations underscored the resolution's limitations without a binding treaty framework.^[86] The moratorium marked a pivotal shift toward international regulation of destructive fishing gear, influencing later conventions like the 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement.^[87]

National and Regional Prohibitions

The United States implemented a nationwide prohibition on large-scale high-seas driftnet fishing through the High Seas Driftnet Fisheries Enforcement Act of 1992, aligning with the UN moratorium, and further restricted domestic use by banning drift gillnets exceeding certain mesh sizes in federal waters off the West Coast.^[88] In 2019, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) issued a final rule prohibiting the use of drift gillnets in the California/Oregon thresher shark and swordfish fishery, targeting large-mesh nets over 14 inches to reduce bycatch of protected species like sea turtles and marine mammals.^[89] This was followed by the Driftnet Modernization and Bycatch Reduction Act of 2022, signed into law in 2023, which mandated a phase-out of large-mesh drift gillnets by 2026, providing compensation to affected fishers while promoting alternatives like deep-set longlines.^[90] In the European Union, a regulation effective from 2002 banned all driftnets, irrespective of length, when used to target highly migratory pelagic species such as tuna, swordfish, billfish, and sharks in EU waters, extending beyond the UN's 2.5 km limit to address persistent bycatch concerns.^[48] Prior to this, EU waters (excluding the Baltic Sea) had prohibited driftnets longer than 2.5 km since June 1992.^[48] Several member states enacted stricter national bans: Spain, Greece, Malta, Cyprus, and Croatia prohibit driftnet fishing outright under domestic legislation, often citing marine mammal entanglements.^[91] In Asia, Japan ceased all driftnet operations by December 31, 1992, dismantling its squid and salmon fleets in response to international pressure and domestic assessments of marine mammal bycatch exceeding 10,000 dolphins annually in prior years.^[92] Taiwan and South Korea similarly committed to halting large-scale Pacific driftnetting in 1991, with Taiwan phasing out its fleets by 1993 after UN negotiations documented incidental catches of over 100,000 non-target marine animals per season.^[84] Russia imposed a nationwide ban on driftnet fishing in 2015, motivated by evidence of seabird entanglements totaling thousands annually in the Sea of Okhotsk.^[93] Regionally in the South Pacific, the Convention for the Prohibition of Fishing with Long Driftnets entered into force on May 17, 1991, ratified by Australia, New Zealand, and several island nations, explicitly banning driftnets exceeding 2.5 km in the convention area to protect tuna stocks and endemic species from ghost netting risks.^[94] New Zealand extended this domestically in 2023 by prohibiting all drift netting in its exclusive economic zone to safeguard Hector's and Māui dolphins, whose populations had declined by over 75% due to gillnet bycatch since the 1980s.^[95]

Compliance Monitoring and Alternatives Promoted

Compliance with the United Nations General Assembly's 1991 moratorium on large-scale pelagic driftnet fishing over 2.5 kilometers in length primarily depends on individual member states' enforcement capabilities, resulting in inconsistent adherence globally.^[84] In the United States, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) implements the High Seas Driftnet Fishing Moratorium Protection Act by annually identifying nations and entities whose vessels engage in illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, including driftnetting, and certifying compliance; non-certified entities face U.S. port denials and trade restrictions, with 17 nations affected as of October 2024.^[88] Enforcement tools include vessel monitoring systems (VMS) for real-time tracking, aerial and surface patrols (e.g., Russia's 6 flight hours and 2 patrol days in 2018), and boarding inspections by coast guards, such as U.S. Coast Guard operations integrated with regional fisheries management organizations.^[96]^[97] In the European Union, compliance has faced legal challenges, with the European Court of Justice ruling against member states like France and Italy in 2010 for inadequate controls on driftnet use, prompting stricter national measures and EU-wide prohibitions on nets exceeding specified lengths since 2002.^[98] Monitoring difficulties persist for small-scale driftnets due to their concealability and the vastness of patrol areas, contributing to surges in illegal deployment, as documented in Mediterranean fisheries where unreported driftnets have increased bycatch of endangered species.^[61]^[99] Alternatives to driftnetting promoted by regulatory bodies emphasize gears with higher selectivity to reduce bycatch, though direct substitutes for targeting pelagic species like tuna and squid remain limited and often economically challenging.^[100] European Parliament studies advocate modified gillnets with escape panels or anchored configurations to improve species and size selectivity, alongside longlines equipped with circle hooks to minimize non-target captures, as tested in Mediterranean swordfish fisheries.^[101] In regions like Morocco, environmental groups and fisheries authorities propose traps, pots, and handline methods as viable low-bycatch options, supported by pilot programs demonstrating comparable yields for coastal species with reduced ecosystem disruption.^[6] These alternatives are prioritized in FAO guidelines and regional management plans for their empirical reductions in marine mammal entanglement, though adoption lags due to higher operational costs and lower catch efficiency compared to driftnets.^[1]

Current Practices and Challenges

Ongoing Legal and Illegal Use

Despite international moratoriums on large-scale driftnet fishing, small-scale drift netting persists legally in select regions for artisanal or targeted fisheries. In the European Union, driftnets shorter than 2.5 kilometers are permitted for certain non-migratory species under national regulations, though their use for tuna and swordfish is prohibited, with enforcement varying by member state.^[102]^[91] In the United States, the Driftnet Modernization and Bycatch Reduction Act of 2022 mandates a phase-out of large-mesh drift gillnets (over 14 inches) in federal waters off California, targeting swordfish and shark fisheries, with permits set to terminate by January 2024 and a voluntary transition program offering compensation to fishers.^[103]^[104] Illegal driftnetting continues unabated in violation of national bans and the 1991 United Nations moratorium on high-seas operations longer than 2.5 kilometers. A November 2024 investigation by the Environmental Justice Foundation documented systemic illegal use by Moroccan vessels in the Alboran Sea, with driftnets stored openly at ports and deployed despite a domestic prohibition, resulting in significant bycatch of protected species like dolphins and sea turtles.^[105]^[6] Similar persistence occurs on the high seas, where the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration identifies nations engaged in illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) driftnet fishing, leading to port access denials under the High Seas Driftnet Fishing Moratorium Protection Act.^[88] In the Mediterranean, illegal driftnets—often termed "walls of death" for their indiscriminate lethality—have surged post-2020, evading controls through vessel transponders being disabled or nets concealed during inspections.^[99] This illicit activity undermines stock recovery efforts for species like bluefin tuna and exacerbates bycatch mortality, with multinational operations like Canada's Operation Driftnet targeting such practices since 2018 but reporting ongoing challenges in detection and prosecution.^[106]

Enforcement Issues and Black Market Dynamics

Enforcing bans on drift netting faces significant challenges due to the vast expanse of the high seas, where monitoring and apprehension are resource-intensive. Operations like Canada's Operation DRIFTNET, initiated in 1993 to patrol the North Pacific under the UN moratorium, detected 47 illegal driftnet vessels between 1993 and 2014 but apprehended only 20, highlighting difficulties in transitioning from detection—often via radar and satellite—to physical capture across nearly 2 million square kilometers.^[39] Similarly, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) implements the High Seas Driftnet Fishing Moratorium Protection Act by identifying nations engaged in illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) driftnet fishing, leading to measures such as port denials, though compliance varies and gaps persist in real-time interdiction.^[88] Regional enforcement is hampered by limited patrols, jurisdictional overlaps, and inadequate national capacities. In Moroccan waters of the Alboran Sea, despite a domestic ban since 2010 and international obligations under the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), illegal driftnet vessels targeting swordfish increased from 370 in 2004 to 846 in 2024, with observations of active use as late as April 2024 in ports like Tangiers.^[105] In the Western Indian Ocean, weak enforcement due to scarce resources and insufficient regional cooperation allows Asian-flagged vessels to deploy driftnets up to 2.5 kilometers long, depleting stocks off Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique, where foreign incursions exacerbate local monitoring deficits.^[107] Black market dynamics sustain illegal drift netting through economic incentives that outweigh enforcement risks. High demand for lucrative species like swordfish—Morocco ranked as the EU's fourth-largest supplier by value in 2022, exporting primarily to Spain (79% of volume) and Italy—drives Moroccan fishers to use driftnets amid scarce alternative catches and high operational costs, funneling illegal hauls into export chains that evade traceability.^[105] In the Indian Ocean, black market networks capitalize on premium prices for tuna and swordfish, enabling IUU operators to launder catches through informal trade routes despite bans, as the method's low cost and high yield relative to regulated gear perpetuate underground supply chains.^[107] These dynamics underscore how profitability, coupled with enforcement limitations, maintains drift netting's persistence, undermining global conservation efforts.^[88]

Recent Developments (Post-2020)

In California, a state-funded program launched in 2022 facilitated the retirement of large-mesh drift gillnets by 38 commercial fishermen, transitioning them to alternative gear designed to reduce bycatch of protected species such as sea turtles and whales.^[108] This initiative aligned with broader efforts to phase out the state's drift gillnet fishery targeting swordfish and sharks, with full prohibition of large-mesh drift gillnets scheduled for completion by 2027, marking the end of a practice linked to high marine mammal entanglement rates.^[109] ^[103] Federally, the U.S. Senate unanimously passed legislation in 2022 to ban large-scale drift gillnets in federal waters off the West Coast, expanding prohibitions on gillnets with mesh sizes of 14 inches or greater and directing the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration to support gear transitions for affected fishers.^[110] This followed a 2020 veto of similar provisions in the Driftnet Modernization and Bycatch Reduction Act by President Trump, despite initial congressional approval, highlighting ongoing political hurdles to nationwide reform despite evidence of bycatch exceeding target catch in some operations.^[111] ^[112] Internationally, enforcement of the 1991 United Nations high seas driftnet moratorium persisted with no confirmed sightings of large-scale driftnet vessels in 2020, as reported by NOAA, though monitoring continued amid concerns over illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing by flagged vessels from nations like Sri Lanka.^[113] In the Mediterranean, Italian authorities seized over 100 kilometers of illegal drift nets in 2020 alone—surpassing totals from prior years—indicating a post-pandemic surge in unlicensed use threatening endangered species, with experts attributing persistence to enforcement gaps in remote areas despite EU-wide bans since 2002.^[99] In the United Kingdom, proposals in 2025 to lift the bass drift net ban—implemented a decade earlier to aid stock recovery—faced opposition from conservation groups, who cited risks of renewed bycatch, spawning disruptions, and reversal of biomass gains evidenced by improved bass populations.^[61] NOAA's ongoing certifications under the High Seas Driftnet Fishing Moratorium Protection Act identified multiple nations for potential trade restrictions due to involvement in illegal driftnet activities, emphasizing diplomatic efforts to curb high-seas operations through 2025.^[88]

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Apr 12, 2019 · NOAA Fisheries is issuing a final rule to prohibit fishing with drift gillnets in the California/Oregon (CA/OR) thresher shark/swordfish drift gillnet fishery.Missing: EU Asia
[90]
VICTORY: U.S. phases out destructive and deadly drift gillnets for ...
Mar 2, 2023 · The bipartisan Driftnet Modernization and Bycatch Reduction Act will phase out destructive large-mesh drift gillnets and promote the transition to selective ...Missing: EU Asia
[91]
[PDF] Prohibition on driftnet fisheries - European Parliament
Countries in which driftnet fishing is prohibited by national legislation are Spain, Greece,. Malta, Cyprus and Croatia (IA, p. 23), whereas the countries ...
[92]
JAPAN TO END DRIFT NET FISHING IN BOW TO WORLDWIDE ...
Nov 27, 1991 · The Japanese government announced yesterday it will shut down its drift net fishing industry by the end of 1992.Missing: ban date
[93]
Russian Ban on Drift Net Fishing Bodes Well for Seabirds
Jul 31, 2015 · In 1992, the United Nations banned the use of large-scale drift nets to harvest salmon or any other fish species on the high seas.Missing: countries | Show results with:countries
[94]
Convention for the Prohibition of Fishing with Long Driftnets in the ...
Convention for the Prohibition of Fishing with Long Driftnets in the South Pacific. Current status of the Convention. Treaty Status: In force.
[95]
New netting restrictions now in place to protect Hector's and Māui ...
Oct 9, 2023 · In addition, drift netting will be prohibited in all New Zealand waters. ... Anchoring banned at Little Barrier Island. MPI. New biosecurity ...<|separator|>
[96]
[PDF] 2018 Driftnet Report to Congress - NOAA
Russia's Driftnet Enforcement Efforts in 2018. The Russian Federation conducted 6 flight hours of Law Enforcement Patrols and dedicated 2 surface patrol days ...
[97]
[PDF] scale high seas driftnet fishing - Amazon S3
The NPFC and WCPFC HSBI regimes, developed with significant engagement by NOAA and the USCG, have proven to be critical tools for patrolling USCG cutters to ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[98]
Driftnet Fishing Restrictions and the European Court of Justice ...
Jun 5, 2010 · In recent months, the European Court of Justice has delivered a series of judgments addressing non-compliance concerns, clarifying both the ...
[99]
'Walls of death': surge in illegal drift nets threatens endangered ...
Aug 18, 2020 · Fishing fleets are defying international ban, with deadly nets ensnaring dolphins, whales and other protected marine life.
[100]
(PDF) Alternative solutions for driftnet fisheries - ResearchGate
In general driftnets have a high degree of size selectivity and can efficiently be regulated by mesh size. Few alternative fishing methods are available to ...
[101]
Alternative Solutions for Driftnet Fisheries | Think Tank
Feb 16, 2015 · Solutions are proposed to mitigate the environmental impact of driftnet fisheries by alternative fishing gears and improvement of selectivity.Missing: FAO | Show results with:FAO
[102]
EU driftnet fishing ban inappropriate for UK, says DEFRA
In the EU it is already forbidden to use driftnets to catch certain migratory species such as tuna and swordfish, and large driftnets over 2.5 km in length are ...<|separator|>
[103]
Drift Gillnets - Oceana USA
Oceana campaign victory will phase out and prohibit wasteful swordfish drift gillnets off California while replacing them with clean fishing gear.Missing: seasonal | Show results with:seasonal
[104]
New federal law phases out large-mesh drift gillnets for California ...
Jan 4, 2023 · The California legislature voted to terminate all drift gillnet permits by Jan. 31, 2024. The bill also established a transition program to help fishermen ...Missing: ongoing | Show results with:ongoing
[105]
Press release: Systemic illegal driftnet fishing in Moroccan waters…
Nov 13, 2024 · The Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans and EU regulations further restrict the possession and use of driftnets over 2.5 km and ban their ...
[106]
Operation DRIFTNET - Canada.ca
Apr 30, 2018 · Drift net fishing is a technique that uses large panels of netting. The nets are typically 10 to 15 metres wide and up to 20 kilometres long.
[107]
Illegal Driftnets Decimate Marine Life in Western Indian Ocean
Apr 28, 2021 · The use of driftnets threatens East African fish stocks, which are especially low off the coasts of Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania.
[108]
California Program Helps Phase Out Drift Gillnets to Protect Whales ...
Jun 21, 2023 · A new California program helped 38 commercial fishermen retire large-mesh drift gillnets and adopt gear that better protects sea turtles, whales, and other ...Missing: developments post-
[109]
https://seaturtles.org/finally-the-end-of-drift-and-set-gillnet-fishing-in-california-is-in-sight/
[110]
US Senate approves drift gillnet ban again - SeafoodSource
A bill banning large drift gillnets from being used in federal waters passed unanimously in the U.S. Senate earlier this week.Missing: EU | Show results with:EU
[111]
Stop West Coast Driftnet Fishing - Shark Stewards
Driftnets are condemned by the United Nations and are already banned in many countries and US waters. The only driftnet fishery in the United States exists ...
[112]
S.906 - Driftnet Modernization and Bycatch Reduction Act 116th ...
The bill expands the definition of large-scale driftnet fishing to prohibit the use of gillnets with a mesh size of 14 inches or greater.
[113]
[PDF] scale high seas driftnet fishing - NOAA
However, in 2018 the Government of Pakistan approved a deep sea fishery policy that has a mandatory requirement restricting the length of gillnets to 2.5 km,.Missing: specifications depth