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Entropion

Entropion is an eyelid disorder characterized by the inward turning of the eyelid margin, most commonly the lower lid, which causes the eyelashes and skin to rub against the cornea and conjunctiva, resulting in irritation, discomfort, and potential corneal damage.^[1] This condition primarily affects older adults, with a prevalence of approximately 2.1% in individuals over 60 years, and is more common in women and those of white ethnicity.^[1] The etiology of entropion varies by type, including involutional (age-related, due to lid laxity and weakening of supporting tissues), cicatricial (scarring from trauma, surgery, or inflammatory conditions like trachoma), spastic (secondary to ocular irritation or inflammation), and congenital (present at birth from developmental abnormalities).^[2] Risk factors include advanced age, previous eye surgery or injury, chronic dry eye, and infections such as trachoma in certain regions.^[3] Common symptoms include a sensation of a foreign body in the eye, redness, excessive tearing or dryness, light sensitivity, mucous discharge, and eyelid crusting, which can worsen with blinking or exposure to wind.^[3] If untreated, entropion may lead to complications such as corneal abrasions, ulcers, infections, or even vision loss from chronic epithelial damage.^[2] Diagnosis typically involves a comprehensive eye examination, including slit-lamp evaluation, lid distraction tests, and assessment of eyelid position to confirm inward rotation and rule out similar conditions like ectropion.^[4] Treatment options range from conservative measures—such as lubricating eye drops, taping the eyelid, or botulinum toxin injections for temporary relief—to surgical interventions like Quickert sutures, tarsal strip procedures, or retractor reinsertion, which offer more permanent correction depending on the underlying cause and severity.^[4]

Background

Definition

Entropion is defined as the inversion or inward turning of the eyelid margin, most commonly affecting the lower eyelid, resulting in the lashes and skin rubbing against the cornea and potentially leading to irritation or ulceration of the globe.^[5]^[3] This malposition disrupts the normal apposition of the eyelid to the eye, causing the posterior lamella to rotate inward toward the ocular surface.^[1] Anatomically, entropion involves instability in key structures that maintain eyelid position, including the tarsal plate—a dense fibrous framework providing rigidity—the orbicularis oculi muscle, which influences lid closure and tone, and the medial and lateral canthal tendons, which anchor the lid to the orbital rim for horizontal stability.^[5]^[6] Weakening or distortion of these components allows the eyelid margin to evert or invert abnormally. In contrast, ectropion represents the outward turning of the eyelid margin, exposing the conjunctiva and leading to different ocular surface issues.^[2]^[7] Entropion is broadly classified as congenital or acquired, with the latter encompassing involutional (age-related), cicatricial (scarring), and spastic (muscle spasm) subtypes.^[5] The lower eyelid is far more commonly affected than the upper, though upper lid involvement can occur in specific forms like marginal entropion.^[1] Historically, cicatricial entropion was first described in ancient Indian texts, notably the Sushruta Samhita around 600 BCE, which detailed surgical corrections for eyelid inversions causing lash irritation.^[8]

Epidemiology

Entropion is a significant eyelid malposition affecting older adults, with involutional entropion—the most common form—having a prevalence of approximately 2.1% in populations aged 60 years and older in Western countries.^[9] This age-related variant arises from progressive tissue degeneration and is more prevalent among females than males, attributed to factors such as thinner skin and greater eyelid laxity in women.^[10] The condition's incidence rises with advancing age, reaching up to 7.6% in individuals over 80 years.^[1] In contrast, cicatricial entropion, often resulting from chronic infections like trachoma, exhibits much higher prevalence in low-resource settings, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East, where trachoma remains endemic and can affect up to 15% of adults in hyperendemic communities through progressive scarring.^[11] Trachoma accounts for the majority of infectious blindness globally, with approximately 1.9 million people visually impaired by its blinding sequelae, including entropion, as of 2024, predominantly in these regions.^[12] Congenital entropion, a rare subtype present at birth, occurs in fewer than 1 in 10,000 live births and is characterized by anomalous eyelid inversion due to structural defects.^[13] However, in Asian populations, related conditions like epiblepharon—typically affecting the lower eyelid and causing lash inversion that resembles entropion—affect approximately 10% of Japanese children, often resolving spontaneously but requiring intervention in symptomatic cases.^[14] Globally, entropion rates for infectious causes have declined in developed nations due to improved sanitation and hygiene practices that have eradicated trachoma, while involutional forms remain stable.^[15] In developing regions, infectious entropion persists due to ongoing trachoma transmission, though progress continues: as of January 2025, 21 countries have eliminated trachoma as a public health problem. Post-2020, overall prevalence of involutional entropion has remained stable, but telemedicine has enhanced awareness and early detection in ophthalmology, with video consultations proving effective for assessing eyelid malpositions like entropion.^[16]

Pathophysiology

Causes

Entropion is classified into congenital and acquired forms based on its etiology. Congenital entropion arises from developmental abnormalities such as dysgenesis of the lower eyelid retractors or an extra fold of skin on the eyelid that directs the lashes inward from birth.^[5]^[3]^[17] True congenital entropion is rare, but a related condition, epiblepharon—characterized by a horizontal skin fold and orbicularis muscle overriding the tarsus, causing lash misdirection—is common in East Asian children and can produce similar symptoms.^[18] These structural defects lead to instability and inward rotation of the eyelid margin, often exacerbated by facial paralysis in infants that allows unchecked retractor function.^[17] Acquired entropion encompasses several subtypes, each driven by distinct mechanisms. Cicatricial entropion results from scarring and fibrosis of the posterior lamella, causing tarsoconjunctival contracture and shortening that pulls the eyelid margin inward; common triggers include chronic inflammation from conditions like trachoma, chemical or thermal burns, trauma, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, or ocular cicatricial pemphigoid.^[5]^[3]^[17] Involutional entropion, the most prevalent form particularly among the elderly, stems from age-related tissue laxity, including horizontal eyelid laxity due to canthal tendon relaxation, tarsal atrophy, and orbital fat loss, combined with dehiscence or disinsertion of the lower eyelid retractors that destabilizes the lid margin.^[5]^[4]^[17] This allows the preseptal orbicularis oculi muscle to override the pretarsal portion, further promoting inversion.^[5]^[4] Spastic entropion occurs due to sustained contraction of the orbicularis oculi muscle in response to ocular surface irritation, inflammation, or infection, often following intraocular surgery, which exacerbates underlying laxity through preseptal muscle override.^[5]^[3]^[17] Mechanical entropion is induced by external forces, such as tumor masses or space-occupying lesions that exert pressure on the eyelid, distorting its alignment inward.^[5]^[17] Rare causes include iatrogenic factors, such as postoperative disinsertion of eyelid structures from prior surgeries like cataract extraction or radiation therapy leading to cicatricial changes, and neurological conditions like facial nerve palsy that impair lid support.^[5]^[4]^[17]

Risk Factors

Entropion susceptibility is influenced by both non-modifiable and modifiable risk factors, which vary depending on the type of entropion, such as involutional, cicatricial, or congenital forms.^[5] Among non-modifiable factors, advanced age over 60 years significantly increases the risk, primarily due to age-related weakening of eyelid tissues and supporting structures in involutional entropion.^[3] East Asian ethnicity is associated with a higher prevalence of epiblepharon, a congenital condition causing lash inversion akin to entropion, with studies reporting rates exceeding 20% in Japanese children at age 1 year.^[19] A family history of congenital entropion also elevates risk, as evidenced by reports of autosomal dominant inheritance patterns in affected kindreds.^[20] Modifiable risk factors include chronic eye infections, such as exposure to trachoma in endemic regions, which can lead to cicatricial changes predisposing to entropion. Previous ocular surgery, particularly cataract extraction, has been linked to a fourfold increased risk of lower eyelid involutional entropion compared to unoperated eyes.^[21] Autoimmune diseases like ocular cicatricial pemphigoid contribute to cicatricial entropion through progressive conjunctival scarring and eyelid distortion. Nutritional deficiencies, including vitamin A deficiency in developing regions, can cause xerophthalmia and spastic entropion with associated trichiasis.^[22] Environmental factors play a role, with poor hygiene in trachoma-endemic areas facilitating recurrent infections that heighten entropion risk.^[23] Prolonged sun exposure may accelerate periorbital skin aging and tissue laxity, indirectly contributing to involutional entropion development.^[5]

Clinical Presentation

Symptoms

Patients with entropion often experience a foreign body sensation in the affected eye, as if something is irritating the ocular surface, along with excessive tearing known as epiphora.^[3]^[4] These symptoms arise from the inward turning of the eyelid, causing eyelashes to rub against the cornea and conjunctiva.^[24] Additional common complaints include photophobia, or sensitivity to light, and a burning sensation due to the ongoing lash-cornea contact.^[3]^[4] Patients may also report eye redness, itching, mucous discharge, dryness or dry eye sensation, and irritation that makes wearing contact lenses difficult or impossible.^[3]^[4]^[17] Symptoms typically begin as intermittent discomfort, particularly during blinking or eye closure, but can progress to constant irritation over time, especially in older individuals where muscle weakening exacerbates the condition.^[3]^[24] Blurred vision may develop if corneal exposure leads to surface damage.^[4] These effects are often more pronounced in dry environments or with exposure to wind, intensifying the sensation of irritation and tearing.^[3] While these are subjective experiences, they are closely linked to observable eyelid inversion, though the focus here remains on patient-reported indicators.^[3]

Signs

The primary clinical sign of entropion is the inward rolling of the eyelid margin, most commonly affecting the lower eyelid, where the lashes and skin turn toward the eyeball, causing the eyelashes to contact the cornea or conjunctiva.^[17]^[3] This malposition is often visible upon inspection and can lead to mechanical irritation of the ocular surface.^[25] On slit-lamp examination, secondary findings include conjunctival injection due to chronic friction, along with corneal abrasions manifesting as punctate keratitis or superficial epithelial defects that stain with fluorescein.^[17] In more advanced cases, filamentary keratitis may develop, characterized by mucus strands adhering to the corneal epithelium.^[26] Lower eyelid laxity is a key associated sign, assessed via the snap-back test, where the pulled lower lid returns slowly to the globe or not at all without blinking, indicating horizontal lid laxity.^[17] In cicatricial entropion, trichiasis is prominent, with misdirected lashes rubbing against the globe due to conjunctival scarring.^[17] Conversely, involutional entropion features horizontal lid laxity from age-related tissue weakening, often with override of the orbicularis muscle over the tarsus.^[17] Diagnostic maneuvers include gentle eversion of the lid to evaluate posterior lamella tightness and retractor function, as well as measurement of lid-globe apposition by distracting the lid laterally from the globe (normal: less than 6 mm).^[17]

Diagnosis

History and Examination

The diagnosis of entropion begins with a detailed patient history to determine the etiology and guide further evaluation. Onset is typically inquired about to distinguish acute cases, such as spastic entropion following irritation or surgery, from chronic forms like involutional entropion associated with aging or cicatricial entropion due to scarring from infections or trauma.^[5]^[1] Progression is assessed to note whether the condition is intermittent, as in early spastic types, or worsening over time, often exacerbated by ongoing inflammation or lid laxity in elderly patients.^[4]^[27] Associated factors, including prior ocular trauma, infections (e.g., herpes zoster), inflammatory conditions, or surgical interventions, are elicited, as these can precipitate spastic or cicatricial variants.^[5] Family history is explored particularly for congenital entropion, which may involve genetic dysgenesis of lid structures, though it is rare in adults.^[5] Systemic symptoms are also reviewed to identify underlying causes, such as autoimmune disorders in cicatricial entropion, where patients may report associated conditions like Stevens-Johnson syndrome or ocular cicatricial pemphigoid. Common ocular complaints include redness, pain, photophobia, epiphora, and foreign body sensation, often linked to corneal exposure.^[5]^[1] In cases suggestive of systemic involvement, further workup for infections or autoimmune diseases may be indicated based on history alone.^[5] The physical examination starts with assessment of visual acuity to detect any reduction due to corneal involvement, followed by external inspection of the eyelids for inward turning of the margin, trichiasis, or signs of irritation such as lid edema or erythema.^[1]^[4] Palpation evaluates for horizontal lid laxity using the distraction test, where excessive medial-lateral movement greater than 6 mm indicates tarsal instability, and the snapback test, where failure to return to position without blinking suggests poor tone.^[5]^[1] Basic motility tests assess lower lid excursion in downgaze; reduced movement (less than 3-4 mm) points to retractor disinsertion, a key feature in involutional entropion.^[1]^[4] Red flags during history and examination include acute unilateral onset, which raises suspicion for spastic entropion secondary to irritation, and bilateral scarring or forniceal shortening, indicative of cicatricial causes like trachoma or autoimmune disease.^[5]^[1] Standard protocols incorporate slit-lamp biomicroscopy for detailed lid margin evaluation and fluorescein staining to reveal corneal epithelial defects, abrasions, or neovascularization resulting from lash-globe contact.^[5]^[1]^[4]

Diagnostic Tests

Slit-lamp biomicroscopy is a primary diagnostic tool for evaluating corneal involvement in entropion, allowing detailed visualization of epithelial defects, punctate keratitis, or ulceration caused by aberrant lash contact with the ocular surface.^[5]^[2] The tear breakup time (TBUT) test assesses tear film stability to identify evaporative dry eye secondary to entropion, with values under 10 seconds indicating instability that may exacerbate symptoms; this test is particularly relevant in cases where incomplete blinking or exposure contributes to ocular surface damage.^[28]^[29] Functional tests such as the lid distraction test quantify horizontal eyelid laxity by pulling the lower lid away from the globe; a distance exceeding 6 mm is abnormal and supports a diagnosis of involutional entropion due to tissue weakening.^[5] The snap-back test complements this by evaluating lid return after displacement, with delayed or incomplete snapping indicating laxity or retractor dysfunction.^[1] In suspected mechanical entropion, orbital imaging with ultrasound or computed tomography (CT) identifies underlying masses or tumors exerting traction on the lid, guiding further management.^[30] For cicatricial entropion linked to autoimmune conditions like ocular cicatricial pemphigoid, conjunctival biopsy with direct immunofluorescence is the gold standard, detecting linear IgG and C3 deposits along the basement membrane in 60-80% of cases to confirm the diagnosis.^[31]^[32] Anterior segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT) has gained emphasis since 2020 for detecting subtle corneal epithelial irregularities and tear meniscus height alterations in entropion-associated dry eye, providing non-invasive quantitative assessment of surface changes.^[33]^[34]

Management

Nonsurgical Treatments

Nonsurgical treatments for entropion primarily aim to provide temporary relief from symptoms, particularly in cases of mild involutional or spastic entropion, by addressing eyelid malposition and protecting the ocular surface without invasive procedures.^[35] These approaches are often indicated for acute spastic entropion secondary to underlying ocular irritation or as preoperative stabilization, with efficacy in symptom control ranging from temporary resolution in spastic cases to partial management in mild involutional presentations.^[36] Temporary measures include eyelid taping, which involves applying transparent medical tape to the lower eyelid to evert it away from the globe, thereby preventing lash-cornea contact; this method offers immediate but short-term relief, typically lasting until the tape is removed or displaced.^[35] Botulinum toxin type A (onabotulinumtoxinA) injections into the orbicularis oculi muscle are particularly effective for spastic entropion, relaxing the muscle to evert the lid; injections typically begin working within 3-5 days, achieve peak effect in 7-14 days, and provide relief for 3-6 months, with studies reporting resolution of entropion in nearly all treated spastic cases without systemic side effects.^[37]^[38] These interventions are ambulatory and suitable for patients unfit for surgery or those requiring bridging therapy.^[36] Lubrication therapies protect the cornea from abrasion due to inverted lashes and maintain ocular surface integrity. Artificial tears and lubricating ointments are applied frequently to reduce friction and irritation, while moisture chambers—such as sealed goggles or plastic shields—can be used to create a humid environment around the eye, minimizing evaporation and exposure in severe cases.^[35]^[2] Soft bandage contact lenses may also be prescribed to act as a protective barrier over the cornea, alleviating discomfort in symptomatic patients.^[35] Medications address secondary complications, such as topical antibiotics (e.g., erythromycin ointment) for bacterial infections arising from corneal exposure or anti-inflammatory agents (e.g., steroid drops) for associated blepharitis that exacerbates lid spasm.^[4] These are used adjunctively with other nonsurgical options to manage inflammation and prevent ulceration, particularly in acute presentations.^[2]

Surgical Treatments

Surgical treatments for entropion aim to restore normal eyelid anatomy by addressing the underlying structural defects, such as laxity, scarring, or congenital anomalies, through targeted operative techniques.^[6] These procedures are typically indicated after nonsurgical options fail or for persistent cases confirmed by preoperative evaluation.^[4] For involutional entropion, common in older adults due to age-related tissue weakening, procedures focus on correcting horizontal lid laxity and reattaching lower eyelid retractors. The Quickert-Rathbun procedure involves placing everting sutures through the conjunctiva, tarsus, and skin to advance and tighten the retractors, often serving as a temporary or adjunct measure to induce scar formation for permanent correction.^[39] The Weis procedure employs a transverse full-thickness blepharotomy followed by marginal rotation sutures to create a barrier against orbicularis override and stabilize the lid margin, particularly effective for mild to moderate cases without significant laxity.^[40] For more pronounced laxity, the lateral tarsal strip technique is preferred, involving lateral canthotomy, tarsal stripping, shortening, and reattachment to the orbital rim to restore tension while preserving the canthal angle.^[4] Cicatricial entropion, resulting from conjunctival scarring due to conditions like trachoma or autoimmune diseases, requires techniques to release scar tissue and augment the posterior lamella. Posterior lamella grafting, such as using hard palate mucosa, involves excising scarred tarsoconjunctival tissue and replacing it with a graft to lengthen and evert the lid margin, providing a stable, non-keratinized surface.^[41] Tarsal fracture, or modified tarsotomy, creates controlled breaks in the tarsus to allow rotation and eversion, often combined with grafts for severe cases to prevent recurrence.^[42] Congenital entropion, typically affecting the lower lid in infants or young children, is managed with procedures that shorten the lid horizontally and promote eversion. Horizontal lid shortening via tarsal resection or plication, combined with everting sutures, adheres the anterior lamella to the tarsus, correcting inversion and associated epiblepharon without excessive scarring.^[43] Postoperative care includes application of antibiotic ophthalmic ointment twice daily to prevent infection, along with artificial tears for lubrication; non-absorbable sutures are removed after approximately one week, while absorbable materials dissolve naturally.^[6] Overall success rates for these surgical interventions range from 85% to 95%, with low recurrence when addressed early and using combined techniques tailored to the etiology.^[4]^[44]

Outcomes

Complications

Untreated or poorly managed entropion can lead to significant ocular complications due to chronic mechanical trauma from the inverted eyelid margin rubbing against the cornea and conjunctiva. This persistent abrasion often results in corneal epithelial defects, progressing to keratitis, ulceration, or even perforation in severe cases.^[17]^[3] The damaged corneal surface becomes susceptible to secondary bacterial infections, which can escalate to more serious intraocular involvement such as endophthalmitis if the infection spreads beyond the cornea.^[17]^[45] Chronic sequelae of entropion include corneal scarring and opacity, which impair visual acuity by causing irregular astigmatism or central vision loss.^[17] Persistent irritation may also induce ongoing ocular pain and discomfort, while the visible eyelid malposition contributes to cosmetic deformity, affecting patient quality of life.^[3] In cases of cicatricial entropion, the condition often stems from underlying autoimmune disorders such as ocular cicatricial pemphigoid, where progressive conjunctival scarring can worsen systemic disease manifestations if not addressed through appropriate medical management.^[46]^[17] Surgical interventions for entropion carry risks of rare adverse events, including overcorrection that results in ectropion, where the eyelid turns outward excessively.^[17] Recurrence is another potential issue, particularly in involutional entropion, with reported rates ranging from 5% to 10% depending on the technique and follow-up duration.^[4]^[17]

Prognosis

The prognosis for entropion is generally excellent with timely intervention, achieving resolution rates exceeding 90% in many surgical series.^[47] Early treatment prevents progression to corneal damage, which can lead to irreversible vision impairment if the condition remains unaddressed.^[6] In contrast, delayed management increases the risk of poor outcomes due to secondary corneal complications.^[6] Key factors influencing prognosis include the underlying etiology and timing of correction; early surgical intervention preserves vision more effectively by averting chronic ocular surface damage.^[6] Recurrence rates vary by type, with cicatricial entropion showing higher relapse (approximately 18-20%) compared to involutional entropion (typically 1-5%).^[42]^[48] Postoperative monitoring is recommended for 6-12 months to assess stability and detect any recurrence early.^[4] Recent patient surveys indicate quality-of-life improvements in over 75% of cases following surgery, primarily through relief of irritation and enhanced daily functioning.^[49] Global disparities affect outcomes, with better prognosis in regions with ready access to care; in endemic areas lacking treatment, trachoma-related entropion results in significant vision loss, contributing to blindness in untreated individuals.^[12]

Entropion in Animals

In Dogs

Entropion is a common conformational eyelid disorder in dogs, particularly affecting brachycephalic breeds with excess facial skin, such as the Shar Pei, where annual prevalence reaches 15.41% (95% CI 14.00–16.91), followed by the Chow Chow at 9.28% (95% CI 7.64–11.14), and English Bulldogs with rates exceeding 10%.^[50]^[51] This condition arises from inherited traits leading to inward rolling of the eyelids, often exacerbated by the anatomical features of these breeds.^[52] In dogs, entropion typically presents as bilateral juvenile onset, manifesting before one year of age and causing irritation from eyelashes and lid margins rubbing against the cornea, which frequently results in painful corneal ulcers affecting up to 14% of cases at initial presentation.^[53] Adult-onset forms are less common and usually secondary to scarring from prior ocular trauma, infections, or chronic inflammation, leading to similar signs including epiphora, blepharospasm, and conjunctivitis.^[54] For juvenile cases in puppies, temporary eyelid tacking with sutures is a standard initial intervention to evert the lids and allow growth, achieving resolution in 36.6% of eyes without further therapy and a median treatment age of around six months.^[55] Definitive surgical correction involves techniques like the Hotz-Celsus procedure, which shortens the eyelid by excising a skin-muscle crescent, or the Y-maneuver for more severe inversions, often combined with lateral wedge resection for optimal outcomes, yielding success rates of 94.2% to 98.4% per eye with breed-specific adjustments to account for skin laxity.^[56]^[57] Veterinarians recommend genetic screening through ophthalmic examinations like those certified by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) Eye Certification Registry to identify at-risk breeding stock, as selective breeding programs have reduced entropion diagnosis risk by nearly twofold in cohorts post-implementation.^[58]^[59] Recent post-2022 studies emphasize emerging minimally invasive options, such as CO2 laser ablation for mild cases, which precisely removes tissue to evert the lid with reduced scarring and faster recovery compared to traditional surgery.^[60]

In Cats

Entropion in cats is a condition characterized by the inward rolling of the eyelid margin, leading to trichiasis where hair or eyelashes rub against the cornea and conjunctiva. This results in ocular irritation and potential secondary complications such as corneal ulcers. Unlike in dogs, where congenital entropion is more prevalent in certain breeds, it is less common in cats and often manifests as a secondary issue rather than a primary conformational defect.^[61]^[62]

Causes

Entropion in cats can be classified as primary or secondary. Primary entropion arises from developmental abnormalities in eyelid or orbital structure, most notably in breeds with brachycephalic (flat-faced) features such as Persians or those with elongated facial anatomy like Maine Coons. Secondary entropion is more frequent and includes spastic forms triggered by ocular pain or blepharospasm from irritants like corneal ulcers, infections (e.g., feline herpesvirus-1), or trauma; cicatricial forms due to scarring from chronic inflammation or injury; and age-related cases in geriatric cats resulting from enophthalmos (sunken eye) and loss of orbital fat, with a mean age of onset around 11.3 years in over half of affected felines. Neurological issues or systemic dermatologic conditions can also contribute, though these are rarer.^[63]^[64]^[62]

Symptoms

Affected cats typically exhibit signs of ocular discomfort, including blepharospasm (squinting), epiphora (excessive tearing), photophobia (light sensitivity), and rubbing at the eyes with paws. Mucous or serous discharge is common, and in chronic cases, corneal exposure leads to ulceration, pigmentation, or sequestra formation. Brachycephalic cats may display subtler symptoms due to their facial conformation, but untreated entropion can progress to vision-threatening issues like corneal scarring or perforation. In juvenile cats, symptoms often stem from ongoing irritation rather than inherent anatomy.^[61]^[64]^[62]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis relies on a thorough ophthalmic examination by a veterinarian, identifying eyelid inversion and trichiasis through direct visualization. Fluorescein staining detects corneal ulcers or abrasions, while a Schirmer tear test assesses tear production (normal range: 12-21 mm/min in cats). Topical anesthesia may be applied to evaluate the eyelid position without pain-induced spasm. Underlying causes, such as infections or systemic diseases, require additional tests like viral screening for herpesvirus. Brachycephalic breeds warrant evaluation for conformational contributions.^[63]^[64]

Treatment

Initial management focuses on relieving irritation with topical antibiotics or lubricants to prevent secondary infections and corneal damage. For spastic entropion, temporary measures like eyelid tacking sutures or partial tarsorrhaphy (stitching eyelids together) allow resolution of underlying spasms, often lasting 10-14 days in young cats. Permanent correction involves surgery, preferably by a veterinary ophthalmologist, using techniques such as the modified Hotz-Celsus procedure (excision of a skin wedge to evert the lid) combined with lateral canthal closure, achieving success rates of 95-99%. In select cases, hyaluronic acid fillers offer a non-surgical option with approximately 92% efficacy, avoiding general anesthesia.^[61]^[64]^[62]^[65] Concurrent issues like ulcers must be addressed to prevent recurrence.

Prognosis and Complications

With prompt surgical intervention before significant corneal damage, the prognosis is excellent, restoring comfort and preserving vision in most cases. Prophylactic lateral canthal closure during surgery reduces recurrence risk to near 0%, compared to 17% without it. Untreated or delayed cases risk chronic keratitis, corneal sequestra, or vision loss from scarring. Older cats with enophthalmos may require ongoing monitoring, but overall outcomes are favorable when managed early.^[63]^[64]^[62]

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Entropion is most commonly due to laxity of the eyelid and often is found in patients older than 60 years. Involutional entropion is found in 2.1% of the ...Missing: demographics | Show results with:demographics
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Gender-Related Differences in Dry Eye Symptoms Following ... - MDPI
Jun 27, 2024 · The entropion group included 57 patients (60 eyes), consisting of 31 males and 26 females. Unilateral entropion was present in 54 cases, while ...Missing: demographics | Show results with:demographics
[28]
Dysfunctional tear syndrome: dry eye disease and associated tear ...
Dysfunctional tear syndrome (DTS) is a common and complex condition affecting the ocular surface. The health and normal functioning of the ocular surface is ...
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Orbital tumours and tumour-like lesions - Insights into Imaging
Oct 31, 2015 · This review focuses on multiparametric imaging of orbital tumours. Each tumour is reviewed in relation to its clinical presentation, compartmental location, ...Missing: mechanical entropion
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Ocular Cicatricial Pemphigoid - EyeWiki
Jul 8, 2025 · Ocular Cicatricial Pemphigoid ... Inferior retractor plication surgery for lower lid entropion with trichiasis in ocular cicatricial pemphigoid.Disease Entity · Pathophysiology · Diagnosis · Differential Diagnosis
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Ocular cicatricial pemphigoid (Review) - PMC - NIH
Jul 7, 2020 · Conjunctival biopsy with direct immunofluorescence is the gold standard in diagnosis confirmation, but up to 40% of the patients have a negative ...
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Tear evaluation by anterior segment OCT in dry eye disease - PMC
Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) is a tool used for assessing different anterior segment eye variables, having the advantage of being non-invasive, besides ...
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Imaging Modalities for Dry Eye Disease - EyeWiki
Diagnosis of Dry Eye by Tear Meniscus Measurements Using Anterior Segment Swept Source Optical Coherence Tomography. Cornea. 2015;34 Suppl 11:S115-120. doi ...
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Entropion - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic
Jan 14, 2021 · In entropion, your eyelid turns inward, causing lashes and skin to rub against the eye. Learn about causes and treatment for this irritating ...
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Lower lid entropion correction with botulinum toxin injection - PMC
Botulinum toxin is a safe and effective procedure for correction of some cases of senile and congenital entropion.
[36]
In Your Practice: Botox Aids the Ocular Surface
Jan 1, 2023 · Typically, the neuromodulator begins working within three to five days of injection, reaching peak efficacy within seven to 14 days, according ...
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Long-term efficacy of botulinum toxin A for treatment of ... - Nature
Jul 24, 2009 · BoNT-A was also highly effective in temporary treatment of spastic EN. No systemic side effects of BoNT-A treatment were noted, a finding ...
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Lower Eyelid Malposition: Evaluation and Treatment
Jan 17, 2013 · Mechanical ectropion can be seen when the lower eyelid is very swollen or there is a large mass lesion, particularly in the face of severe ...
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The Wies procedure for management of trichiasis or cicatricial ...
Jul 1, 2009 · The Wies procedure (transverse blepharotomy and marginal rotation) is reasonably successful in managing trichiasis and cicatricial entropion ...
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Cicatricial entropion repair with hard palate mucous membrane graft
Cicatricial Entropion with hard palate mucous membrane grafting for both upper and lower eyelid surgery offers high symptomatic and anatomical cure rates.
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Modified tarsotomy for the treatment of severe cicatricial entropion
Apr 22, 2016 · The study findings suggest modified tarsotomy is effective for the correction of severe cicatricial entropion.
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A Novel Plastic Surgical Technique for Treating Congenital ...
Apr 1, 2019 · We describe a novel surgical technique for congenital entropion repair with the creation of cosmetically natural Namidabuluro in an East Asian cohort.
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Efficacy and complications of the transconjunctival entropion repair ...
Results: Transconjunctival entropion repair resulted in resolution of entropion, with a success rate of 96.7% (146 of 151 eyelids); entropion recurrence rate ...
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Bacterial Keratitis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The various signs of bacterial keratitis are lid edema, blepharospasm, matting of eyelashes, purulent discharge, conjunctival chemosis, circumcorneal ...
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Ocular cicatricial pemphigoid - PMC - PubMed Central
Ocular cicatricial pemphigoid is a general autoimmune disease with ocular manifestations that could lead to blindness. Ocular complications are dry eye, corneal ...
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Patient Satisfaction After Transverse Blepharotomy (Wies Procedure ...
Jan 17, 2014 · The overall success rate in our series was 90.7 % and rose to 91.2 % in cases of primary surgery. Even in recurrent disease, 88.9 % of surgeries ...Missing: prognosis | Show results with:prognosis
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Success of lower eyelid involutional entropion repair using fornix ...
With at least three months follow up (range 3-60 months), the recurrence rate of lower eyelid entropion was 1.2% (7/602 eyelids). Of these recurrences four out ...<|separator|>
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Everting Sutures for Entropion Repair: Recurrence Rate and Quality ...
Jan 3, 2025 · After surgical intervention, 95.1% of patients experienced symptom relief. An improvement in quality of life was reported in 76.2%, which was ...Missing: 2020 | Show results with:2020
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Trachoma - World Health Organization (WHO)
Jul 18, 2025 · Trachoma is the leading infectious cause of blindness worldwide. It is caused by an obligate intracellular bacterium called Chlamydia trachomatis.Missing: entropion ethnicity autoimmune
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Conformational eyelid disorders in dogs under primary veterinary ...
Jun 30, 2025 · Breeds with highest annual prevalence for entropion were Shar-Pei (15.41%, 95% CI 14.00–16.91), Chow Chow (9.28%, 95% CI 7.64–11.14) and ...
[51]
Ophthalmic disorders in a referral population of seven breeds of ...
Nov 1, 2021 · In English Bulldogs, entropion, distichiasis, and prolapse of the nictitans gland all affected > 10% of dogs.
[52]
Epidemiology of ocular disorders presumed to be inherited in three ...
Nov 11, 2016 · The most common PIED in each breed were entropion (24.3% of all the PIED) in the Neapolitan Mastiff, ectropion (36.6%) in the Corso dog, and ...
[53]
Long-term success rate of entropion surgery is equivalent in juvenile ...
Aug 9, 2023 · The success rate of the temporary tacking procedure was much lower (36.6%) than the success rates reported in previous studies (57% to 77%).
[54]
Eyelid Entropion in Dogs | VCA Animal Hospitals
It can, however, develop secondary to an eye irritant, such as a corneal ulcer, that can cause the eyelid to spasm. It can also occur following an injury or ...
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Long-term success rate of entropion surgery is equivalent in juvenile ...
Aug 9, 2023 · The entropion resolved in 36.6% of eyes, requiring no further therapy. The median age of dogs successfully treated with a temporary tacking ...
[56]
Entropion correction in dogs and cats using a combination ... - PubMed
The surgical technique combines Hotz-Celsus and lateral eyelid wedge resection, with a 94.2% success rate per eye in 311 eyes.
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Lower lid entropion in dogs: A modified technique of the combined ...
Jan 29, 2022 · The success rate for a single entropion correction surgery was 98.4%. One eyelid required a second surgical correction and four eyelids of three ...
[58]
Selective Breeding on Entropion in Labrador Retrievers
Oct 2, 2025 · In dogs, entropion is believed to have a genetic component, given that some breeds are more prone to it than others. It is particularly ...Missing: screening | Show results with:screening
[59]
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Selective Breeding and Corrective ...
Sep 25, 2025 · Dogs whelped in the pre-selection cohort had 1.96 times greater risk of entropion diagnosis than dogs whelped in the post-selection cohort.Missing: screening | Show results with:screening
[60]
Comprehensive Review of Canine Entropion: Types, Surgical ...
Future research should continue to investigate the use of CO2 lasers and hyaluronic acid in treating entropion and explore their broader applications in ...
[61]
Entropion in Dogs and Cats - Veterinary Partner - VIN
Aug 26, 2025 · Entropion is an uncomfortable or painful condition in which the animal's eyelids roll inward, allowing the eyelashes (or other hair) to rub ...
[62]
Diagnostic Ophthalmology - PMC - NIH
To summarize, entropion is less common in cats that in dogs. In young cats, entropion is usually caused by continued blepharospasm related to irritative causes ...Missing: symptoms | Show results with:symptoms
[63]
Entropion — ACVO Public
Feb 2, 2018 · The diagnosis of entropion is usually straight forward and based on clinical symptoms of discomfort and discharge. Identifying the underlying ...
[64]
Diagnosis and treatment of entropion in felines - Vet Times
Jul 13, 2015 · Entropion is an eversion of an eyelid margin, resulting in trichiasis (hair rubbing against the cornea). Cats as well as dogs can suffer from entropion.