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Definition and fundamentals

Definition

A regular polygon is a closed plane figure consisting of a finite sequence of line segments connected end-to-end, forming both equilateral (all sides of equal length) and equiangular (all interior angles equal in measure) properties.^[1]^[2] In the Euclidean plane, every regular polygon is cyclic, meaning its vertices lie on a common circle (the circumcircle), and tangential, meaning it possesses an incircle tangent to all its sides.^[3]^[4] The term "regular" originates from Euclid's Elements (c. 300 BCE), where such polygons are characterized as equilateral and equiangular figures, with constructions provided for specific cases like the pentagon and hexagon.^[5]^[6] This distinguishes regular polygons from irregular ones, as the latter lack uniformity in either side lengths or angles; for instance, an equilateral polygon may have unequal angles, while an equiangular polygon may have unequal sides, but regularity demands both conditions concurrently.^[7]^[8] Regular polygons are typically convex, with non-convex variants addressed separately.^[1]

Notation and terminology

A regular polygon with n sides, where n \geq 3, is commonly denoted as a regular n-gon.^[9] For instance, a regular 3-gon is known as an equilateral triangle, and a regular 4-gon as a square.^[9] This notation emphasizes the equal length of all sides and the equal measure of all interior angles, providing a standardized way to refer to these figures.^[9] The Schläfli symbol for a convex regular n-gon is \{n\}, which succinctly encodes its regularity and the number of sides.^[10] This symbol originates from Ludwig Schläfli's work on regular polytopes and is used to classify such polygons in higher-dimensional geometry contexts.^[10] In the terminology of regular polygons, the n points of intersection between consecutive sides are called vertices, the n sides themselves are edges, and the bounded interior region is considered the face in polygonal dissections or polyhedral extensions.^[11] The apothem denotes the perpendicular distance from the center of the polygon to the midpoint of any side, serving as a key radial measure for calculations involving the inscribed circle.^[12] Regular polygons are classified as convex by default, meaning all interior angles are less than 180 degrees and no sides bend inward; non-convex variants, such as regular star polygons, exist but are addressed in separate treatments due to their intersecting sides.^[4]

Symmetry and general properties

Symmetry groups

A regular n-gon possesses a rich symmetry structure captured by its symmetry group, known as the dihedral group D_n. This group consists of all transformations that map the polygon to itself and has order $2n, comprising n rotational symmetries and n reflectional symmetries.^[13]^[14] The rotational symmetries form a cyclic subgroup of D_n, generated by a rotation of angle \frac{360^\circ}{n} (or \frac{2\pi}{n} radians) about the center of the polygon. These include the identity (rotation by $0^\circ) and rotations by multiples of this base angle up to (n-1) \times \frac{360^\circ}{n}, each preserving the polygon's orientation.^[13]^[15] The reflectional symmetries involve flips across lines of reflection, or axes, that pass through the center. For odd n, each axis goes through a vertex and the midpoint of the opposite side. For even n, half the axes pass through opposite vertices, and the other half through the midpoints of opposite sides. These reflections reverse the polygon's orientation.^[13]^[14] All elements of D_n are isometries of the Euclidean plane, meaning they preserve distances and thus the shape and size of the regular n-gon under the transformation. The group operation is composition of these isometries, and D_n is non-abelian for n > 2.^[13]^[15]

Vertex and edge configurations

In a regular polygon, the vertex figure describes the local arrangement at each vertex, where two congruent edges meet at an identical interior angle, ensuring uniformity throughout the figure. This configuration is fundamental to the polygon's regularity, as it guarantees that every vertex exhibits the same geometric environment, contributing to the overall symmetry and potential for tiling without gaps or overlaps.^[16] The edges of a regular polygon are all congruent in length and connect consecutive vertices that are separated by equal central arcs on the circumscribed circle, subtending an angle of $2\pi / n radians at the center for an n-gon. This uniform spacing and edge equality not only define the equilateral nature of the polygon but also enable its dihedral symmetry, where rotations and reflections preserve the edge-vertex structure.^[1] The vertex-edge configuration of a regular n-gon can be notated as a cyclic sequence alternating between n vertices and n edges, forming a closed cycle that traverses the boundary: v_1 - e_1 - v_2 - e_2 - \dots - v_n - e_n - v_1. This notation emphasizes the repetitive, uniform pattern inherent to the polygon's structure, distinguishing it from irregular polygons with varying sequences.^[17] This consistent vertex and edge arrangement in regular polygons extends naturally to three-dimensional uniform polyhedra, where regular polygonal faces meet identically at each vertex, forming the basis for Platonic solids such as the tetrahedron with triangular faces.^[18]

Convex regular polygons

Angles

In a convex regular n-gon, the interior angles are all equal, and their measure is given by the formula \frac{(n-2) \times 180^\circ}{n}. This formula arises from the fact that the sum of the interior angles of any n-gon is (n-2) \times 180^\circ, derived by triangulating the polygon: drawing non-intersecting diagonals from one vertex divides the n-gon into n-2 triangles, each contributing $180^\circ to the total angle sum. For a regular polygon, dividing this total by n yields the measure of each interior angle. For example, in a regular pentagon (n=5), each interior angle measures \frac{(5-2) \times 180^\circ}{5} = 108^\circ.^[19]^[20] Alternatively, the interior angle can be derived using central sectors. Drawing lines from the center to each vertex divides the regular n-gon into n congruent isosceles triangles, each with a central angle of $360^\circ / n. In each such triangle, the two base angles are equal and measure \left(180^\circ - \frac{360^\circ}{n}\right)/2 = 90^\circ - \frac{180^\circ}{n}. The interior angle at a vertex of the polygon is then twice this base angle, since it spans the two adjacent sectors, yielding \frac{(n-2) \times 180^\circ}{n}, consistent with the triangulation method.^[20] The exterior angle of a convex regular n-gon, formed by extending one side and measuring the angle between that extension and the adjacent side, is \frac{360^\circ}{n}. Each exterior angle is supplementary to the corresponding interior angle, and the sum of all n exterior angles is always $360^\circ, as they complete a full rotation around any vertex. For instance, in a regular hexagon (n=6), each exterior angle is $60^\circ.^[21] The central angle, subtended at the center by two adjacent vertices, is also \frac{360^\circ}{n} in a convex regular n-gon, directly following from the equal division of the $360^\circ full circle into n sectors. This angle determines the polygon's rotational symmetry and is independent of its size.^[22]

Diagonals and side lengths

In a convex regular polygon with n sides, the number of diagonals is given by the formula \frac{n(n-3)}{2}, which counts the line segments connecting non-adjacent vertices.^[23] This combinatorial result arises from the total number of ways to choose two vertices, \binom{n}{2} = \frac{n(n-1)}{2}, minus the n sides.^[24] The side length a of a regular n-gon inscribed in a circle of circumradius R is a = 2R \sin\left(\frac{\pi}{n}\right).^[1] This follows from the chord length formula for the central angle \frac{2\pi}{n}. Diagonals span k sides, where k = 2, 3, \dots, \left\lfloor \frac{n-1}{2} \right\rfloor, and their lengths are d_k = 2R \sin\left(\frac{k\pi}{n}\right).^[1] For example, in a regular heptagon (n=7), the side length is $2R \sin\left(\frac{\pi}{7}\right), the shorter diagonal is $2R \sin\left(\frac{2\pi}{7}\right), and the longer diagonal is $2R \sin\left(\frac{3\pi}{7}\right).^[25] In regular polygons, diagonals generally intersect inside the polygon at points that divide each diagonal in specific ratios determined by the polygon's symmetry and trigonometric relations. For the regular pentagon (n=5), each pair of intersecting diagonals divides one another in the golden ratio \phi = \frac{1 + \sqrt{5}}{2} \approx 1.618, where the ratio of the longer segment to the shorter segment equals the entire diagonal to the longer segment.^[26] This property arises from the pentagon's dihedral symmetry and the specific angles involved, such as 108° interior angles leading to intersection ratios via similar triangles.^[27]

Inradius and circumradius

For a convex regular polygon with n sides of length s, the circumradius R is the distance from the center of the polygon to any vertex. This radius defines the circumcircle, which passes through all vertices of the polygon. The formula for the circumradius is R = \frac{s}{2 \sin(\pi/n)}.^[28]^[29] The inradius r, also known as the apothem, is the distance from the center to the midpoint of any side. This radius defines the incircle, which is tangent to all sides of the polygon. The formula for the inradius is r = \frac{s}{2} \cot(\pi/n).^[30]^[29] The inradius and circumradius are related by the equation r = R \cos(\pi/n), which follows from the geometry of the isosceles triangle formed by two adjacent radii and the side between them.^[1]^[29] Geometrically, the center of a regular polygon, from which both radii emanate, can be located as the intersection point of the perpendicular bisectors of any two non-parallel sides. Once the center is found, the circumradius is the length of the line segment from the center to a vertex, while the inradius is the length from the center to the midpoint of a side, which lies along the perpendicular from the center to that side. This construction leverages the central triangle—an isosceles triangle with apex angle $2\pi/n at the center, equal sides of length R, and base s—where dropping a perpendicular from the center to the base bisects the base and the apex angle, yielding the apothem r.^[31]

Area and perimeter

The perimeter of a convex regular polygon with n sides, each of length s, is given by P = n s.^[1] The area A of such a polygon can be derived by dividing it into n congruent isosceles triangles, each with two sides equal to the circumradius R (the distance from the center to a vertex) and a central angle of $2\pi/n radians. The area of one such triangle is \frac{1}{2} R^2 \sin(2\pi/n), so the total area is A = \frac{1}{2} n R^2 \sin(2\pi/n).^[32]^[1] Equivalently, expressing the area in terms of the side length s yields A = \frac{n s^2}{4 \tan(\pi/n)}.^[1] As n approaches infinity for fixed R, the area A approaches \pi R^2, the area of the limiting circle.^[1]

Star polygons

Schläfli symbols

The Schläfli symbol provides a compact notation for describing regular polygons, with the form {n} denoting a convex regular n-gon, where n is the number of sides.^[33] This symbol captures the essential symmetry of the polygon in a single expression, extending naturally from basic polygonal notation.^[33] Introduced by Swiss mathematician Ludwig Schläfli in 1852 as part of his foundational work on the geometry of higher-dimensional continuous manifolds, the symbol was originally developed to classify regular polytopes across dimensions, beginning with polygons as the base case.^[34] For instance, {4} represents a square, while {5} denotes a regular pentagon.^[33] The notation extends to non-convex regular star polygons using the form {n/m}, where n and m are coprime positive integers satisfying 1 < m < n/2; here, m indicates the step size in connecting vertices, which determines the star's interlacing pattern.^[33] Examples include the pentagram, symbolized as {5/2}, and the heptagram, denoted by {7/3}.^[33] This fractional form highlights the compound-like winding of the edges without altering the overall rotational symmetry of the figure.^[33]

Density and winding number

The density d of a regular star polygon denoted by the Schläfli symbol \{n/m\}, where n and m are coprime positive integers with $1 < m < n/2, is given by d = m. This integer measures the number of times the edges of the polygon wind around its center before the figure closes upon itself.^[35] The winding number of the star polygon with respect to its center equals the density m, representing the net number of complete rotations the boundary path makes around the point as it traverses the edges. This topological quantity indicates the degree to which the center is enclosed by the curve and serves as the two-dimensional basis for density in higher-dimensional star polytopes. In such generalizations, the density relates to the Euler characteristic via adjusted formulas, such as the Euler-Cayley formula \chi = V - E + F_d, where F_d accounts for face density in star polyhedra.^[35]^[36] For compound polygons formed by multiple regular star polygons sharing the same center and vertices, the overall vertex density is the sum of the densities of the individual components.^[35] The isogonal conjugate of the star polygon \{n/m\} is \{n/(n-m)\}, which traces the same vertices but in the opposite rotational direction while preserving the dihedral symmetry group.^[35]

Compound polygons

A regular compound polygon consists of the union of k regular star polygons \{n/m\}, all sharing the same center and set of vertices, with the components rotated relative to one another by equal angles. These arrangements are denoted using the extended Schläfli symbol k\{n/m\}, where \{n/m\} describes the individual component and k indicates the number of copies. Such compounds are considered regular when the components are identical regular polygons (convex or non-convex) and the vertices coincide in a symmetric fashion, forming a single cohesive figure despite the interweaving edges.^[33] Prominent examples include the decagram $2\{5/2\}, formed by two interlocked pentagrams that together create a ten-pointed star with rotational symmetry. Another is the compound $6\{3\}, comprising six equilateral triangles (or equivalently three hexagrams, each a compound of two triangles) arranged around the center, resulting in a denser star figure with 18 vertices. These examples illustrate how compounding increases the visual complexity while maintaining overall regularity. The symmetry group of a regular compound polygon is the dihedral group D_{nk}, inherited from the components, ensuring that rotations and reflections map the entire figure onto itself. This symmetry arises because the vertex set is identical to that of a regular nk-gon, though the edges form multiple overlaid polygons. The study of such compounds dates back to Johannes Kepler, who in his 1619 treatise Harmonices Mundi introduced the stella octangula as a regular compound of two tetrahedra, noting its projection as an eight-pointed star akin to a 2D compound polygon. Kepler's work laid foundational ideas for understanding interpenetrating regular figures.^[37]

Skew polygons

Definition and examples

A regular skew polygon is a polygon whose vertices do not all lie in one plane but form an equilateral and equiangular figure, with all sides of equal length and equal angles between consecutive edges, and whose vertices lie on a common sphere.^[38] This non-planar configuration distinguishes it from conventional planar regular polygons, as the edges form a closed chain that twists through three-dimensional space without self-intersections except at the vertices.^[38] In contrast to planar regular polygons, which are confined to a single plane and exhibit rotational symmetry around a central point, regular skew polygons demonstrate spatial extension, often generated by cyclic transformations such as rotatory-reflections or glide-reflections that produce skew zigzags.^[38] For instance, a basic example is the skew digon {2}, a degenerate two-sided figure formed by two skew edges under a half-turn or inversion, though practical skew polygons typically begin with four or more sides.^[38] A more tangible spatial example is the regular skew quadrilateral, realized as a zig-zag path alternating between two parallel planes, akin to the equatorial belt in a square antiprism where vertices lie on two equal circles.^[38] Coxeter classified finite regular skew polygons in Euclidean three-space using the notation {n} × {2} for n ≥ 4, representing zig-zag prisms with the dihedral symmetry group of order 2n, where the polygon winds around without lying flat.^[38] These exhibit dihedral symmetry extended to three dimensions through operations like screw-displacements. Infinite examples, known as regular skew apeirogons {∞} × {2}, appear in hyperbolic geometry, forming unbounded skew chains under translational symmetries in non-Euclidean spaces.

Properties in higher dimensions

In three dimensions, a regular skew polygon is characterized by having all edges of equal length and its vertices lying on a common sphere, ensuring a uniform distribution under the action of its symmetry group, while the skew nature prevents all vertices from being coplanar. No three consecutive edges lie in the same plane, distinguishing it from planar regular polygons, and the figure exhibits rotational symmetry analogous to the dihedral group of its planar counterpart.^[39] A prominent example is the Petrie polygon, a specific type of regular skew polygon that traverses the edges of a regular polyhedron such that every two consecutive edges belong to the same face, but no three do, forming a helical path around the structure. For instance, the Petrie polygon of the cube is a hexagon that zigzags through the faces, and its number of sides h for a polyhedron \{p, q\} satisfies \cos^2(\pi/h) = \cos^2(\pi/p) + \cos^2(\pi/q).^[39] Infinite regular skew polygons, known as skew apeirogons, extend this concept to unbounded structures within Euclidean honeycombs, where they form non-periodic or helical paths analogous to Petrie polygons but without closure. In the cubic honeycomb \{4,3,4\}, for example, Petrie paths yield infinite skew 4-gons that wind indefinitely through the lattice, maintaining equal edge lengths and spherical vertex loci relative to local centers, and serving as skeletal elements in uniform tilings. These apeirogons have Schläfli symbol \{\infty\} and embody the infinite limit of finite regular skew polygons, with symmetry preserved under translations in the ambient space. The generalization of regular skew polygons to n-dimensions arises through the framework of Coxeter groups, where the symmetry is generated by reflections in hyperplanes, and the polygon corresponds to a closed or infinite zigzag path defined by a Coxeter word, such as the Petrie word \sigma_1 \sigma_{n-1} in an n-dimensional regular polytope. In four dimensions, for example, regular skew polygons appear in the vertex figures or ridges of regular skew polyhedra like \{4,6|3\}, derived from self-dual 4-polytopes such as the 24-cell, with the Coxeter number determining the polygon's side count via the group's order. This construction extends to arbitrary dimensions, embedding skew polygons into regular polytopes or honeycombs via irreducible Coxeter diagrams, ensuring vertex-transitivity and equal edge lengths while the skew property manifests as non-coplanarity in any 2D subspace. Such polygons play a foundational role in uniform polyhedra across dimensions, facilitating the enumeration of chiral and regular maps through their helical traversals.

Constructibility and geometry

Constructible regular polygons

A regular polygon is constructible with straightedge and compass if its vertices can be obtained from a given unit length through a finite sequence of operations: drawing lines and circles, and finding their intersections. This is equivalent to constructing the central angle \frac{2\pi}{n} (or equivalently, \cos\frac{2\pi}{n}) in the plane.^[40] In 1796, Carl Friedrich Gauss proved a sufficient condition for the constructibility of a regular n-gon and conjectured it to be necessary, equating constructibility to the constructibility of the angle \frac{2\pi}{n}. The full characterization, known as the Gauss-Wantzel theorem, states that a regular n-gon is constructible if and only if n = 2^k \cdot p_1 \cdot p_2 \cdots p_r, where k \geq 0 is an integer and the p_i are distinct Fermat primes (primes of the form $2^{2^m} + 1 for nonnegative integers m).^[40]^[41] The known Fermat primes are 3, 5, 17, 257, and 65537; no others are known despite extensive searches. Using these, constructible polygons include the triangle (n=3), pentagon (n=5), 15-gon (n=3 \times 5), and 17-gon (n=17), as well as multiples by powers of 2, such as the decagon (n=10 = 2 \times 5) or the 255-gon (n=3 \times 5 \times 17). The largest such n incorporating all known Fermat primes without excessive powers of 2 is $3 \times 5 \times 17 \times 257 \times 65537 = 4,294,967,295, though higher powers of 2 yield even larger constructible polygons.^[42]^[43] Examples of non-constructible regular polygons include the heptagon (n=7), as 7 is a prime but not a Fermat prime, requiring the solution of an irreducible cubic equation over the rationals for \cos\frac{2\pi}{7}, which cannot be achieved with straightedge and compass alone; this is linked to the impossibility of trisecting certain angles. Similarly, the 9-gon (n=3^2) is non-constructible because the exponent of 3 exceeds 1 in the prime factorization.^[40]^[41]

Dissections and tilings

Regular polygons can be dissected into simpler shapes such as triangles or squares of equal area. For a regular n-gon with n \geq 5, it is possible to dissect it into m triangles of equal area if and only if m is a multiple of n; the minimal such m is thus n itself.^[44] For example, a regular pentagon admits a dissection into 5 equal-area triangles, constructed using affine transformations and combinatorial arguments.^[44] In contrast, the regular square (4-gon) cannot be dissected into an odd number of equal-area triangles, as established by Monsky's theorem, which relies on valuations in p-adic fields to show parity constraints. The square's dissection into squares is trivial, requiring no cuts, while higher regular polygons can be dissected into squares via the Wallace–Bolyai–Gerwien theorem, which guarantees a finite piecewise dissection between any two polygons of equal area; for instance, a regular pentagon can be dissected into a square using 6 pieces.^[45] In monohedral tilings of the Euclidean plane, only three regular polygons—the equilateral triangle, square, and regular hexagon—can cover the plane without gaps or overlaps, as their interior angles divide 360° evenly when 6, 4, or 3 tiles meet at a vertex, respectively.^[46] Regular pentagons and polygons with more sides cannot tile the plane periodically, and it has been proven they cannot do so aperiodically either; the 2023 solution to the Einstein problem identified a single aperiodic monotile (the "hat" shape), but this is not a regular pentagon.^[47] In such edge-to-edge tilings, regular polygons meet at vertices where the sum of interior angles equals 360°, forming vertex figures that are themselves regular polygons in uniform tilings.^[48] All regular polygons tile the hyperbolic plane, where the geometry allows more than 360° around a point; for a regular p-gon, q copies meet at each vertex provided (p-2)(q-2) > 4, yielding infinite families of tilings like the order-5 square tiling \{4,5\}.^[48] These hyperbolic tilings extend the Euclidean cases, with the angle deficit enabling configurations impossible in flat space.^[46]

Duals and polyhedral applications

Duality with regular polygons

In geometry, the dual of a polygon can be constructed using polar reciprocity with respect to a circle centered at the polygon's centroid, where each vertex of the original maps to a line (the polar) and each edge maps to a vertex of the dual, or alternatively by placing the vertices of the dual at the midpoints of the original's edges and connecting them in cyclic order.^[49] For a convex regular n-gon, this duality yields another regular n-gon that is rotated by \pi/n radians relative to the original and scaled by a factor depending on the choice of the reference circle's radius, making regular polygons self-dual up to similarity and congruence.^[50] This self-duality arises because the uniform symmetry of the regular n-gon ensures that the reciprocal transformation preserves the equilateral and equiangular properties. The duality interchanges the roles of vertices and edges while preserving the dihedral symmetry group D_n, which consists of $2nelements includingnrotations andn$ reflections; thus, the dual inherits the same rotational and reflectional symmetries but with vertices corresponding to the original edges and vice versa. A specific instance occurs for n=4, where Varignon's theorem states that the midpoints of any quadrilateral's sides form a parallelogram; when the original is a square, this parallelogram is itself a square, rotated by $45^\circ and with side length \sqrt{2} times smaller relative to the original's apothem-based scaling.^[51]

As faces of Archimedean solids and uniform polyhedra

Regular polygons form the faces of the five Platonic solids, which are convex polyhedra where all faces are congruent regular n-gons and the same number of faces meet at each vertex.^[52] The regular tetrahedron has four equilateral triangular faces with Schläfli symbol {3,3}, the cube has six square faces with {4,3}, the octahedron has eight triangular faces with {3,4}, the dodecahedron has twelve pentagonal faces with {5,3}, and the icosahedron has twenty triangular faces with {3,5}. These solids are the only convex polyhedra with identical regular polygonal faces and vertex-transitive symmetry.^[52] Archimedean solids extend this concept to convex polyhedra with regular polygonal faces of two or more types, arranged such that the same sequence of faces meets at each vertex, ensuring vertex-transitivity.^[53] There are thirteen such solids, excluding the Platonic solids and infinite prisms and antiprisms.^[53] For example, the truncated tetrahedron features four regular hexagonal faces and four equilateral triangular faces, with Schläfli symbol t{3,3}, where one triangle and two hexagons meet at each vertex.^[54] All faces are regular polygons, but unlike Platonic solids, the faces vary in type while maintaining uniform vertex figures.^[53] Uniform polyhedra encompass a broader class of vertex-transitive polyhedra with regular polygonal faces, including the Platonic and Archimedean solids as well as nonconvex examples with star polygon faces.^[55] The four Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra are regular star polyhedra among them, featuring intersecting pentagrammic faces; for instance, the great dodecahedron has twelve regular pentagram {5/2} faces with Schläfli symbol {5,5/2}, where five pentagrams meet at each vertex.^[56] These uniform polyhedra are denoted by extended Schläfli symbols {p,q}, where p specifies the face type (regular or star polygon) and q the number of faces per vertex. In total, there are 75 uniform polyhedra with finite faces, incorporating both convex and star configurations.^[55]

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Circumradius -- from Wolfram MathWorld
(13). The circumradius of a regular polygon with n sides and side length a is given by. R=1/2acsc(pi/n). (14). For a Platonic or Archimedean solid, the ...
[30]
Regular Polygons | Brilliant Math & Science Wiki
Regular polygon have all equal angles and all equal side lengths. Polygons that are not regular are considered to be irregular polygons with unequal sides.
[31]
Inradius -- from Wolfram MathWorld
A polygon possessing an incircle is same to be inscriptable or tangential. The inradius of a regular polygon with n sides and side length a is given by. r=1 ...
[32]
Constructions of Regular Polygons | CK-12 Foundation
Fold the circle in half again to create the perpendicular bisector of the diameter. To do this, fold so that the two endpoints of the diameter meet.
[33]
7.1: Regular Polygons - Mathematics LibreTexts
Sep 4, 2021 · A regular polygon is a polygon in which all sides are equal and all angles are equal. Examples of a regular polygon are the equilateral triangle (3 sides), the ...
[34]
Schläfli Symbol -- from Wolfram MathWorld
A symbol of the form {p,q,r,...} used to describe regular polygons, polyhedra, and their higher-dimensional counterparts.
[35]
Ludwig Schläfli - Biography - MacTutor - University of St Andrews
Ludwig Schläfli's work was in geometry, arithmetic and function theory. He is best known for the so-called Schläfli symbols which are used to classify polyhedra ...
[36]
Star Polygon -- from Wolfram MathWorld
A star polygon {p/q}, with p,q positive integers, is a figure formed by connecting with straight lines every qth point out of p regularly spaced points ...
[37]
[PDF] Euler-Cayley Formula for 'Unusual' Polyhedra - The Bridges Archive
The face density a of a star polygon is 2 if one vertex is omitted to reach the next vertex of the subscribed polygon in a given star polygon (as in a star ...
[38]
Stella Octangula -- from Wolfram MathWorld
The stella octangula is a polyhedron compound composed of a tetrahedron and its dual (a second tetrahedron rotated 180 degrees with respect to the first).
[39]
[PDF] regular polytopes - Jason Cantarella
The two together form a compound of ten tetrahedra (Fig. 7), reciprocal pairs of which can be replaced by five cubes (Fig. 8). Here each vertex of the ...
[40]
regular skew polyhedra in three and four dimensions, and their ...
If a regular polyhedron is four-dimensional and finite, its vertices are equidistant from their centroid, which we call the centre of the polyhedron.
[41]
Petrie Polygon -- from Wolfram MathWorld
A skew polygon such that every two consecutive sides (but no three) belong to a face of a regular polyhedron. Every regular polyhedron can be orthogonally ...
[42]
Constructible Polygon -- from Wolfram MathWorld
Constructible polygons can be created with compass and straightedge, including regular polygons with sides 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 20, 24, 30, 32, 34, ...
[43]
[PDF] 5.6. Regular Polygons
Jul 29, 2023 · Note. In this section we consider (again) the constructions of regular polygons given in Euclid's Elements. We also give necessary and ...
[44]
The Prime Glossary: Fermat number
The only known Fermat primes are the first five Fermat numbers: F 0 =3, F 1 =5, F 2 =17, F 3 =257, and F 4 =65537.
[45]
Fermat Prime -- from Wolfram MathWorld
A Fermat prime is a Fermat number F_n=2^(2^n)+1 that is prime. Fermat primes are therefore near-square primes.
[46]
Dissections of regular polygons into triangles of equal areas
Aug 1, 1989 · Cite this article. Kasimatis, E.A. Dissections of regular polygons into triangles of equal areas. Discrete Comput Geom 4, 375–381 (1989) ...
[47]
[PDF] Efficient Regular Polygon Dissections
This section provides new dissections of regular polygons into squares and es- timates their asymptotic number of pieces. All the dissections below concern.
[48]
[PDF] Tilings by Regular Polygons - University of Washington
Aug 3, 2005 · Tilings by regular polygons are patterns covering a plane without gaps or overlaps, using regular polygons as tiles. The only edge-to-edge ...
[49]
A Brief History of Tricky Mathematical Tiling - Quanta Magazine
Oct 30, 2023 · In 1961, the logician Hao Wang conjectured that if a set of shapes tiles the plane, then the shapes must be able to tile the plane periodically.
[50]
Hyperbolic Tessellations - Clark University
A notation like {3,6} is called a Schläfli symbol. ... A regular tessellation is a covering of the plane by regular polygons so that the same number of polygons ...
[51]
Reciprocation -- from Wolfram MathWorld
Reciprocation is an incidence-preserving transformation in which points are transformed into their polars. A projective geometry-like duality principle ...Missing: regular polygon
[52]
[PDF] Self-polar polytopes - arXiv
Feb 2, 2019 · All polytopes have a dual polytope whose face lattice is the dual of the original's face lattice, and some polytopes are also self-dual. Much ...
[53]
Varignon Parallelogram -- from Wolfram MathWorld
### Definition and Relevant Mentions
[54]
Polyhedra - AMS :: Feature Column from the AMS
the dodecahedron, and the icosahedron. These are thefive convex solids all of whose faces are identical regular polygons.
[55]
Archimedean solids in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
Sep 25, 2024 · There are thirteen Archimedean Solids, all of which are semiregular or vertex-transitive polyhedra, meaning that each of their vertices can ...
[56]
Uniform solution for uniform polyhedra | Geometriae Dedicata
Har'el, Z. Uniform solution for uniform polyhedra. Geom Dedicata 47, 57–110 (1993). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01263494. Download citation. Received: 02 ...
[57]
[PDF] Uniform Solution for Uniform Polyhedra* - The Har'El Family
Uniform Solution for Uniform Polyhedra*. Zvi Har'El. Department of Mathematics. Technion − Israel Institute of Technology. Haifa 32000, Israel. E-Mail: rl@math ...
[58]
https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF03024366.pdf