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Eighth Commandment

The Eighth Commandment (in Jewish and Protestant numbering), part of the Ten Commandments revealed by God to Moses on Mount Sinai, prohibits theft and is succinctly stated as "You shall not steal" in Exodus 20:15.^[1] This directive forms one of the core ethical imperatives in the Hebrew Bible, appearing in both the Exodus and Deuteronomy versions of the Decalogue, where it addresses interpersonal relations by safeguarding property rights and promoting justice within the community.^[2] In its biblical context, the commandment is inscribed on the second tablet of stone, focusing on duties toward others rather than direct obligations to God.^[2] Historically, the Eighth Commandment has been interpreted in Jewish and Christian traditions as a foundational principle against any unjust deprivation of another's possessions, including not only overt robbery but also subtler violations like fraud, embezzlement, and exploitative business practices.^[3] Scholarly analysis suggests its original scope may have emphasized prohibitions against kidnapping or enslaving fellow Israelites, as reflected in related ancient Near Eastern laws, though it broadened over time to encompass general theft as a summary of civil regulations.^[2] In Judaism, it underscores communal harmony and restitution, aligning with Torah laws that require compensation for stolen goods, while in Christianity, it extends to ethical labor practices, condemning wage theft or intellectual property infringement as modern equivalents.^[4]^[3] The commandment's significance lies in its role as a moral bulwark against economic injustice, influencing legal systems, ethical philosophy, and social norms across Abrahamic faiths by affirming the dignity of honest work and mutual respect for possessions.^[3] It has been elaborated in rabbinic literature and patristic writings as prohibiting not just physical theft but also deception in trade or failure to pay workers fairly, thereby fostering societal trust and equity.^[4]

Biblical Foundations

Text and Numbering

The Eighth Commandment appears in the Decalogue as a prohibition against theft, stated succinctly in the Hebrew Bible. In Exodus 20:15, the Hebrew text reads "לֹא תִגְנֹב" (lo tig'nov), translated in the King James Version as "Thou shalt not steal" and in the New International Version as "You shall not steal."^[5] Similarly, Deuteronomy 5:19 uses the same Hebrew phrasing, "לֹא תִגְנֹב" (lo tig'nov), rendered in the KJV as "Neither shalt thou steal" and in the NIV as "You shall not steal."^[6] These formulations emphasize a general ban on taking property unlawfully, without specifying methods or penalties in the core text. In the traditional Jewish and Protestant numbering of the Ten Commandments, this verse occupies the eighth position, following the prohibition against adultery (Exodus 20:14) and preceding the ban on bearing false witness (Exodus 20:16). This sequence derives from treating the introductory declaration of God's identity (Exodus 20:2-3) as the first commandment, the prohibition of graven images as the second (Exodus 20:4-6), and so on, resulting in ten distinct imperatives.^[7] In contrast, Catholic and Lutheran traditions combine the prohibitions against other gods and images into a single first commandment, shifting the numbering such that the theft prohibition becomes the seventh, with the coveting commandments divided into ninth and tenth.^[8] The biblical text expands on the commandment in related passages, clarifying its scope. Exodus 21:16 specifies kidnapping as a form of theft, stating in Hebrew "וְגֹנֵב אִישׁ וּמְכָרֹו וְנִמְצָא בְיָדֹו מֹת יוּמָת" (ve-gonev ish u-mecharo ve-nimtza be-yado mot yumath), translated in the ESV as "Whoever steals a man and sells him, and anyone found in possession of him, shall be put to death."^[9] Leviticus 19:11 further prohibits deceitful practices linked to theft, with the Hebrew "לֹא תִגְנֹבוּ וְלֹא תְכַחֲשׁוּ וְלֹא תְשַׁקְרוּ אִישׁ בַּעֲמִיתֹו" (lo tig'novu ve-lo techashu ve-lo teshak'ru ish ba-amito), rendered in the KJV as "Ye shall not steal, neither deal falsely, neither lie one to another."^[10] This commandment finds parallels in ancient Near Eastern law codes, particularly the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1750 BCE), which addresses theft through specific restitution penalties and capital punishment in severe cases. For instance, Hammurabi's Law §8 mandates that a thief of an ox or sheep pay thirtyfold restitution or face death if unable to compensate, while §14 prescribes death for kidnapping and selling a free person, echoing the biblical expansion in Exodus 21:16.^[11] These similarities highlight a shared cultural concern for property rights in the ancient world, though the Decalogue's phrasing remains more concise and principle-based.^[12]

Historical Context

According to biblical tradition, the Eighth Commandment, prohibiting theft, was revealed as part of the Mosaic covenant at Mount Sinai during the Israelites' exodus from Egypt under Moses' leadership. This event is often dated to around the 13th century BCE in the late date theory, associated with the reign of Pharaoh Ramesses II (1279–1213 BCE), based on some interpretations of Egyptian records and biblical chronology; however, scholarly opinions vary widely, with alternative dates in the 15th century BCE, later periods, or doubts about the historicity of the Exodus as a large-scale event.^[13] The commandment appears in the Decalogue (Exodus 20:15; Deuteronomy 5:19), serving as a divine imperative to guide a people transitioning from Egyptian bondage to a covenant community bound by Yahweh's authority. In ancient Israelite society, the commandment played a crucial role in fostering communal order amid a tribal economy vulnerable to raiding, scarcity, and disputes over limited resources like livestock and land. As the Israelites shifted from nomadic wanderings to settled agrarian life in Canaan, it underscored property rights, ensuring stability by protecting individual holdings essential for family survival and tribal cohesion. Unlike mere civil regulations, its placement within the covenant emphasized moral accountability to God, deterring not just acts of taking but the underlying intent to violate communal trust in a context where theft could destabilize alliances and provoke feuds.^[14]^[15] The prohibition drew influences from broader ancient Near Eastern legal traditions, such as the Laws of Eshnunna (circa 1770 BCE), which mandated restitution for theft, including fixed penalties like 10 shekels of silver for daytime thefts or death for nighttime burglaries, and replacement of stolen goods or slaves.^[16]^[14] This distinction highlighted moral intent—coveting or deceit—over purely compensatory measures, elevating the commandment beyond Mesopotamian case laws focused on social hierarchy and economic penalties. By the Second Temple period (circa 516 BCE–70 CE), the commandment's principles evolved to safeguard temple tithes against misappropriation, as seen in prophetic critiques of priestly negligence. In post-exilic Yehud under Persian rule, economic pressures like taxes and droughts led to withheld tithes, condemned in Malachi 3:8–10 as "robbing God," where failure to deliver the tenth of produce for Levitical support was equated with theft, prompting calls for restored protections to ensure cultic integrity and communal prosperity.^[17]

Jewish Interpretations

Traditional Exegesis

In traditional Jewish exegesis, the Eighth Commandment, "You shall not steal" (lo tignov; Exodus 20:15), is understood to primarily prohibit the kidnapping of a human being, termed ganav adam, which carries the penalty of death as a capital crime. The Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 86a) derives this interpretation from the commandment's placement among other severe prohibitions, distinguishing it from gezelah, the open robbery or wrongful taking of property, which is addressed separately in biblical law. This reading underscores the unique gravity of violating human dignity and autonomy, positioning kidnapping as an assault on the divine image in humanity.^[18] Midrashic sources further broaden the commandment's scope to ethical conduct in daily interactions, particularly business dealings. The Mechilta de-Rabbi Ishmael on Exodus links lo tignov to prohibitions against deception, overcharging, or any form of exploitation in commerce, arguing that such acts erode communal trust and integrity, akin to theft from society itself. These expansions emphasize that the commandment fosters honest dealings, as one who conducts business faithfully is deemed to uphold the entire Torah.^[19] Philo of Alexandria, a 1st-century CE Hellenistic-Jewish philosopher, interprets the commandment in On the Special Laws (Book IV) as a ban on all unjust acquisition of wealth or possessions, whether through stealth, force, or covetousness, which he roots in natural law principles of equity and harmony. Philo argues that theft disrupts the natural order established by God, where possessions should be held justly without greed, and he connects it to broader Mosaic ethics that align with universal reason.^[20] A poignant biblical exemplar of this violation appears in the narrative of King Ahab and Naboth's vineyard (1 Kings 21), where Ahab's desire leads to Naboth's false accusation, execution, and the seizure of his ancestral land—acts classical commentators view as quintessential theft, even by royal authority, defying the commandment's protection of personal property rights. The commandment's prohibitions are enumerated among the 613 mitzvot as two: negative mitzvah 243, not to kidnap a person (derived from Exodus 20:15's focus on human theft), and negative mitzvah 244, not to steal money or property (Leviticus 19:11). Restitution is mandated in Exodus 22:1-4, where a thief must return the stolen item plus compensation—fivefold for an ox or ass, fourfold for a sheep or garment—to prioritize repair and deterrence over retribution alone.^[21]^[22]

Rabbinic and Medieval Views

In rabbinic literature, the Eighth Commandment's prohibition against theft (lo tignov) was expanded beyond physical taking to include various forms of misappropriation, building on Talmudic discussions in tracts like Bava Kamma and Bava Metzia that distinguish between gezelah (open robbery) and geneivah (secret theft).^[23] Rashi's 11th-century commentary on the Torah emphasizes the role of intent in violations of the commandment, interpreting lo tignov primarily as a ban on kidnapping.^[24] Rabbinic thought further extends the prohibition to deceptive practices that undermine trust, such as geneivat da'at (theft of the mind), exemplified by false advertising or misleading representations that exploit another's perception without direct seizure of property.^[25] Maimonides, in his 12th-century codification in the Mishneh Torah (Laws of Theft 1:1-2), prohibits all forms of theft, even trivial amounts or acts done in jest or with intent to return, to prevent habituation to dishonest behavior; he links this to the Tenth Commandment against coveting by viewing unchecked desire as a precursor to theft, and notes the severe implications of theft, as a thief entering a home may be treated as a pursuer liable to be killed in self-defense.^[26]^[27] Rabbinic authorities permit limited exceptions for theft in dire necessity under the principle of pikuach nefesh (saving a life), such as taking food for survival, while strictly forbidding it in other contexts like exploitation, as these undermine justice and communal order rather than preserving life. The Shulchan Aruch (Choshen Mishpat 348), codified by Joseph Karo in the 16th century, details liability for thieves, including double restitution, and extends the commandment to contemporary economic harms like usury (ribbit), which later authorities equate to theft by unjust enrichment, with penalties including excommunication (cherem) to enforce repayment and deter violations. Medieval responsa literature illustrates practical enforcement amid diaspora challenges, such as during the Crusades (11th-13th centuries), addressing cases of theft and misappropriation within Jewish communities, including burglary of synagogues, with rulings requiring restitution and other penalties to maintain internal cohesion under persecution.^[28]

Christian Interpretations

Numbering Variations Across Denominations

In Jewish tradition, the Ten Commandments are divided such that the prohibition against stealing ("lo tignov") constitutes the eighth commandment, following the structure outlined in the Talmud and based on the Masoretic Text, where the first commandment is the declaration "I am the Lord your God," the second prohibits other gods, and the third forbids graven images.^[29] This numbering aligns with the Septuagint translation and early Christian lists, such as that attributed to Origen in the third century, who enumerated the commandments in a manner that kept the proscription against theft as the eighth.^[30] Protestant and Reformed denominations, including Presbyterians and Anglicans, generally adopt this same sequencing, emphasizing the distinct prohibition against idolatry as the second commandment, thereby positioning "You shall not steal" as the eighth in their catechisms and confessions. In contrast, the Catholic and Lutheran traditions number the commandments according to the division established by St. Augustine in the fourth century, which merges the prohibitions against other gods and graven images into a single first commandment focused on the unity of God and proper worship. Under this system, the commandment against stealing becomes the seventh, as reflected in the Catechism of the Catholic Church and Martin Luther's Small Catechism. This Augustinian arrangement was formally affirmed in the sixteenth century by the Council of Trent through its Roman Catechism, which structures the Decalogue to integrate the commandments into a framework of natural law and moral theology. Eastern Orthodox churches align their numbering with the Jewish and Protestant traditions, listing "You shall not steal" as the eighth commandment, as seen in official archdiocesan resources that follow the Greek patristic division separating the commands against polytheism and idolatry.^[31] However, Orthodox emphasis on iconography introduces nuances in interpreting the second commandment's prohibition on images, influencing the overall theological weight given to the Decalogue without altering the sequence.^[31] Historical shifts in numbering, such as the solidification of Catholic usage at Trent, have been addressed in modern ecumenical dialogues, including Lutheran-Catholic discussions in the 1990s, where variations are viewed as non-doctrinal matters of tradition rather than barriers to unity.^[32] These numbering differences carry implications for catechesis across denominations: Protestant traditions often highlight the individual moral imperatives through a structure that underscores personal accountability to divine law, as in the Westminster Larger Catechism's focus on distinct sins like idolatry. In Catholic teaching, the integrated approach facilitates a holistic view within natural law theology, linking the commandments to virtues and the pursuit of the common good, as elaborated in post-Tridentine moral manuals.

Protestant and Reformation Perspectives

In Protestant thought, particularly during the Reformation, the Eighth Commandment ("Thou shalt not steal") was interpreted broadly to encompass not only direct theft but also indirect harms to one's neighbor's possessions, emphasizing personal integrity and social responsibility under sola scriptura. Martin Luther, in his Large Catechism (1529), expanded the commandment to prohibit any wrongful acquisition of another's property, including fraud in trade, such as using false measures, weights, or coins, and usury that disadvantages others.^[33] He further equated laziness or indolence in one's duties—such as a servant shirking work—with theft, as it effectively deprives the employer of rightful value, potentially amounting to significant losses over time.^[33] Positively, Luther taught that the commandment requires actively promoting a neighbor's welfare, including helping the needy by sharing resources and lending without harm, thereby fulfilling duties to God and community.^[33] John Calvin, in Institutes of the Christian Religion (Book 2, Chapter 8), viewed the commandment as safeguarding the divine order of property distribution, where possessions are allotted by God's providence, and any perversion of this through injustice constitutes fraud against divine will.^[34] He condemned not only overt theft or robbery but also subtle forms like crafty schemes or excessive eagerness for gain that enrich one at another's expense, urging honest labor to preserve one's own goods without coveting or harming others'.^[34] Calvin stressed that true observance demands aiding neighbors in retaining their property and avoiding unjust enrichment, implicitly critiquing hoarding wealth that neglects communal needs.^[34] Among Puritans, the commandment was applied to systemic economic injustices, linking it to New Testament calls for honest labor in Ephesians 4:28. Thomas Adams, a 17th-century Puritan preacher, condemned enclosure movements—where common lands were privatized, displacing small farmers—as violations of the Eighth Commandment, equating such "depopulations" with theft that enriched the few at the expense of the many.^[35] In Baptist and Methodist traditions, the commandment extended to condemning exploitation in emerging global systems. John Wesley, in his 1774 pamphlet Thoughts Upon Slavery, decried the slave trade and colonial enslavement as profound thefts, involving "fraud, robbery, and murder" in procuring and holding human beings as property, thereby urging abolitionist action as a moral imperative rooted in biblical ethics.^[36] Twentieth-century evangelicals further adapted the commandment to contemporary challenges, including digital contexts. Billy Graham warned that modern technologies like the internet facilitate new forms of theft, such as identity theft, alongside traditional sins, emphasizing that all violations stem from the heart's evil and require repentance and reliance on Christ for ethical living.^[37]

Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Views

In Catholic tradition, the Eighth Commandment as numbered in some Protestant formulations corresponds to the Seventh Commandment, "You shall not steal," which forbids unjustly taking or keeping the goods of one's neighbor and wronging them in any way with respect to their goods, while commanding justice and charity in the management of earthly resources and the fruits of labor.^[38] The Catechism of the Catholic Church elaborates that theft extends beyond direct larceny to include any violation of justice and charity, such as defrauding laborers of just wages, which constitutes grave injustice, or practices like excessive price-fixing, tax evasion, forgery of checks or invoices, excessive appropriation of natural resources, and speculative gains that harm the common good.^[38] It further identifies environmental degradation as a form of theft, holding business leaders accountable to society for the ecological effects of their operations and viewing the denial of goods to the needy as equivalent to stealing from them.^[38] Patristic teachings in both Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions underscore the commandment's call to social responsibility, with St. Basil the Great (c. 330–379) arguing in his homily on Luke 12:18 that hoarding wealth constitutes theft from the poor, as superfluous goods rightfully belong to those in need: "The bread which you do not use is the bread of the hungry; the garment hanging in your wardrobe is the garment of him who is naked... You are guilty of injustice and theft."^[39] This perspective influenced Orthodox practices of almsgiving, emphasizing detachment from possessions as essential to Christian life. Similarly, St. John Chrysostom (c. 347–407) in his homilies on wealth and poverty, such as those on the parable of Lazarus and the rich man, equates failing to share resources with the poor to outright theft, stating, "Not to share our own wealth with the poor is theft from the poor and deprivation of their means of life; we do not possess our own wealth but theirs."^[40] Papal encyclicals apply the commandment to modern social challenges, with Leo XIII's Rerum Novarum (1891) condemning exploitative capitalism as a violation of workers' rights, insisting that defrauding laborers of just wages is a "great crime" akin to theft under divine law and that employers must avoid greed-driven oppression that reduces workers to servitude.^[41] Pope Francis's Laudato Si' (2015) further interprets ecological harm through this lens, describing resource waste and overconsumption by the wealthy as "stealing from the table of the poor" and robbing future generations of a viable planet, in line with the commandment's prohibition against unjustly depriving others of their due.^[42] An important exception arises in cases of grave necessity, as articulated by St. Thomas Aquinas in the Summa Theologica (II-II, q. 66, a. 7), where taking another's property to meet urgent survival needs—such as food during famine—does not constitute theft, since natural law renders all goods common in extreme want, provided no other remedy exists and the act is not scandalous.^[43] This principle, rooted in charity's precedence over strict property rights, aligns with both Catholic moral theology and Orthodox patristic emphases on mercy toward the destitute.

Broader Ethical and Legal Implications

Modern Legal Parallels

The Eighth Commandment's prohibition against theft has profoundly shaped modern legal frameworks, particularly in Western common law traditions that emphasize the sanctity of property and restitution for wrongs. The Magna Carta of 1215, a foundational document in English law, includes provisions such as Clauses 28 and 31, which prohibit arbitrary seizure of goods or property without consent or compensation.^[44] This influence extended to the United States, where the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution (1791) safeguards against deprivation of property without due process or just compensation, drawing from common law principles rooted in Judeo-Christian ethics that view theft as a fundamental violation of individual rights.^[45]^[46] On the international stage, the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), particularly Article 17, affirms everyone's right to own property alone or in association with others and prohibits arbitrary deprivation, reflecting ethical foundations traceable to the Decalogue's anti-theft imperative amid reactions to totalitarian confiscations during World War II.^[47] Christian thinkers like Charles Malik, a key drafter, integrated such moral principles into the document, ensuring property protections aligned with broader human dignity norms inspired by biblical law.^[48] Contemporary expansions of "stealing" to include non-physical forms are evident in laws addressing cyber and intellectual property theft. The U.S. Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) of 1998 criminalizes circumvention of digital protections and unauthorized distribution of copyrighted works, treating such acts as theft equivalent to traditional larceny, with penalties up to five years imprisonment for willful violations.^[49] This parallels interpretive expansions of the Eighth Commandment to encompass intangible harms like data breaches, where unauthorized access undermines ownership integrity. In Islamic jurisprudence, parallels exist through Sharia's hudud penalties for sariqa (theft), prescribed in Quran 5:38 as hand amputation for qualified offenses, but only under stringent conditions such as theft from a secure place of valuables exceeding a minimum threshold (nisab) and absence of necessity like hunger.^[50] Unlike the biblical emphasis on multiplicative restitution (e.g., up to fourfold repayment in Exodus 22:1), Sharia's approach prioritizes deterrence for repeat or egregious theft, though historical application remains rare due to evidentiary hurdles.^[51] A notable case study is South Africa's post-apartheid land reform debates, where restorative justice principles drawn from biblical anti-theft ethics have informed efforts to redress historical dispossessions under the 1913 Natives Land Act.^[52] Initiatives like the Restitution of Land Rights Act (1994) invoke Eighth Commandment-inspired notions of returning stolen property or providing equivalent compensation, framing colonial and apartheid-era seizures as moral thefts requiring ethical rectification to achieve equity.^[53] In liberation theology, particularly as articulated by Peruvian theologian Gustavo Gutiérrez since the 1970s, structural poverty in Latin America is interpreted as a form of institutionalized theft, where systemic inequalities deprive the poor of their dignity and resources, violating the spirit of the Eighth Commandment. Gutiérrez's seminal work, A Theology of Liberation (1971), frames sin not merely as individual acts like lying or stealing but as participation in oppressive social structures that perpetuate inequality and exploitation, alienating workers from the fruits of their labor in a manner akin to theft. This perspective has influenced activist movements in regions like Latin America, emphasizing collective responsibility to dismantle economic systems that embody "structural sin."^[54]^[55] The Eighth Commandment also informs modern economic ethics, particularly in critiques of exploitative supply chains and corporate practices. During the 2008 financial crisis, theologians and ethicists invoked the commandment to condemn practices like predatory lending and bailouts that shifted burdens onto ordinary citizens, framing them as systemic greed equivalent to theft from the vulnerable. For instance, analyses highlighted how deceptive financial instruments eroded trust and redistributed wealth unjustly, echoing the broader biblical mandate against all forms of robbery.^[56] Environmental extensions of the Eighth Commandment appear in 21st-century eco-theology, where resource depletion—such as deforestation and overexploitation—is viewed as theft from future generations and the global commons. Pope Francis's encyclical Laudato Si' (2015) explicitly describes ecological harm as "theft from future generations," linking it to a moral imperative rooted in scriptural commands against stealing communal heritage, urging stewardship over creation as a divine trust. This interpretation has inspired interfaith efforts, including Abrahamic dialogues on climate justice, to address how environmental degradation disproportionately affects marginalized communities, akin to robbing the poor of their inheritance. In interfaith contexts, the commandment has been applied to protect refugee property rights in conflict zones, as seen in discussions at Abrahamic summits emphasizing shared ethical opposition to dispossession as theft. For example, joint statements from Jewish, Christian, and Muslim leaders have framed the seizure of refugee assets in places like the Middle East as a violation of divine justice, calling for restitution and protection of vulnerable migrants' belongings. Globally, such moral framings underscore the economic scale of theft and corruption, with the World Bank and United Nations estimating annual losses of approximately $2.6 trillion to corruption—often manifested as stolen public assets—highlighting the ethical urgency of addressing these issues through faith-based advocacy.^[57]

Other Uses

In Literature and Culture

In Victor Hugo's Les Misérables (1862), the protagonist Jean Valjean's theft of a loaf of bread to feed his starving sister and her children serves as a central moral dilemma, illustrating the tension between survival amid poverty and the ethical prohibition against stealing. This act, which leads to Valjean's 19-year imprisonment, critiques 19th-century French society's harsh penal responses to desperation-driven theft, framing it as a symptom of broader economic injustice rather than simple criminality.^[58] In film and television, the theme of theft ethics appears in heist narratives that often glamorize or justify larceny under certain conditions. Steven Soderbergh's Ocean's Eleven (2001) satirizes these ethics by portraying a charismatic crew of thieves targeting a ruthless casino owner, presenting their elaborate scheme as a form of moral vigilantism where stealing from the "bad guy" absolves the act, though critics note it overlooks biblical condemnations of theft. Similarly, Cecil B. DeMille's epic The Ten Commandments (1956) dramatizes the Mosaic law through Moses receiving the stone tablets on Mount Sinai, symbolizing divine prohibitions including against stealing, amid spectacles of liberation and covenant.^[59]^[60] Music and idiomatic expressions have invoked the commandment's anti-theft ethos to comment on societal double standards. Bob Dylan's "Sweetheart Like You" (1983) from the album Infidels includes lyrics highlighting unequal consequences for theft—"Steal a little and they throw you in jail / Steal a lot and they make you king"—satirizing how power excuses grand larceny while punishing the small-scale desperate. Cultural proverbs echo this, as in William Shakespeare's Hamlet (c. 1600), where Polonius advises his son Laertes: "Neither a borrower nor a lender be," warning against financial entanglements that risk dishonesty or indirect theft, promoting self-reliance to uphold personal integrity.^[61] Artistic representations of the Decalogue often visually encode the commandment's themes. Rembrandt van Rijn's oil painting Moses with the Ten Commandments (1659) depicts the prophet poised to shatter the stone tablets inscribed with Hebrew text of the laws, capturing the fury over idolatry but also underscoring the tablets' role as bearers of prohibitions like theft, with the visible inscriptions evoking the full ethical code.^[62] Discussions on social media platforms have explored whether shoplifting can be considered a form of activism, particularly in anti-capitalist and feminist contexts, though ethicists caution that this risks rationalizing criminal behavior without addressing root causes.^[63]

Disambiguations and References

In Latter-day Saint theology, the Eighth Commandment is understood as "Thou shalt not steal," consistent with the Protestant numbering of the Decalogue and without alteration from the biblical text in Exodus 20:15.^[64] Secular philosophical discussions of property rights often echo the Eighth Commandment's prohibition against theft; for instance, John Locke's labor theory of property in his Second Treatise of Government (1689) posits that individuals acquire rightful ownership through their labor, thereby justifying protections against unauthorized taking.^[65] In fiction, the phrase "Eighth Commandment" has been used to title works exploring theft and ethics, such as Lawrence Sanders' 1986 novel The Eighth Commandment, which centers on art appraisal, blackmail, and moral dilemmas surrounding valuables.^[66] Historical variations in numbering the Ten Commandments have led to occasional ambiguities; while Anglican catechisms in the Book of Common Prayer from 1549 onward consistently follow the Protestant sequence—making "Thou shalt not steal" the Eighth—earlier medieval influences sometimes blurred lines with the Catholic tradition, which combines the first two prohibitions and numbers coveting as a single Ninth and Tenth, thereby shifting "Thou shalt not steal" to the Seventh.^[67]^[68] Key primary sources for the Eighth Commandment include ancient manuscript fragments preserving the Decalogue, such as those from the Dead Sea Scrolls (e.g., 4Q41, dating to the 1st century BCE, which records Deuteronomy 5:1–33, including the Decalogue with minor textual variants and harmonizations from Exodus).^[69] For secondary analysis, recent archaeological and interpretive scholarship provides context, including Timothy S. Hogue's 2023 monograph The Ten Commandments: Monuments of Memory, Belief, and Interpretation, which examines the Decalogue's ancient Near Eastern monument traditions and their textual evolution.^[70] Non-Abrahamic traditions offer limited direct parallels in structure or numbering to the Eighth Commandment; for example, Buddhism's Five Precepts include the second śīla, which prohibits taking what is not given (adinnādānā veramaṇī), conceptually aligning with non-stealing but positioned as the second ethical guideline rather than eighth.^[71]

References

[1]
Bible Gateway passage: Exodus 20:1-17 - New International Version
### Summary of the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:1-17, NIV)
[2]
Ten Commandments
### Summary of Scholarly Views on the Eighth Commandment from the Ten Commandments Bibliography
[3]
“You Shall Not Steal” (Exodus 20:15)
### Summary of "You Shall Not Steal" (Exodus 20:15)
[4]
The Ten Commandments Explained - Biblical Principles for Ethical ...
Ten Commandments in order · You shall have no other Gods before me · You shall not make for yourselves an idol · You shall not misuse the name of the LORD your God ...
[5]
Exodus 20:15 Hebrew Text Analysis - Bible Hub
"You shall not steal. King James Bible Thou shalt not steal. Holman Christian Standard Bible Do not steal.Missing: Commandment | Show results with:Commandment
[6]
Deuteronomy 5:19 Hebrew Text Analysis - Bible Hub
'You shall not steal. King James Bible Neither shalt thou steal. Holman Christian Standard Bible Do not steal.Missing: translation | Show results with:translation
[7]
3 Ways to Number the Ten Commandments (& Which Is Right)
Oct 20, 2023 · This study will survey the three views and then argue for a modified Catholic–Lutheran numbering of the Ten Commandments.
[8]
Decalogue: Ten Commandments - Catholic Resources
Mar 15, 2025 · Lutherans follow Martin Luther's division of Exodus 20:17, which first prohibits coveting someone's property (#9), then the spouse (#10). ...
[9]
Exodus 21:16 Hebrew Text Analysis - Bible Hub
"He who kidnaps a man, whether he sells him or he is found in his possession, shall surely be put to death. ... And he that stealeth a man, and selleth him, or if ...Missing: kidnapping | Show results with:kidnapping
[10]
Leviticus 19:11 Hebrew Text Analysis - Bible Hub
'You shall not steal, nor deal falsely, nor lie to one another. King James Bible Ye shall not steal, neither deal falsely, neither lie one to another.
[11]
Laws §§ 6–25: Theft, Kidnapping, Robbery - eHammurabi
Laws §§ 6–25: Theft, Kidnapping, Robbery · § 6 (summary) the punishment for stealing property from a deity or temple, or acquiring said property, is execution.
[12]
Israel's Codes of Conduct Compared to Surrounding Nations
A comparison of Israel's social laws as based on the Ten Words with those of surrounding nations; while they shared many aspects, Israel's laws differed in ...
[13]
The Exodus, 1300-1200 BCE | Center for Online Judaic Studies
Further bolstering a 13th-century B.C.E. date for the Exodus (assuming it is a historical event) is the Egyptian evidence. The long-reigning Pharaoh Ramesses II ...
[14]
Biblical and ancient Near Eastern law - Compass Hub - Wiley
Apr 15, 2018 · The relationship of the Book of the Covenant to Mesopotamian law has been the subject of many studies: It uses conditional sentences to express ...
[15]
[PDF] Property Rights Inherent in the Eighth Commandment
Mar 9, 2012 · The ownership of property which is implied by the 8th Commandment gives people the freedom they need to try to be faithful stewards of what God ...Missing: ancient | Show results with:ancient
[16]
None
Below is a merged response that consolidates all the information from the provided segments into a single, comprehensive summary. To maximize detail and clarity, I’ve organized the extracted laws and their similarities to biblical theft laws into tables in CSV format, which can be easily read or converted into a tabular structure. The response retains all details, including laws, restitution requirements, penalties, and useful URLs, while avoiding redundancy where possible.
[17]
Hypocrisy in stewardship: An ethical reading of Malachi 3:6–12 in ...
The edict of Cyrus the Great in 538 BCE serves as the historical background for the ministries of the postexilic prophets Haggai-Zechariah-Malachi.
[18]
Geneiva and Gezeila — Much More than Theft | Yeshivat Har Etzion
Jan 17, 2016 · The Torah mentions the injunction against stealing in the Ten Commandments, “Lo tignov;” even though our Sages (Sanhedrin 86a) explain that it ...
[19]
https://www.sefaria.org/Exodus.20.15?with=Mekhilta%20deRabbi%20Yishmael&lang2=en
[20]
Philo: The Special Laws, IV - Early Christian Writings
... commandment in the second table, but the eighth in all, if the two tables are taken together, namely, the commandment, "Thou shalt not Steal."{1}{#ex 20:13 ...
[21]
https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/961875/jewish/Negative-Commandment-243.htm
[22]
Do the 10 Commandments Forbid Kidnapping or Theft? - Chabad.org
The eighth of the Ten Commandments, “Lo tignov,” literally translates as “do not steal. ... Rashi considers both the preceding and following context to determine ...
[23]
Geneivat Da'at: The Prohibition Against Deception in Today's World
... geneivat da'at (Rashi, Babylonian Talmud, Baba Bathra 11a). In many synagogues the custom is to auction off various honors, e.g., being called up to the ...
[24]
Genevah - Chapter One - Chabad.org
In order to deter their theft, the Torah mandated a more strict punishment. 17. When discussing the laws of theft ... robbery.” As Bava Kama 66a explains, as ...Missing: coveting | Show results with:coveting
[25]
Genevah - Chapter Nine - Chabad.org
And thus the thief entering his colleague's house to steal is in effect a pursuer seeking to kill his colleague.20 Therefore, he should be killed, whether he is ...
[26]
Versions of Theft, All Prohibited - Torah Musings
Oct 25, 2022 · Versions of Theft, All Prohibited · Paying Wages on Time. Let's start with what might not seem theft at all. · Stealing Secretly · Just Taking It.
[27]
Jews and Crime in Medieval Europe | Jewish Book Council
Jul 12, 2021 · He focuses largely on Jewish involvement in theft ... Jews peddled goods stolen by Christians, cheated their coreligionists, and even burgled ...Missing: funds | Show results with:funds
[28]
The Ten Commandments
### Jewish Numbering of the Ten Commandments
[29]
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: The Ten Commandments - New Advent
The system of numeration found in Catholic Bibles, based on the Hebrew text, was made by St. Augustine (fifth century) in his book of "Questions of Exodus" (" ...
[30]
The Ten Commandments - Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America
Aug 13, 1985 · The Ten Commandments are an excellent piece of literature of the Old Testament, which was given by God Himself, through Moses, to the people of Israel.
[31]
The Theology of Numbering the Ten Commandments
Jan 7, 2022 · One might express this Lutheran reading of the Tenth Commandment in something like this form: “You shall not desire that others do your will, ...
[32]
The Large Catechism
Summary of each segment:
[33]
Calvin's Institutes Book 2, Chapter 8 - vor.org
Book 2, Chapter 8: Exposition of the Moral Law. This chapter consists of four parts. I. Some general observations necessary for the understanding of the ...Missing: accumulation | Show results with:accumulation
[34]
Thomas Adams on the sin of enclosure - The Puritan Board
Jun 26, 2021 · ... steal from ... enclosures and depopulations" as among the violations of the eighth commandment.Question on Taking for Necessity - The 8th CommandmentThe Larger Catechism and Usury - The Puritan BoardMore results from puritanboard.comMissing: theft | Show results with:theft
[35]
John Wesley, 1743, "Thoughts upon Slavery"
... slavery ... You know they are procured by a deliberate series of more complicated villany (of fraud, robbery, and murder) than was ever practised either by ...<|separator|>
[36]
Do you think the Internet is evil?
Billy Graham “My Answer” A: The Internet is like almost every other invention or scientific advance—it can be used for great good, but it also can be used for ...Missing: teachings intellectual property
[37]
Catechism of the Catholic Church - IntraText
### Summary of Key Points on the Seventh Commandment (Paragraphs 2401-2463)
[38]
"I Will Pull Down My Barns": A Homily of Basil the Great on ...
Nov 19, 2023 · “I will satisfy the souls of the hungry, I will throw open the gates of my barns and summon all those in need.”
[39]
Chrysostom on the Poor - Religion & Liberty Online - Acton Institute
... poor is theft from the poor and deprivation of their means of life; we do not possess our own wealth but theirs. If we have this attitude ...Missing: stealing | Show results with:stealing
[40]
Alleviating the plight of the poor - Orthodox Church in America - OCA
Oct 5, 2015 · God says, 'The earth has brought forth her increase, and you have not brought forth your tithes; but the theft of the poor is in your houses' ( ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[41]
https://www.vatican.va/content/leo-xiii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_15051891_rerum-novarum.html
[42]
Laudato si' (24 May 2015)
Summary of each segment:
[43]
https://www.newadvent.org/summa/3066.htm#article7
[44]
The Magna Carta Offered More Property Protection Than Modern ...
Jan 11, 2020 · Where home equity theft is built into the state tax code, one easy solution is to change the code. There has been success in this area already.
[45]
16. Property Rights and the Constitution | Cato Institute
The Constitution protects property rights through the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments' Due Process Clauses and, more directly, through the Fifth Amendment's ...
[46]
Amendment 5 – “Legal rights and Compensation” | Ronald Reagan
It provides several protections for American citizens, including protection from self-incrimination, guaranteed due process and equal protection before the law.
[47]
Universal Declaration of Human Rights at 70: 30 Articles on ... - ohchr
Nov 26, 2018 · Article 17 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) guarantees the right to property. This is yet another right included in reaction to the ...
[48]
Christian Contributions to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Dec 8, 2023 · Jacques Maritain, Charles Malik, and other Christian thinkers were instrumental in creating the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
[49]
[PDF] The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998
The DMCA also addresses a number of other significant copyright-related issues. The DMCA is divided into five titles: ! Title I, the “WIPO Copyright and ...
[50]
Stoning and Hand Cutting—Understanding the Hudud and the ...
Jan 12, 2017 · Sariqa is only a very specific kind of theft. First, hadiths specify that a thief would only have their hand cut off stealing something over a ...
[51]
ḤUDŪD PUNISHMENTS IN THE FOREFRONT: APPLICATION OF ...
May 14, 2014 · As previously noted, ḥadd punishment for adultery, theft, and robbery has seldom been applied throughout history. But as the analysis suggests, ...<|separator|>
[52]
[PDF] Restitution and Land Issues in South Africa: Biblical and Ethical ...
Land issues in South Africa stem from white control and unequal distribution under apartheid, with the 1913 Land Act limiting black land ownership to 7% and ...
[53]
Land dispossession as "original sin". Can ... - SciELO South Africa
This contribution considers the descriptive value of original sin talk within the public domain against the background of the South African land reform debate.
[54]
https://www.orbisbooks.com/a-theology-of-liberation.html
[55]
Liberation Theology - The Gospel Coalition
Scripture endorses the principle of private property in the eighth commandment ... Gutierrez, Gustavo, A Theology of Liberation (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books ...
[56]
Why Christians Care About Economics | Desiring God
May 17, 2016 · The problem is, as attested by events leading up to the 2008 financial crisis ... eighth commandment? Answer. Not only such theft and robbery as ...
[57]
Global Cost of Corruption at Least 5 Per Cent of World Gross ...
Sep 10, 2018 · Citing estimates by the World Economic Forum, he said the global cost of corruption is at least $2.6 trillion, or 5 per cent of the global ...
[58]
Let Them Eat Bread: The Theft That Helped Inspire 'Les Miserables'
Mar 20, 2017 · The plot of Les Miserables turns on the theft of a simple loaf of bread. There was no sharper barometer of economic status in 19th-century France than bread.
[59]
Ocean's Eleven (2001) - Christian Spotlight on the Movies
Well, one word: “Fireproof.” This film justifies stealing, and whatever it takes to achieve that goal, as long as you're stealing from bad people. My Ratings: ...
[60]
The Ten Commandments | Rotten Tomatoes
Rating 84% (44) Enjoying a life of ease in the court of Egypt's pharaoh, Moses (Charlton Heston) discovers his Hebrew heritage and, later, God's expectations of him.Missing: Mosaic Eighth
[61]
Bob Dylan – Sweetheart Like You Lyrics - Genius
Steal a little and they throw you in jail. Steal a lot and they make you king. There's only one step down from here, baby. It's called the land of permanent ...Missing: Less Eighth Commandment
[62]
Moses with the Ten Commandments - Rembrandt
The writing on the tablets seems to translate the prophet's inner torment into outward distress. It is uncertain whether the 'Jacob Wrestling with the Angel' in ...
[63]
Can Shoplifting Be Activism? - The Prindle Institute for Ethics
Feb 18, 2020 · Shoplifting is arguably the most accessible form of civil disobedience. As superstores proliferate, it becomes easier and easier to swipe items from big ...Missing: justifications inequality
[64]
Ten Commandments - The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
“Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain” (Exodus 20:7). 4. “Remember the sabbath day, to keep it holy” (Exodus 20:8). 5. “Honour thy father ...
[65]
Locke's Political Philosophy
Nov 9, 2005 · He argued that people have rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and property, that have a foundation independent of the laws of any particular society.
[66]
THE EIGHTH COMMANDMENT - Kirkus Reviews
Indeed, the novel does double duty as a survival manual, packed full of good advice—for instance, try not to get wounded, for “injury turns you from a giver to ...
[67]
The Anglican Catechism. A.D. 1549, 1662.
The Preface to the Commandments with their full text was added in 1552. The explanation of the Sacraments was added in 1604 by Bishop Overall, at that time Dean ...
[68]
How to Split the Ten Commandments | Catholic Answers Magazine
Aug 6, 2021 · The ten commandments state what is required in the love of God and love of neighbor. The first three concern love of God, and the other seven love of neighbor.
[69]
B-314643 - The Dead Sea Scrolls
One of the most interesting aspects of the Decalog in this scroll is that it combines the two versions of the fourth commandment that are found in the Masoretic ...
[70]
The Ten Commandments | Cambridge University Press & Assessment
In this volume, Timothy Hogue, presents a new translation, commentary, and literary analysis of the Decalogue through a comparative study of the commandments ...
[71]
The 5 Precepts: Buddhism and Morality - Buddho.org
The second precept is to abstain from stealing. That seems easy, just don't break in or rob people and the like. However, this precept goes further than that. A ...