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Equiangular polygon

An equiangular polygon is a polygon in which all interior angles are equal in measure.^[1] While regular polygons are both equiangular and equilateral—meaning they also have equal side lengths—equiangular polygons in general do not require equal sides and can have varying side lengths while maintaining congruent angles.^[1] For a triangle, an equiangular polygon is necessarily equilateral, as equal angles force equal sides by the properties of triangle congruence.^[2] In the case of quadrilaterals, rectangles exemplify equiangular polygons, with all four angles measuring 90 degrees, though opposite sides are equal but adjacent sides may differ in length.^[3] For polygons with more than four sides, equiangularity imposes that each interior angle equals ((n-2)/n) \times 180^\circ, where n is the number of sides, but constructing such polygons with unequal sides becomes increasingly complex and may require specific geometric constraints to remain simple and convex.^[1] A distinctive geometric property of equiangular polygons is that the sum of the perpendicular distances from any interior point to the lines containing the sides remains constant, regardless of the point's position inside the polygon; this generalizes Viviani's theorem, which applies to equilateral polygons or equiangular triangles.^[4] This invariance arises from the equal angles allowing the polygon to be embedded in a regular polygon with parallel sides, preserving the distance sum through area triangulation or vector methods.^[4] Equiangular polygons appear in various mathematical contexts, including tiling problems and spirolaterals, where integer side lengths are explored under angle constraints.^[5]

Fundamentals

Definition

In Euclidean geometry, an equiangular polygon is defined as a polygon whose interior vertex angles are all equal in measure. This property focuses solely on angular equality, without requiring uniformity in side lengths.^[1] Unlike an equilateral polygon, which features sides of identical length but potentially varying angles, an equiangular polygon may have unequal sides. A regular polygon, by contrast, satisfies both conditions—equal angles and equal sides—making it a special case within the broader category of equiangular polygons.^[6] The definition applies to simple polygons, which are closed figures bounded by straight line segments without self-intersections. Equiangular simple polygons are necessarily convex, as the equal interior angles must each measure less than 180 degrees to sum correctly to (n-2)π radians for n sides. Self-intersecting figures, such as star polygons, are excluded from this classification.^[7]

Basic Characteristics

An equiangular polygon is defined in the context of a basic polygon, which is a plane figure formed by a finite number of straight line segments connected end-to-end to create a simple closed chain.^[8] This foundational structure ensures the polygon is a bounded region without self-intersections, providing the prerequisite for properties like equiangularity to apply. For any simple n-sided polygon, the sum of the interior angles is (n-2) \times 180^\circ.^[9] In an equiangular polygon, where all interior angles are equal, each angle measures \frac{(n-2) \times 180^\circ}{n}.^[10] This uniform distribution of angles distinguishes equiangular polygons from more general irregular forms, though it does not impose uniformity on side lengths. Equiangular polygons have all interior angles less than 180^\circ, ensuring the figure lies entirely on one side of each bounding line.^[11] Equiangular polygons are not necessarily equilateral, meaning side lengths may vary, except in triangles where equal angles imply equal sides by the properties of congruence.^[4] In contrast to regular polygons, which combine both equiangular and equilateral traits, equiangular forms allow greater flexibility in shape.

General Properties

Interior Angle Measures

In an equiangular polygon, all interior angles are equal in measure. For a convex equiangular n-gon, the sum of the interior angles is given by the polygon angle-sum theorem as (n - 2) × 180°, derived by triangulating the polygon into n - 2 triangles, each contributing 180° to the total angle sum.^[12] Since the angles are equal, each interior angle measures \frac{(n-2) \times 180^\circ}{n}. The corresponding exterior angle at each vertex is supplementary to the interior angle, measuring 180° minus the interior angle value. For convex equiangular polygons, the exterior angles are also equal, and their sum is always 360° by the exterior angle theorem; thus, each exterior angle is \frac{360^\circ}{n}. For n ≥ 3, the interior angle of a convex equiangular n-gon increases monotonically toward 180° as n grows, approaching a flat limit for large n. Simple concave equiangular polygons do not exist, as equal interior angles would all measure less than 180°, satisfying the convexity condition.^[13]

Equiangular Polygon Theorem

The Equiangular Polygon Theorem states that for a convex equiangular n-gon with n > 3 and side lengths a_1, a_2, \dots, a_n > 0, the lengths must satisfy the complex closure condition \sum_{k=1}^n a_k \omega^{k-1} = 0, where \omega = e^{2\pi i / n} is a primitive nth root of unity. This equation ensures the polygon closes, as the sides act as vectors in fixed directions separated by the exterior angle $2\pi/n. Unlike equilateral polygons, not all side lengths can be arbitrary; the condition imposes linear dependencies, preventing a general equiangular n-gon from having completely independent side lengths. To derive this, represent each side as a complex number a_k \omega^{k-1}, where the magnitude a_k is the length and the argument corresponds to the cumulative turning angle at each vertex. The polygon closes if the vector sum is zero, yielding the equation above. This approach, rooted in vector geometry, highlights the rigidity: the fixed angles reduce the configuration space, with the theorem providing the exact constraints on the a_k. For even n, the condition simplifies to pairwise equalities, such as opposite sides being equal (a_k = a_{k + n/2} for all k), allowing non-regular examples like rectangles (where adjacent sides alternate in length). For odd n, the lack of such symmetry imposes stricter constraints; for instance, if the side lengths are rational, the polygon must be regular with all sides equal. These implications underscore the theorem's role in classifying equiangular polygons and their relative rigidity compared to scalene polygons with variable angles. The theorem's formulation in the complex plane has been explored in modern geometry, building on foundational work by 20th-century figures like H.S.M. Coxeter on polygon configurations, though the specific closure condition gained prominence in analyses of non-regular polygons during the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

Additional Properties

Equiangular polygons generally do not exhibit the full dihedral symmetry of regular polygons, as varying side lengths disrupt uniform rotational and reflectional properties; however, specific cases like rectangles demonstrate bilateral reflectional symmetry along their axes of symmetry.^[14] Equiangular polygons can tile the Euclidean plane monohedrally only for n=3 (equilateral triangles), n=4 (rectangles), and n=6 (non-regular equiangular hexagons with opposite sides equal and parallel). For other values of n, such as equiangular pentagons, it is impossible because the interior angle does not allow an integer number of polygons to meet at a vertex summing to 360°. Not all equiangular polygons are cyclic, meaning they cannot always be inscribed in a circle; an equiangular polygon is cyclic if and only if its alternate sides are equal in length, reducing to a regular polygon when the number of sides is odd.^[15] For an equiangular polygon to be tangential (admitting an incircle), its side lengths must satisfy the tangential condition: for even-sided polygons, the sums of the lengths of every other side must be equal, constraining the variable sides beyond the equiangular theorem's requirements.^[16] A notable property is the generalization of Viviani's theorem: the sum of the perpendicular distances from any interior point to the sides of an equiangular polygon is constant and independent of the point's position, equal to this invariant value specific to the polygon.^[4]^[17] The area of an equiangular polygon depends on its variable side lengths and fixed interior angles, computable via triangulation into sectors where each triangle's area uses the law of cosines with the common angle measure, yielding expressions like \frac{1}{2} s_i s_{i+1} \sin \theta summed over adjacent sides s_i, s_{i+1} and angle \theta = \frac{(n-2)\pi}{n}, though closed forms are generally complex without additional symmetries.^[18]

Construction and Notation

Construction Methods

Equiangular polygons can be constructed geometrically using a protractor to measure and replicate equal interior angles at each vertex, combined with a straightedge to connect sides of arbitrary lengths, ensuring the figure closes by adjusting side proportions iteratively. For the specific case of equiangular quadrilaterals, which are rectangles, a classical compass-and-straightedge method involves first drawing a line segment for one side, erecting perpendiculars at both endpoints using the compass to create right angles, and then marking the adjacent sides along these perpendiculars before connecting the final vertices.^[19] Algebraic methods for constructing equiangular polygons rely on solving systems of equations derived from the fixed angle constraints and the requirement that the polygon closes. Representing the sides as vectors in the complex plane, with directions rotated by the exterior angle \frac{2\pi}{n} at each step, the closure condition yields \sum_{k=1}^n a_k \omega^{k-1} = 0, where a_k > 0 are the side lengths and \omega = e^{2\pi i / n} is a primitive nth root of unity; the real and imaginary parts provide two equations to constrain the n variables, often supplemented by additional conditions for specific configurations.^[20] This approach, rooted in the Equiangular Polygon Theorem for determining viable side solutions, allows computation of explicit side lengths for given n.^[21] In modern practice, computer-aided design (CAD) tools and dynamic geometry software such as GeoGebra facilitate the construction of equiangular polygons for higher n by imposing angle constraints and visualizing adjustments to achieve closure. Users can define vertices with fixed turning angles and drag sides until the polygon aligns, enabling exploration beyond manual methods.^[22]^[23] For polygons with large n, construction poses computational challenges, as the underdetermined system requires numerical optimization to find positive side lengths satisfying closure while avoiding degeneracy, with complexity growing due to the high dimensionality and potential for multiple solutions or numerical instability in solving the polynomial relations.^[21]

Notation Conventions

In mathematical literature, an equiangular polygon with n sides is commonly referred to as an equiangular n-gon, emphasizing the equality of its interior vertex angles without requiring equal side lengths.^[24] The measure of each interior angle \alpha in such a polygon is given by the formula \alpha = \frac{(n-2) \times 180^\circ}{n}, derived from the general sum of interior angles for any n-gon, which is (n-2) \times 180^\circ, divided equally among the n vertices.^[25] This notation aligns with broader polygonal conventions, where the prefix "equiangular" specifies the angular property, distinct from "equilateral" for equal sides or "regular" for both.^[26] The side lengths of an equiangular n-gon are typically labeled sequentially as s_1, s_2, \dots, s_n, often ordered counterclockwise around the polygon, subject to constraints ensuring closure and convexity, such as those from the equiangular polygon theorem relating opposite or alternating sides in even-sided cases.^[24] These labels facilitate analysis of properties like existence conditions for rational side lengths or vector decompositions in proofs.^[27] Terminological variations include "rectilinear" specifically for equiangular quadrilaterals (n=4), where all angles are $90^\circ, aligning with the definition of a rectilinear polygon as one composed of horizontal and vertical sides meeting at right angles; rectangles are the convex examples.^[28] The term "isoangular" occasionally appears as a synonym, particularly in contexts discussing angular equality, though "equiangular n-gon" remains the predominant usage in modern geometry texts.^[29] Over time, notation has evolved from descriptive 19th-century phrases like "polygon with equal angles" in foundational works to concise symbolic forms in 20th-century literature, such as those in structural geometry analyses.^[1]

Specific Polygons by Number of Sides

Equiangular Triangles

An equiangular triangle in Euclidean geometry is one where all three interior angles are equal. Since the sum of the interior angles of any triangle is 180 degrees, each angle measures exactly 60 degrees.^[30] This configuration implies that the triangle must also have all sides of equal length, making every equiangular triangle equilateral.^[31] The equivalence arises from fundamental angle-side relationships: equal angles opposite equal sides, as established in Euclidean propositions on isosceles triangles extended to the equiangular case. Consequently, an equiangular triangle is fully determined by the length of a single side, with the other two sides matching it precisely.^[32] Construction of an equiangular (and thus equilateral) triangle follows classical compass-and-straightedge methods, such as Euclid's first proposition. To build one given base segment AB, place the compass point at A with radius AB and draw an arc above the line; repeat from B to intersect the arc at point C, then connect C to A and B. This yields a triangle with all sides equal and all angles 60 degrees.^[33] Equiangular triangles exhibit the highest degree of symmetry among triangles, with three lines of reflectional symmetry passing through each vertex and midpoint of the opposite side, alongside 120-degree rotational symmetry of order three.^[34] By definition, they are regular polygons, possessing both equal sides and equal angles, which underpins their use in tiling, architecture, and foundational geometric proofs.^[30]

Equiangular Quadrilaterals

An equiangular quadrilateral is defined as a four-sided polygon where all interior angles measure exactly 90 degrees. Since the sum of the interior angles of any quadrilateral in Euclidean geometry is 360 degrees, equal angles necessarily result in right angles at each vertex. This figure is precisely a rectangle, with the square serving as a special case where all sides are of equal length.^[35]^[36]^[37] Applying the equiangular polygon theorem to quadrilaterals establishes that such a figure is a parallelogram, meaning opposite sides are equal in length and parallel, while adjacent sides may have different lengths unless it is a square. This flexibility in side lengths distinguishes equiangular quadrilaterals from equiangular triangles, where all sides must be equal.^[35]^[38] Rectangles can be constructed using perpendicular lines by drawing two intersecting lines at right angles and marking equal segments along each to form the sides. In coordinate geometry, a rectangle is readily defined by placing vertices at the points (0,0), (a,0), (a,b), and (0,b), where a and b are positive real numbers representing the lengths of the adjacent sides.^[39]^[40] Key properties of rectangles include the equality and parallelism of opposite sides, as well as diagonals that are equal in length and bisect each other. In the rhombus variant known as the square, the diagonals are additionally perpendicular to each other. These attributes underscore the rectangle's role as a fundamental shape in Euclidean geometry.^[41]^[42]^[41]

Equiangular Pentagons

An equiangular pentagon is a convex five-sided polygon in which all five interior angles measure exactly 108 degrees. This angle measure follows from the general formula for the interior angles of an equiangular n-gon, where each angle is \frac{(n-2) \times 180^\circ}{n}. For n=5, this yields 108 degrees per angle, ensuring the total sum of 540 degrees required for any pentagon. Unlike a regular pentagon, which has both equal angles and equal sides, an equiangular pentagon need not be equilateral; non-regular examples exist with unequal side lengths as long as those lengths satisfy closure conditions for the polygon to form a closed shape. These constraints arise from the equiangular polygon theorem, which implies specific ratios among the sides to ensure the directed vectors of the sides sum to zero after cumulative turns of the fixed exterior angle (72 degrees per vertex). Not every arbitrary set of five positive side lengths will work, as the conditions impose two equations (in x- and y-components) on the five variables, leaving three degrees of freedom but requiring numerical verification or solving for compatibility. Constructing an equiangular pentagon typically involves an iterative process: start with an initial direction and side, then turn by the exterior angle at each vertex while varying side lengths, adjusting iteratively or via numerical methods (such as solving a system of trigonometric equations) to achieve closure. This approach highlights the challenges compared to even-sided cases, as the odd number of sides leads to stricter interdependencies without inherent parallel symmetries. No simple named non-regular equiangular pentagons are known in classical geometry, but convex examples with five unequal sides are possible and have been explored in studies of polytiles and dissections. For instance, certain isogonal pentagons with sequences of integer edge lengths (e.g., patterns like 1, 2, 3, etc., scaled appropriately) close under the fixed 108-degree angles and serve as building blocks for tilings or attachments in modular constructions.

Equiangular Hexagons

An equiangular hexagon is a convex six-sided polygon where each interior angle measures 120°. This follows from the general formula for the interior angle of an equiangular n-gon, (n-2)\pi / n radians, which for n=6 yields 120°. The equiangular polygon theorem specifies that for such a hexagon to close, the side lengths must satisfy three vector closure conditions when the sides are traversed in order. Labeling the consecutive side lengths as a, b, c, d, e, f, these conditions are a + b = d + e, b + c = e + f, and c + d = f + a, ensuring the net displacement is zero after one full circuit. In the special case of zonogons, the sides come in three pairs of equal lengths, with each pair parallel and opposite, typically denoted using notation like abc where the pairs are a, a, b, b, c, c in alternating directions. Equiangular hexagons can be constructed as generalized parallelogons by starting with three generating vectors in directions separated by 60° exterior angles and ensuring the vector sum closes the polygon, often visualized as the boundary of the Minkowski sum of three line segments. Zonogonic equiangular hexagons, featuring three pairs of parallel and equal opposite sides, are constructed as the Minkowski sum of three line segments in directions separated by 60°, permitting varying lengths for each pair while preserving the 120° interior angles due to fixed direction changes. For zonogons, this construction emphasizes central symmetry, where the figure is the zonotope generated by the vectors, with opposite sides equal and parallel. Key properties include the ability to divide the hexagon into three parallelograms by connecting alternate vertices or using the parallel side pairs, facilitating tessellations and area computations.

Equiangular Heptagons

An equiangular heptagon is a seven-sided polygon in which each interior angle measures \frac{(7-2) \times 180^\circ}{7} = \frac{900^\circ}{7} \approx 128.57^\circ. The side lengths a_1, a_2, \dots, a_7 of an equiangular heptagon must satisfy the vector closure conditions for the polygon to close, given the fixed turning angles. Representing the sides as complex vectors with directions at multiples of the exterior angle \theta = \frac{2\pi}{7}, the condition is

\sum_{k=1}^7 a_k e^{i (k-1) \theta} = 0,

which separates into two real equations:

\sum_{k=1}^7 a_k \cos((k-1)\theta) = 0, \quad \sum_{k=1}^7 a_k \sin((k-1)\theta) = 0.

This forms a system of two linear equations in the seven side lengths.^[17] The solution space is five-dimensional, yielding an infinite family of equiangular heptagons with positive side lengths that ensure convexity (typically requiring the cumulative turns to remain within bounds for no self-intersection). Specific solutions can be obtained by choosing five free parameters for the side lengths and solving the linear system for the remaining two, using methods like matrix inversion or Cramer's rule. The entries involve \cos(k \cdot 2\pi / 7) for k = 0 to $6, which satisfy the known cubic equation x^3 + x^2 - 2x - 1 = 0 for $2\cos(2\pi/7), allowing algebraic expressions in nested radicals.^[43]^[44] However, due to the algebraic complexity of the heptagonal angles, explicit closed-form expressions for arbitrary parameter choices are cumbersome, and practical constructions often rely on numerical methods such as Gaussian elimination or iterative solvers to compute the dependent side lengths. One approach starts with the side lengths of a regular heptagon (all equal) and perturbs five sides while solving for the others to maintain closure.^[43]

Equiangular Octagons

An equiangular octagon is an eight-sided polygon in which all interior angles measure 135°. The sides of an equiangular octagon lie in eight fixed directions spaced at 45° intervals, with opposite sides parallel due to the uniform exterior angles of 45°. This configuration allows for side length patterns consisting of four pairs of equal lengths, one pair for each unique direction pair (horizontal/vertical and the two diagonal directions at 45° and 135°), ensuring the polygon closes while maintaining the angles. For example, configurations where opposite sides are equal, such as lengths a, b, c, d, a, b, c, d in sequence, satisfy the vector closure conditions inherent to the fixed directions. Equiangular octagons can be constructed by specifying side lengths in these predetermined directions and adjusting positions to achieve the required 135° turns at vertices, a method facilitated by tools like LOGO programming for visualization. A familiar example is the regular octagon used in U.S. stop signs, which is equiangular (and equilateral); non-regular variants can be formed by varying the paired side lengths while preserving the directional constraints, akin to deforming the stop sign shape without altering angles. Such polygons exhibit properties like the potential to be tangential, possessing an incircle tangent to all sides, provided the necessary condition that the sums of the lengths of alternate sides are equal is met—this is required but not sufficient for octagons. Non-regular examples include zonogons with equal opposite sides parallel in the 45° grid, sometimes referred to in contexts as rectilinear or grid-aligned octagons due to their alignment with orthogonal and diagonal axes.

Equiangular Enneagons

An equiangular enneagon, or nine-sided polygon, features all interior angles measuring exactly 140°, derived from the general formula for the interior angle of an equiangular n-gon: ((n-2) \times 180^\circ)/n.^[10] This fixed angular measure imposes strict geometric constraints, particularly for odd n like 9, where the lack of bilateral symmetry complicates achieving polygon closure compared to even-sided cases. The primary challenge in forming a non-regular equiangular enneagon lies in satisfying the vector closure conditions: the sum of the directed side vectors must equal zero in both x and y components, with each turn angle fixed at the exterior angle of 40° (360°/9).^[45] For n=9, a prime power (3²), no non-regular examples exist with rational side lengths; any such polygon with rational edges must be regular (equilateral).^[45] Thus, non-regular variants require irrational side lengths, determined through a system of trigonometric equations without simple closed-form solutions, highlighting their theoretical rather than practical prominence. Construction of equiangular enneagons typically demands iterative numerical solving techniques, such as optimization algorithms to adjust side lengths while enforcing the equal angles and closure. Dynamic geometry software, like GeoGebra, facilitates this by allowing constraint-based modeling, where users define fixed angles and iteratively refine sides to close the figure.^[46] Due to these complexities and the absence of inherent pairing symmetries (unlike even n), real-world applications or physical models are scarce, with focus remaining on mathematical explorations of closure and existence conditions in polygon theory.^[45]

Equiangular Decagons

An equiangular decagon is a ten-sided polygon where all interior angles measure exactly 144°. This angle arises from the polygon interior angle sum theorem, which establishes that the sum of the interior angles of any simple n-gon is (n-2)×180°, yielding 1440° for n=10; dividing equally among the ten angles gives 144° per angle.^[47] While the regular decagon has all sides of equal length, non-regular equiangular decagons permit varying side lengths as long as the polygon closes and remains convex. A key property stems from the even number of sides: the exterior angle is uniformly 36°, fixing side directions at multiples of 36° relative to each other.^[4] To ensure closure, the vector sum of the sides must be zero; since opposite sides (five pairs) point in exactly 180° opposing directions, setting each pair to equal lengths automatically satisfies this condition, allowing arbitrary positive lengths for the five pairs (subject to convexity inequalities to prevent self-intersection).^[48] This pairing theorem simplifies construction, as the polygon's shape adjusts via the fixed turns while the chosen pair lengths determine the overall form.^[4] One modular construction approach involves incrementally adding vectors in the fixed directional sequence (multiples of 36°) and solving for side lengths that achieve closure, often using linear algebra on the real and imaginary parts of complex number representations.^[21] Affine transformations applied to a regular decagon preserve parallelism of corresponding sides but alter angles; however, starting from an equiangular configuration and applying similarity transformations maintains both angles and relative side proportions.^[4] Equiangular decagons can possess higher symmetry subgroups beyond the minimal equiangular constraint; for instance, equalizing lengths across multiple pairs may induce rotational symmetries of order dividing 10 or reflectional symmetries across axes aligned with vertices or mid-sides.^[21]

Equiangular Hendecagons

An equiangular hendecagon is an 11-sided polygon in which all interior angles are equal, each measuring \frac{(11-2) \times 180^\circ}{11} \approx 147.27^\circ.^[17] Unlike regular hendecagons, where sides are also equal, equiangular hendecagons permit varying side lengths, provided the polygon closes and maintains the fixed angles.^[21] The side lengths of an equiangular hendecagon must satisfy a system of constraints derived from the equal interior angles, which impose 11 coupled equations relating the 11 side variables through the fixed turning angles of $360^\circ / 11 at each vertex.^[17] These equations can be expressed in the complex plane as \sum_{k=0}^{10} a_k e^{2\pi i k / 11} = 0, where a_k are the side lengths, yielding two real equations (real and imaginary parts) for closure, but the prime number of sides (11) leads to minimal symmetry, as the cyclic group of order 11 has no nontrivial subgroups, restricting non-regular forms to those without additional rotational or reflectional symmetries beyond the full dihedral group.^[21] For rational side lengths, this minimal symmetry implies that only the regular hendecagon exists, necessitating irrational lengths for irregular variants.^[21] Due to the high degree of the 11th cyclotomic polynomial (φ(11) = 10), analytical constructions of irregular equiangular hendecagons are infeasible, relying instead primarily on numerical simulations to solve the nonlinear system for specific side length configurations while ensuring convexity and non-intersection.^[21] These computations demand significant resources, as iterative methods like Newton-Raphson or optimization algorithms must approximate the roots of unity and balance the vector sums under the angle constraints.^[17] Equiangular hendecagons hold theoretical interest in studying the limits of polygon variability, particularly how the prime order restricts symmetric deformations while allowing up to 9 degrees of freedom (after accounting for scale, translation, and rotation) in side lengths, providing insights into the boundaries between regular and highly irregular forms without violating closure or angle uniformity.^[21]

Equiangular Dodecagons

An equiangular dodecagon is a 12-sided polygon in which all interior angles measure exactly 150°. This follows from the general formula for the sum of interior angles in an n-gon, which is (n-2)×180°; for n=12, the total is 1800°, so each angle is 1800°/12 = 150° when equiangular. Convex equiangular dodecagons have sides oriented in 12 equally spaced directions, differing by successive exterior angles of 30° at each vertex, ensuring the consistent interior angle regardless of side lengths. The side lengths of such polygons satisfy closure conditions from the vector sum being zero, allowing variability while maintaining the fixed directions. A key configuration arises from theorems on equiangular tuples, where side lengths form six pairs of equal lengths corresponding to opposite sides, simplifying the balance in each pair of parallel but oppositely directed sides (e.g., 0° and 180°, 30° and 210°). Other groupings are possible through more general solutions to the closure equations, but the paired structure provides a fundamental pattern with six independent length parameters. Equiangular dodecagons are commonly constructed as zonogons, which are centrally symmetric polygons generated as the Minkowski sum of six line segments in equally spaced angular directions (every 30°). In this realization, each pair of parallel opposite sides equals the length of the corresponding generating segment, yielding the six-pair side pattern. Such zonogons appear in architectural designs and geometric modeling, including tilings and polyhedral projections where 12-sided bases require equal angles for symmetry or stability. Rectilinear variants, aligning some zones with orthogonal axes while preserving 150° angles, facilitate applications in orthogonal layouts with diagonal elements. A notable property of these zonogonal equiangular dodecagons is their decomposition into rhombi via the generalized dual method, where intersections of translated dual lines to the zones form a tiling of 15 rhombi (one for each pair of generating directions). For instance, the regular dodecagon decomposes into six squares (special rhombi) or mixtures of rhombi and smaller polygons, but non-regular variants tile with parallelograms that become rhombi under uniform generator lengths.

Equiangular Tetradecagons

An equiangular tetradecagon is a 14-sided polygon in which all interior angles are equal, measuring exactly \frac{(14-2) \times 180^\circ}{14} = \frac{2160^\circ}{14} \approx 154.29^\circ.^[17] This fixed angle arises from the general formula for the interior angle of an equiangular n-gon, ensuring uniform vertex turns while allowing variability in side lengths.^[17] Unlike regular tetradecagons, equiangular variants permit unequal sides, subject to closure constraints that maintain the polygon's integrity. For even n=14, the side directions are fixed and equally spaced at exterior angles of $360^\circ/14 \approx 25.71^\circ, resulting in seven pairs of parallel sides, as opposite sides align in direction.^[4] These pairs impose dependencies on side lengths to prevent the polygon from failing to close, governed by the equiangular polygon theorem, which requires the vector sum of directed sides to vanish.^[17] Construction of an equiangular tetradecagon typically employs vector-based methods, such as applying Minkowski's theorem, where side lengths a_1, \dots, a_{14} must satisfy \sum_{k=1}^{14} a_k e^{2\pi i (k-1)/14} = 0 in the complex plane to ensure closure up to translation.^[17] Alternatively, computational software like GeoGebra or MATLAB can iteratively adjust side lengths to meet this condition, facilitating visualization and analysis of non-regular forms. Equiangular tetradecagons are relatively rare in practical applications due to their complexity but hold value in theoretical extensions of tiling problems, where they explore decompositions into simpler polygons or monohedral coverings of the plane.^[49]

Equiangular Pentadecagons

An equiangular pentadecagon is a 15-sided polygon in which all interior angles measure exactly 156 degrees, calculated using the formula for the interior angle of a regular n-gon, ((n-2) \times 180^\circ)/n, which applies identically to equiangular polygons regardless of side length variation.^[50] Unlike even-sided cases, the odd number of sides in a pentadecagon introduces specific challenges in achieving non-regular forms, as simple pairings of opposite sides are impossible, yet non-equilateral versions exist due to the polygon's structural flexibility.^[51] The constraints on an equiangular pentadecagon arise from the 15-side system, where the composite factorization n = 3 \times 5 permits sub-symmetry in side lengths, allowing rational non-regular configurations that satisfy the equal-angle condition without reducing to the regular pentadecagon. For instance, specific relations such as l_3 - l_8 = l_6 - l_{11} (where l_i denotes the length of the i-th side) can hold in such polygons with rational edges, enabling arithmetic progressions in side lengths. In contrast, for prime-power n, only the regular form is possible, highlighting how the multiple prime factors in 15 provide additional degrees of freedom. Constructing a non-regular equiangular pentadecagon typically requires advanced numerical methods to solve the overdetermined system of equations imposed by the fixed angles and closure conditions, often involving cyclotomic polynomials of degree \phi(15) = 8, where \phi is Euler's totient function. These methods iteratively adjust side lengths to maintain angular equality while ensuring the polygon closes, a process that becomes computationally intensive for odd n due to the lack of bilateral symmetry. Theoretically, equiangular pentadecagons illustrate the limits of equiangularity as n grows large and odd, where the ratio \phi(n)/n approaches 1 but the system's underdeterminacy allows non-trivial solutions only for composite n with sufficient prime factors; for n=[15](/page/15), this supports existence proofs via algebraic constraints, though general constructions remain an open problem for arbitrary large odd n.

Equiangular Hexadecagons

An equiangular hexadecagon is a sixteen-sided polygon in which every interior angle measures exactly 157.5°. This uniform angle arises from the fixed sum of interior angles for any simple polygon with n sides, given by (n-2) \times 180^\circ, divided equally among the vertices: for n=[16](/page/16), the total is $2520^\circ, yielding $2520^\circ / 16 = 157.5^\circ per angle. These polygons are always convex, as each interior angle is less than $180^\circ.^[52] The side lengths of an equiangular hexadecagon exhibit a structured pattern due to the even number of sides: the sixteen sides form eight pairs, where each pair consists of two parallel opposite sides of equal length. This pairing ensures the vector displacements balance to close the polygon, generalizing the two pairs seen in rectangles (the simplest equiangular even-sided polygon). With eight such independent length parameters, a wide variety of shapes is possible while maintaining equiangularity, though the specific lengths must satisfy the closure condition in the plane.^[52] These paired sides lie in directions spaced by multiples of the exterior angle, $360^\circ / 16 = 22.5^\circ. Equiangular hexadecagons can be constructed as higher-order analogs of rectangles—sometimes termed higher rectagons—by extending the principle of parallel equal opposite sides to more direction pairs, or via orthogonal projections of zonotopes from higher dimensions onto the plane, which naturally produce such parallel-sided figures.^[52] In practice, one starts with an initial direction and sequentially adds sides of chosen lengths (equal in opposite pairs) while turning by the fixed exterior angle of $22.5^\circ at each vertex. These polygons hold potential in computer graphics for approximating curved boundaries or smooth contours, as the uniform angular turns enable efficient rendering of near-circular forms with reduced vertex complexity compared to irregular approximations.^[7]

Equiangular Octadecagons

An equiangular octadecagon is an 18-sided polygon in which all interior angles are equal, measuring precisely 160 degrees each, as determined by the formula for the interior angle of an n-gon: ((n-2) \times 180^\circ)/n.^[7] This configuration ensures the sum of interior angles totals 2,880 degrees, consistent with the general polygon angle sum.^[7] For an even-sided equiangular polygon like the octadecagon, the side lengths must satisfy specific constraints to close the figure: there are nine pairs of equal sides, with each pair consisting of opposite sides of identical length.^[48] This pairing arises from the requirement that sides separated by nine positions (half of 18) are parallel and oppositely directed, necessitating equal lengths for balance.^[48] Such polygons are constructed through systematic vector addition, representing each side as a vector with directions incrementally turned by the exterior angle of 20 degrees (360°/18), and adjusting the nine distinct pair lengths to ensure the total vector sum equals zero for even spatial distribution.^[48] This method leverages the fixed angular turns to distribute the sides uniformly while accommodating variable lengths within the pairs. Equiangular octadecagons find theoretical applications in polygon approximations to circles, where their 18 sides and 160-degree angles—nearing the 180-degree limit—facilitate modeling smooth curves with non-uniform side distributions.^[50] Their interior angle measures contribute to near-180-degree behavior, enhancing utility in geometric approximations as n increases.^[7]

Equiangular Icosagons

An equiangular icosagon is a twenty-sided polygon where each interior angle measures exactly 162°.^[7] This uniform angular measure follows the general formula for the interior angle of an equiangular n-gon, given by \frac{(n-2) \times 180^\circ}{n}, which for n=20 yields the specified value.^[7] A key application of the equiangular polygon theorem to icosagons reveals that the side lengths consist of ten pairs of equal lengths, corresponding to the opposite sides in each parallel pair.^[21] This pairing arises from the fixed exterior angles of 18° each, ensuring that sides separated by ten vertices are parallel and, in this construction, equal in length to satisfy closure conditions without additional constraints.^[21] The construction of an equiangular icosagon requires numerical methods to determine compatible side lengths under the vector closure requirement \sum_{k=1}^{20} s_k e^{i (k-1) \cdot 2\pi / 20} = 0, where s_k are the side lengths.^[53] However, setting the ten pairs of opposite sides equal simplifies this process significantly, allowing independent choice of the ten distinct pair lengths while guaranteeing the polygon closes and remains convex, though the resulting shape exhibits variability from the regular icosagon.^[21] Equiangular icosagons exemplify the limiting behavior of high-sided equiangular polygons, where the uniform 162° angles promote a near-circular perimeter despite side length variations within the paired constraints.^[53] This angular uniformity minimizes deviations from circular geometry compared to lower-n cases, highlighting how increased side count enhances approximation to a circle even in non-equilateral configurations.^[7]

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