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Positive real numbers

In mathematics, the positive real numbers are defined as the subset of the real numbers consisting of all elements greater than zero.^[1] This set, commonly denoted by \mathbb{R}^+, excludes zero and all negative reals, forming the "positive cone" of the real line under the standard ordering.^[1] Positive reals play a foundational role in real analysis, inequalities, and ordered structures, where they ensure properties like monotonicity and convergence in limits.^[2] The algebraic structure of \mathbb{[R](/page/R)}^+ is characterized by closure under both addition and multiplication: the sum of any two positive reals is positive, and their product is also positive.^[2] Under multiplication, \mathbb{[R](/page/R)}^+ forms an abelian group, with multiplicative inverses (reciprocals) also positive, while under addition it is a commutative semigroup.^[2] The standard order on the reals restricts to a total order on \mathbb{[R](/page/R)}^+, compatible with the field operations, meaning that if a > 0 and b > 0, then a + b > 0 and ab > 0.^[3] Additionally, \mathbb{[R](/page/R)}^+ satisfies the archimedean property: for any x, y \in \mathbb{[R](/page/R)}^+, there exists a positive integer n such that nx > y.^[4] A key analytic property is the existence of roots: every positive real number has a unique positive nth root for each positive integer n, which follows from the completeness of the reals as an ordered field.^[5] This completeness ensures that \mathbb{R}^+ is Dedekind-complete in the sense that every non-empty subset bounded above has a least upper bound within the reals.^[2] These features make positive reals essential in defining concepts like positive definiteness in linear algebra, monotonic sequences in analysis, and exponential growth in differential equations.^[6]

Definition and Notation

Formal Definition

The positive real numbers form the subset of the real numbers \mathbb{R} consisting of all elements strictly greater than zero, formally defined as the set \{ x \in \mathbb{R} \mid x > 0 \} or equivalently as the open interval (0, \infty).^[7] This set excludes zero and all negative real numbers.^[7] In contrast, the non-negative real numbers comprise the closed interval [0, \infty), which includes zero but otherwise coincides with the positive reals.^[7] The positive real numbers admit a natural partition into three disjoint subsets: the open interval (0,1), the singleton \{1\}, and the open interval (1,\infty); this decomposition emphasizes their structure relative to the multiplicative identity 1. Within the framework of the real numbers as the unique complete ordered field, the positive reals can be constructed independently using Dedekind cuts on the positive rational numbers, where each cut is a partition of \mathbb{Q}^+ into two non-empty sets A and B such that every element of A is less than every element of B, A has no greatest element, and A is non-empty and bounded above.^[8] Alternatively, they arise as equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences of positive rational numbers, where two sequences are equivalent if their difference converges to zero.^[9]

Common Notations

The positive real numbers are denoted in mathematical literature using several standard symbols and conventions to distinguish them from the full set of real numbers and to emphasize their exclusion of zero and negative values. A widely used and unambiguous notation is \mathbb{R}_{>0}, which specifies the subset of all real numbers x satisfying x > 0. This subscript form explicitly conveys the strict inequality defining the set. Similarly, the interval notation (0, \infty) represents the open interval from 0 to positive infinity, encompassing all positive reals while excluding the endpoints. This interval convention is standard in analysis and calculus for describing unbounded sets of positive values. Another common symbol is \mathbb{R}^+, often employed as shorthand for the positive reals. However, this notation carries a caveat: in some contexts, particularly older or applied texts, \mathbb{R}^+ may include zero, denoting the non-negative reals \mathbb{R}_{\geq 0} instead. To resolve this ambiguity and ensure the strict positivity, variants such as \mathbb{R}^{++} or \mathbb{R}_{+}^* are sometimes adopted, where the asterisk or double plus emphasizes exclusion of zero. In inequalities and definitions, membership in the positive reals is typically indicated simply by x > 0, serving as the foundational predicate for the set. Historically, the broader notation for real numbers evolved from Richard Dedekind's 1872 introduction of the fraktur \mathfrak{R} in his work on continuity and irrational numbers, with subsequent conventions extending to subsets via superscripts or subscripts. In European texts, fraktur variants like \mathfrak{R}^+ persist for stylistic reasons, while American and modern digital publications favor boldface or double-struck forms such as \mathbf{R}^+ or \mathbb{R}^+ for clarity and typesetting consistency.

Mathematical Properties

Algebraic Properties

The set of positive real numbers, denoted \mathbb{R}^{>0}, is closed under both addition and multiplication. For any x, y > 0, the sum x + y > 0 and the product xy > 0.^[10] This closure follows directly from the field axioms of the real numbers, where the positives form a cone preserved by these operations.^[11] Under multiplication, \mathbb{R}^{>0} forms an abelian group (\mathbb{R}^{>0}, \times), with identity element 1 and the inverse of any x > 0 given by $1/x > 0.^[2] The operation is associative and commutative, inherited from the field structure of \mathbb{R}, making this a subgroup of the multiplicative group of nonzero reals.^[12] In contrast, under addition, \mathbb{R}^{>0} forms a commutative semigroup (\mathbb{R}^{>0}, +), as addition is associative and commutative, but lacks an identity element (since 0 is not positive) and additive inverses (which would be negative).^[12] For any x > 0 and integer n, the power x^n > 0, preserving positivity due to closure under multiplication (for positive n) or the group inverse (for negative n).^[2] The limiting behavior of x^n as n \to \infty (with n a positive integer) depends on x: if $0 < x < [1](/page/1), then \lim_{n \to \infty} x^n = [0](/page/0); if x = [1](/page/1), then x^n = [1](/page/1); if x > [1](/page/1), then \lim_{n \to \infty} x^n = \infty.^[13] Division of positive reals x / y for y > 0 is equivalently multiplication by the group inverse $1/y > 0.^[2]

Order and Topological Properties

The positive real numbers, denoted \mathbb{R}^+ or (0, \infty), inherit the total order from the real numbers \mathbb{R}. For any x, y \in \mathbb{R}^+, exactly one of the relations x < y, x = y, or x > y holds, establishing a linear ordering without incomparable elements. This trichotomy follows from the order axioms defining the positives as the set P where for every real a, precisely one of a \in P, -a \in P, or a = 0 is true, with x < y defined as y - x \in P.^[10]^[14] The order on \mathbb{R}^+ is compatible with its algebraic structure as an ordered field. Specifically, if x < y with x, y > 0 and z > 0, then x + z < y + z and xz < yz, preserving inequalities under positive addition and multiplication. This compatibility ensures that the order respects the field operations, distinguishing \mathbb{R}^+ from non-ordered fields.^[6]^[14] Unlike the natural numbers, \mathbb{R}^+ is not well-ordered. For instance, the subset (0, 1) has no least element, as any positive c < 1 admits a smaller c/2 > 0. However, \mathbb{R}^+ satisfies the Archimedean property: for any x, y > 0, there exists a positive integer n such that nx > y. This property, which implies that there are no "infinitesimal" elements relative to the integers, follows from the least upper bound axiom of \mathbb{R} and the unboundedness of the positives.^[15]^[14] The positive reals exhibit density in their order: between any two distinct elements a < b in \mathbb{R}^+, there exists c \in \mathbb{R}^+ such that a < c < b. This follows directly from the density of the rationals in \mathbb{R}, as any interval (a, b) contains a positive rational, and hence further positives. Density underscores the continuum nature of \mathbb{R}^+, enabling interpolation without gaps in the ordering.^[14] As a subspace of \mathbb{R} equipped with the standard topology (induced by the Euclidean metric), \mathbb{R}^+ inherits open sets of the form (a, \infty) \cap \mathbb{R}^+ for a \geq 0, such as all open rays starting from positive points. This subspace is connected, as it is an open interval in \mathbb{R} and cannot be partitioned into disjoint nonempty relatively open sets; any separation would contradict the connectedness of \mathbb{R}. Regarding completeness, while \mathbb{R}^+ itself is not a complete metric space (e.g., the Cauchy sequence $1/n converges to 0 outside \mathbb{R}^+), every nonempty subset of \mathbb{R}^+ that is bounded above has a least upper bound in \mathbb{R}, and if the supremum is positive, it lies in \mathbb{R}^+. This order completeness, via the supremum property, ensures convergence of bounded monotone sequences within the positives.^[16]^[14] Scientific notation provides a practical representation for ordering elements of \mathbb{R}^+, especially extremes like very large or small values. Any x > 0 can be expressed as x = a \times 10^b where $1 \leq a < 10 and b \in \mathbb{Z}; to compare two such numbers, first compare exponents b, and if equal, compare mantissas a. This lexicographic order on (a, b) pairs facilitates comparisons across scales, as higher b implies larger x regardless of a.^[17] For x \geq 1, the floor function \lfloor x \rfloor maps to the natural numbers \mathbb{N}, defined as the greatest integer n \in \mathbb{N} such that n \leq x. The excess function, often termed the fractional part \{x\} = x - \lfloor x \rfloor, maps [1, \infty) to [0, 1), though for non-integer x > 1, it lies in (0, 1). These functions decompose positives into integer and fractional components, aiding in ordering and approximation within the structure.^[14]

Role in Measurement

Ratio Scales

In measurement theory, a ratio scale represents the highest level of measurement, where not only the order and differences between values are meaningful, but also the ratios between them, allowing statements such as "twice as much" to be interpreted absolutely without dependence on arbitrary units.^[18] For instance, a length of 2 meters is precisely twice that of 1 meter, regardless of the unit chosen, because the scale possesses a true absolute zero point indicating the complete absence of the measured attribute.^[18] The conceptual foundation of ratio scales traces back to the ancient Greek mathematician Eudoxus of Cnidus, who developed a theory of proportions around the 4th century BCE to handle magnitudes without relying on indivisible units, addressing issues with irrationals in earlier Pythagorean approaches. This theory was formalized by Euclid in Book V of the Elements, where proportions are defined for magnitudes of the same kind, establishing that ratios between such magnitudes are preserved under multiplication by positive scalars, laying the groundwork for modern ratio-based measurements.^[19] Positive real numbers serve as the mathematical structure underlying ratio scales, as they form a group closed under multiplication and division, ensuring that the ratio x/y for any x, y > 0 yields another positive real number greater than zero, which preserves the meaningfulness of relative comparisons.^[20] This closure distinguishes ratio scales from interval scales, which lack a true zero and thus permit addition and subtraction but not multiplication or division in a way that yields invariant ratios; for example, temperature in Celsius allows meaningful differences (e.g., 20°C warmer) but not ratios (20°C is not "twice as hot" as 10°C).^[18] The total order on positive reals further enables direct comparisons of these ratios. Common examples of ratio scales include measurements of mass (e.g., kilograms), length (e.g., meters), and time durations (e.g., seconds), all of which are inherently positive and reference an absolute zero, allowing ratios like "one object has twice the mass of another" to hold empirically.^[18]

Logarithmic Scales

Logarithmic scales arise naturally from the structure of the positive real numbers, transforming multiplicative operations into additive ones to handle quantities that span wide ranges. Building on ratio scales that use positive reals for direct proportional comparisons, logarithmic measures provide invariance under scaling, making them ideal for phenomena where relative changes matter more than absolute ones. The key example is the Haar measure on the multiplicative group of positive reals (\mathbb{R}_{>0}, \times), which is left-invariant and given by d\mu(x) = \frac{dx}{x}. For a bounded interval [a, b] with $0 < a < b, this yields \mu([a, b]) = \int_a^b \frac{dx}{x} = \log(b/a).^[21] This measure exhibits multiplicative invariance: for any k > 0, the scaled interval k[a, b] = [ka, kb] satisfies \mu(k[a, b]) = \log(kb / ka) = \log(b/a) = \mu([a, b]), preserving lengths under dilation. The choice of logarithmic base determines the numerical scale but not the invariance; the natural logarithm (base e) is standard in pure mathematics for its analytic properties, while base 10 is preferred in applied contexts to align with orders of magnitude, where each integer step represents a factor of 10 in the original quantity.^[21]^[22] In perceptual and scientific applications, logarithmic scales model how humans and instruments respond to multiplicative stimuli. The decibel (dB) unit for acoustic or electrical power is defined as \mathrm{dB} = 10 \log_{10} (P / P_0), where P is the measured power and P_0 is a reference power (e.g., the threshold of human hearing at $10^{-12} W); this converts ratios into additive differences, with 10 dB corresponding to a tenfold power increase. Similarly, in astronomy, the apparent magnitude scale quantifies stellar brightness via m_1 - m_2 = -2.5 \log_{10} (F_1 / F_2), where F_1 and F_2 are fluxes; the negative sign ensures brighter sources have smaller magnitudes, and a 5-magnitude difference implies a 100-fold flux ratio.^[23]^[24] The isomorphism between the multiplicative group of positive reals and the additive group of all reals further underscores this structure: the logarithm provides a group isomorphism \log: (\mathbb{R}_{>0}, \times) \to (\mathbb{R}, +), with inverse the exponential function \exp: (\mathbb{R}, +) \to (\mathbb{R}_{>0}, \times), satisfying \log(xy) = \log x + \log y and \exp(x + y) = \exp x \cdot \exp y. This bijection explains why logarithmic scales linearize multiplicative processes.^[25] Positive real numbers also admit representations via continued fractions, which expand irrationals as infinite nested fractions, but an alternative uses continued logarithms to capture multiplicative structure: for a positive real x > 1, one iterates x = 2^{c_0 + 1/(c_1 + 1/(c_2 + \cdots))} where c_i are positive integers derived from binary logarithms, providing a base-2 logarithmic continued fraction form efficient for computation and approximation. This representation leverages the isomorphism to encode positives in an additive-like sequence of log terms.^[26]

Applications

In Geometry

In the Cartesian plane, the positive quadrant, also known as the first quadrant, is the region consisting of all points (x, y) where both coordinates are positive real numbers, formally denoted as Q = ℝ_{>0} × ℝ_{>0}. This quadrant is bounded by the positive x-axis and positive y-axis, and it plays a fundamental role in geometric visualizations involving positive quantities, such as distances or lengths that cannot be negative.^[27] Within this quadrant, key curves divide the space and highlight the structure imposed by positive reals. The line x = y forms a 45-degree ray from the origin, symmetrically separating points where x > y from those where x < y. Complementing this is the hyperbola defined by xy = 1, which lies entirely in the positive quadrant and asymptotes to the axes; this curve is particularly notable for its invariance under certain transformations, as it represents a level set in the multiplicative structure of positive reals. Hyperbolic coordinates provide a natural parametrization for points in the positive quadrant, adapting polar-like ideas to the hyperbolic metric. Here, the geometric mean \sqrt{xy} serves as a radial coordinate, analogous to a "radius" that scales multiplicatively, while the hyperbolic angle \theta measures the deviation from the line x = y, defined as \theta = \artanh\left(\frac{x - y}{x + y}\right) or equivalently \theta = \frac{1}{2} \ln\left(\frac{x}{y}\right). This system transforms the quadrant into a framework where lines of constant \theta are rays from the origin at angle $45^\circ + \theta, and lines of constant \sqrt{xy} are the hyperbolas xy = c for c > 0, facilitating analysis of scaling-invariant properties. The scalings (x, y) \mapsto (t x, t y) for t > 0 form a one-parameter family of transformations on the positive quadrant, isomorphic to the multiplicative group of positive reals, and they preserve the family of hyperbolas xy = c by mapping each to another in the family (specifically, xy = 1 maps to xy = t²). These transformations leave the hyperbolic angle \theta unchanged while scaling the geometric mean by t, underscoring the quadrant's homogeneity under positive scaling. Positive real numbers also arise geometrically as side lengths of squares in the Euclidean plane. For a square with side length x > 0, the area is given by x^2 > 0, directly tying the squaring operation to positive areas and emphasizing the role of positive reals in constructing figures with well-defined, positive measures.^[28]

In Analysis

In mathematical analysis, the non-negative real numbers \mathbb{R}_{\geq 0} form a commutative semiring under the usual addition and multiplication operations, with zero as the additive identity and one as the multiplicative identity.^[29] This structure, known as the probability semiring, underpins measure theory and probability, where addition corresponds to the measure of disjoint unions of sets and multiplication to the measure of intersections, enabling the assignment of non-negative values to events in a sigma-algebra.^[30] The general linear group with positive determinant, denoted GL^+(n, \mathbb{R}), maps via the determinant function to the positive reals \mathbb{R}_{>0}, preserving orientation since matrices in this component have \det > 0.^[31] This determinant map scales volumes positively, reflecting how linear transformations in GL^+(n, \mathbb{R}) expand or contract spaces without reflection, a key property in differential geometry and analysis of flows. Positive functions play a central role in integration theory. For Riemann integrals, positive bounded functions on closed intervals are integrable, with the integral representing signed area under the curve, foundational for defining expectations in continuous probability distributions.^[32] Probability densities f: \mathbb{R} \to \mathbb{R}_{\geq 0} that integrate to 1 over their domain ensure non-negative probabilities in Riemann or Lebesgue senses, with strictly positive densities forming an important subclass. The exponential function \exp: \mathbb{R} \to \mathbb{R}_{>0} is a bijective mapping, continuously and strictly increasing from all reals to positive reals, with its inverse the natural logarithm \log: \mathbb{R}_{>0} \to \mathbb{R}.^[33] This bijection facilitates solving functional equations in analysis and transforms additive problems on \mathbb{R} to multiplicative ones on \mathbb{R}_{>0}, as seen in solving differential equations or change of variables in integrals. In calculus, the monotone convergence theorem applies to positive sequences, stating that a non-decreasing sequence of positive real numbers bounded above converges to its supremum, ensuring limits exist for series like those in power expansions or iterative approximations. This extends to positive functions in integration, where pointwise increasing sequences converge to their integral limit under suitable conditions, bridging basic analysis to measure theory. Modern optimization in analysis often restricts to the non-negative orthant \mathbb{R}_{\geq 0}^n, a convex cone where problems like non-negative least squares minimize objectives subject to positivity constraints, leveraging the orthant's self-duality for efficient algorithms in convex programming.^[34]

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