Erasmus+
Erasmus+ is the European Union's programme supporting education, training, youth, and sport initiatives for the 2021–2027 period, with an overall budget of €26.2 billion.[1] Launched as an expansion of the original Erasmus exchange scheme established in 1987, it facilitates cross-border mobility and cooperation to enhance skills, employability, and intercultural understanding among participants from EU member states and partner countries.[2] The programme's general objective is to promote the educational, professional, and personal development of individuals via lifelong learning, while fostering active citizenship, social inclusion, and European identity.[3] It operates through three key actions: learning mobility of individuals, such as student exchanges and traineeships; cooperation among organisations for innovation and good practices; and support for policy development and multilateral partnerships, including Jean Monnet activities to study European integration.[4] Eligible activities emphasize practical outcomes like language support via online tools and inclusion measures for disadvantaged participants.[5] Erasmus+ has enabled millions of young people and professionals to engage in international experiences, contributing to Europe's human capital and resilience amid global challenges.[6] However, despite provisions for equity, participation rates remain skewed toward higher socio-economic groups, with affirmative actions proving insufficient to fully bridge access gaps for disadvantaged students, as evidenced by institutional analyses.[7][8] Bureaucratic hurdles and funding shortfalls have also drawn criticism, limiting broader impact.[9]
Historical Development
Inception and Early Phases (1987–2013)
The Erasmus programme originated as an initiative of the European Commission to enhance higher education cooperation and student mobility within the European Community, drawing inspiration from the humanist scholar Desiderius Erasmus to symbolize cross-cultural exchange. It was formally adopted by the Council of the European Communities on 15 June 1987 through Council Decision 87/327/EEC and launched on 1 July 1987 as a pilot scheme targeting university students for study periods abroad of 3 to 12 months.[10][11] The programme initially emphasized institutional agreements between universities, language preparation grants, and partial funding for travel and subsistence, with participating institutions required to recognize credits earned abroad.[11] In its inaugural academic year (1987–1988), Erasmus supported mobility for 3,244 students across 11 member states—Belgium, Denmark, West Germany, Greece, France, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, and the United Kingdom—marking the first systematic EU-funded exchanges in higher education.[11] The programme operated independently through two phases until 1994, gradually expanding to include preparatory visits, teaching staff exchanges, and curriculum development projects while maintaining a focus on fostering European awareness among participants.[10] By the mid-1990s, annual participation had grown to tens of thousands, supported by a network of national agencies for implementation and quality control.[11] From 1995 to 2006, Erasmus was integrated as the higher education strand within the Socrates programme, a broader EU framework (Socrates I: 1995–1999; Socrates II: 2000–2006) that also covered school education (Comenius), adult education (Grundtvig), and transversal measures like language learning (Lingua).[10] This integration broadened Erasmus's scope to encompass intensive programmes for short-term group mobilities, academic staff training, and virtual collaboration tools, while introducing centralized management via the European Education Foundation.[11] Participation surged, with over 1 million students benefiting by 2006, as the programme extended to additional European Free Trade Association countries and candidate states, emphasizing credit transfer systems that laid groundwork for the later European Credit Transfer System (ECTS).[12] In 2007, Erasmus transitioned into the Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) for 2007–2013, alongside sectors like vocational training (Leonardo da Vinci) and school education, with a total LLP budget of approximately €7 billion, of which Erasmus received about 40%.[13][11] Key enhancements included mandatory traineeships for students, expanded staff mobility (intensive programmes and job shadowing), and the Erasmus University Charter in 2003 (continued under LLP) to standardize quality in participating institutions.[11] By the end of this period, Erasmus had engaged nearly all European higher education institutions and supported mobility in 33 countries, contributing to a cumulative total of around 7.1 million participants across programme iterations from 1987 to 2013.[12] These phases established Erasmus as a cornerstone of EU educational policy, prioritizing measurable outcomes like degree completion rates and employability gains over ideological mandates.[10]Transition to Erasmus+ (2014–2020)
The Erasmus+ programme was established through Regulation (EU) No 1288/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council, adopted on 11 December 2013, and officially launched on 1 January 2014 as the successor to multiple fragmented EU initiatives in education, training, youth, and sport.[14] This transition consolidated seven primary predecessor programmes, including the Lifelong Learning Programme (2007–2013) with its strands Comenius (school education), Erasmus (higher education), Leonardo da Vinci (vocational education and training), and Grundtvig (adult education), alongside Youth in Action (youth mobility and non-formal learning) and international dimensions from Erasmus Mundus, Tempus, Alfa III, and Edulink.[15][16][17] The shift to a unified structure addressed prior inefficiencies, such as overlapping eligibility criteria and administrative silos, by introducing a simplified application process managed through national agencies and a centralized executive agency, thereby reducing bureaucracy and enabling cross-sectoral synergies.[18][19] Allocated a budget of €14.7 billion over the seven-year period—roughly double the combined funding of its immediate predecessors—Erasmus+ targeted support for approximately 4 million participants, expanding beyond student exchanges to encompass staff mobility, volunteering, and capacity-building for organizations in 33 programme countries (EU member states plus Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Turkey, and former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia).[20][21][22] Structurally, the programme emphasized three core Key Actions: Key Action 1 for individual learning mobility (e.g., study abroad, traineeships, and youth exchanges); Key Action 2 for strategic partnerships fostering innovation and good practice exchanges; and Key Action 3 for policy reform through evidence-based support, analytical activities, and forward-looking projects.[10][23] Complementary components included Jean Monnet actions to advance EU studies and a novel sport strand promoting grassroots participation, integrity in competitions, and dual careers for athletes.[14] Early implementation focused on awareness-raising and training for stakeholders, with annual work programmes adjusting allocations—such as an initial 2014 budget amendment increasing funds by €130 million—to accommodate demand and non-participation by countries like Switzerland.[24][25] By mid-period, participation metrics demonstrated robust uptake, with over 500,000 mobilities annually in higher education and vocational training alone, though evaluations noted challenges like uneven geographic distribution and underutilization by disadvantaged groups despite inclusivity provisions.[6] The programme's final years (2019–2020) required adaptive measures amid the COVID-19 pandemic, including virtual mobility options, grant flexibilities, and deferred deadlines, preserving continuity while final evaluations affirmed its role in enhancing skills, employability, and intercultural competence without evidence of systemic overreach in non-educational domains.[26][27]Current Framework (2021–2027)
The Erasmus+ programme for 2021–2027 was formally established by Regulation (EU) 2021/817, adopted by the European Parliament and the Council on 20 May 2021, following provisional agreement in December 2020.[28][29] This framework builds on prior iterations by expanding scope to prioritize recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic, digitalization, and sustainability, while retaining the programme's focus on education, training, youth, and sport.[30] The budget totals €26.2 billion over the seven years, nearly double the €14.7 billion allocated for 2014–2020, enabling broader participation and new initiatives.[10][1] Key structural elements include Key Action 1 for individual mobility, Key Action 2 for institutional cooperation, Key Action 3 for policy support, alongside Jean Monnet actions promoting European integration studies and dedicated sport actions.[4] Horizontal priorities emphasize the green transition in all activities, digital transformation through tools like virtual exchanges, social inclusion for disadvantaged groups, and fostering democratic values via civic engagement projects.[31] Innovations relative to the previous period encompass hybrid mobility formats blending physical and virtual elements, simplified funding for short-term group mobilities (2–30 days), and the incorporation of DiscoverEU, offering free Interrail passes to selected 18-year-olds for European travel to build intercultural understanding.[32][33] The framework also enhances international dimensions by increasing partnerships with non-EU countries and allocating about 10% of funds to actions beyond Europe.[10] Implementation occurs via the European Commission, national agencies in EU member states and associated countries, and decentralized management to ensure targeted grant distribution.[30]Objectives and Guiding Principles
Core Educational and Mobility Goals
The Erasmus+ programme's core educational goals emphasize enhancing the quality and relevance of education and training systems across Europe by developing participants' key competences, including digital skills, foreign languages, entrepreneurship, and civic engagement. These goals support lifelong learning to equip individuals with skills aligned to labor market needs and societal challenges, contributing to the European Education Area's objectives of innovation, equity, and excellence in teaching and learning.[3] By fostering cooperation among educational institutions, the programme aims to modernize curricula, promote evidence-based policies, and integrate good practices from international exchanges to raise overall educational standards.[3] Central to these aims is the promotion of learning mobility for individuals, enabling students, trainees, apprentices, teachers, youth workers, and other staff to engage in study, training, teaching, or volunteering periods abroad, typically lasting from short-term intensives to full academic years.[34] This mobility targets sectors such as higher education, vocational education and training (VET), school education, adult education, and youth, with the explicit objective of improving employability through practical experience, intercultural competence, and exposure to diverse educational approaches.[34] For instance, higher education mobility projects facilitate outbound flows of students for credit-bearing studies or traineeships, while staff mobility supports professional development to enhance teaching quality and institutional internationalization.[35] Expected outcomes from these mobility activities include strengthened personal development, such as increased self-esteem and motivation, alongside professional gains like better understanding of European labor markets and policy frameworks.[34] In VET and school education, mobility emphasizes skill acquisition linked to occupational profiles, with provisions for apprenticeships and pupil exchanges to bridge theoretical learning with real-world application.[36] The programme prioritizes inclusive access, offering additional support like preparatory language courses and grants for participants from disadvantaged backgrounds to ensure broader participation and equitable benefits.[30] Overall, these goals underpin Erasmus+'s role in building a more skilled, mobile, and cohesive European workforce, with over 10 million participants targeted for mobility under the 2021-2027 budget framework.[3]Promotion of EU Values and Integration
The Erasmus+ programme explicitly requires participants and funded activities to respect core EU values, including human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law, and respect for human rights, as outlined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights.[5] [37] These values are integrated into programme guidelines, with applications evaluated on their alignment, particularly in youth participation and virtual exchanges that emphasize promotion of shared principles.[38] Erasmus+ advances European integration by facilitating intercultural exchanges that build mutual understanding and reduce national stereotypes, contributing to a sense of European citizenship.[39] Mobility actions, such as youth exchanges and higher education partnerships, enable direct exposure to diverse cultures, fostering skills like tolerance and adaptability valued by employers.[40] Empirical studies indicate that participation correlates with increased identification as European, with one analysis finding significant positive changes in both political and cultural European identity post-mobility.[41] Another examination of Erasmus exchanges showed enhanced personal growth and transformative learning, supporting broader integration goals, though effects vary by participant background and programme phase.[42] [43] The programme's emphasis on inclusion and diversity further aims to address inequalities, promoting equal access across actions.[30]Programme Structure and Actions
Key Action 1: Individual Mobility
Key Action 1 supports learning mobility projects that enable individuals to acquire new skills, competences, and experiences through periods of study, training, or work abroad. These projects aim to enhance participants' learning performance, employability, intercultural understanding, and awareness of European Union values, while also strengthening the capacities of participating organizations.[34] The action prioritizes mobility in formal, non-formal, and informal education settings, with grants covering travel, subsistence, and organizational support costs to ensure accessibility.[34] Eligible activities include student and staff exchanges in higher education, vocational education and training (VET) apprenticeships and traineeships, school pupil mobility, adult learner placements, youth exchanges, and youth worker training. Higher education mobilities typically last 2-12 months for students and 2 days to 2 months for staff, focusing on credit-bearing study or practical training. In VET and school education, projects support short-term group or individual learning abroad, often integrated with digital tools for blended mobility. Youth strand activities emphasize non-formal learning through group exchanges for young people aged 13-30 and professional development for youth workers.[44] Special measures address inclusion, such as additional funding for participants with fewer opportunities or those affected by geopolitical events like the Ukraine crisis.[34] Target groups encompass learners (students, trainees, apprentices, pupils, adult learners, young people), educators (teachers, trainers, youth workers), and institutional staff across EU Programme Countries, associated third countries, and select partner countries. Organizations such as universities, schools, VET providers, adult education centers, and youth NGOs apply on behalf of groups or individuals, with projects selected via national agencies or the European Education and Culture Executive Agency.[45] In the 2021-2027 period, these initiatives have scaled significantly, supporting over 1 million learning mobility participants in 2023 alone, contributing to the program's cumulative total of more than 16 million individuals since 1987.[12] Empirical data indicate sustained growth, with 1.3 million mobility opportunities funded in 2023, reflecting KA1's role as the program's core driver of individual international experience.[46]Key Action 2: Cooperation and Partnerships
Key Action 2 of the Erasmus+ programme facilitates cooperation among organizations and institutions to enhance the quality, innovation, and internationalization of educational, training, and youth activities. It funds transnational partnerships that promote the exchange of good practices, development of innovative methods, and use of new technologies, primarily targeting organizations rather than individuals. Eligible participants include public and private bodies from EU member states and associated countries, as well as partner countries neighboring the EU or further afield for specific actions like capacity building.[47][48] The action encompasses Partnerships for Cooperation, divided into Cooperation Partnerships for larger-scale, high-impact projects and Small-scale Partnerships to broaden access for smaller organizations or those new to the programme. Cooperation Partnerships aim to produce tangible outputs such as curricula, methodologies, or tools, with durations typically of 24 to 36 months and grants up to €400,000 or more depending on scope. Small-scale Partnerships, lasting 12 to 24 months with grants around €60,000, focus on testing ideas and building initial international networks. Both encourage cross-sectoral collaboration in fields like school education, vocational training, higher education, and youth work.[48][49] Partnerships for Excellence support specialized initiatives, including Alliances for Innovation to foster sector-specific skills alliances and Erasmus Mundus actions for joint master's degrees, emphasizing excellence in teaching and research. Capacity Building projects target higher education, vocational education and training (VET), and youth sectors, involving multilateral partnerships with non-EU countries to modernize systems, develop curricula, and strengthen institutional capacities. For instance, Capacity Building in Higher Education funds projects addressing challenges in partner countries through structured mobility and knowledge transfer, with annual calls specifying regional priorities.[50][51] Within the 2021-2027 framework, Key Action 2 contributes to the overall Erasmus+ budget of €26.2 billion, though specific allocations vary by annual work programmes; for example, higher education capacity building received targeted funding for global partnerships. Projects must align with EU priorities such as digital transformation, inclusion, and sustainability, undergoing competitive selection via national agencies or the European Education and Culture Executive Agency. Evaluation emphasizes measurable impacts like improved organizational capacities and innovative outputs disseminated across Europe.[52][53]Key Action 3: Policy Reform Support
Key Action 3 of the Erasmus+ programme (2021-2027) provides funding and support for initiatives that advance policy development and cooperation at the European Union level, specifically targeting reforms in education, training, youth, and sport sectors.[54][55] It contributes to the implementation of existing EU policies, such as the European Education Area and EU Youth Strategy 2019-2027, while fostering new policies through evidence-based mechanisms like the Open Method of Coordination.[54][55] This action emphasizes modernization of systems, enhancement of skills recognition, promotion of digital and green transitions, and strengthening of policy dialogue among stakeholders, including public authorities and civil society organizations.[54][55] The primary objective is to generate actionable evidence for policymaking, enabling reforms that address societal challenges such as employability gaps, inclusion of underrepresented groups, and alignment with EU priorities like sustainability and digitalization.[54][55] Activities under this key action include forward-looking projects that test innovative approaches to future skills needs, such as Centres of Vocational Excellence and Erasmus+ Teacher Academies, which pilot curricula and training aligned with emerging economic demands.[54][55] European policy experimentations fund field trials led by public authorities to validate reform strategies before wider rollout, often scaling up via synergies with European Structural and Investment Funds.[54][55] Additional components support systemic reforms through European strategic networks and evidence-gathering efforts, such as surveys, comparative studies, and platforms like Eurydice for information exchange on education systems.[54][55] These networks facilitate transnational collaboration among policymakers, educators, youth organizations, and enterprises, promoting best practices in areas like quality assurance (via EQAVET) and guidance services (via Euroguidance).[54][55] European Youth Together projects, for instance, build regional partnerships to engage young people in policy discussions, with grants up to €500,000 for 12- to 36-month initiatives managed by the European Education and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA).[54][55] Conferences, seminars, and awareness campaigns disseminate outcomes, ensuring reforms are informed by stakeholder input and empirical data.[54] Eligibility prioritizes high-level public authorities, national agencies, and sector-specific stakeholders from EU Member States and associated third countries, with projects typically lasting 6 to 48 months and funded at an 80% co-financing rate via lump sums.[54][55] Implementation is overseen by the European Commission and EACEA, with applications submitted through annual work programmes that align with programme-wide goals, such as fostering active citizenship and mutual understanding.[54][55] By emphasizing measurable impacts on policy evolution, Key Action 3 bridges research, practice, and governance to drive sustainable reforms without direct individual mobility focus.[54][55]Jean Monnet Actions
Jean Monnet Actions, a dedicated strand within the Erasmus+ programme for the 2021–2027 period, support teaching, research, and public discourse on European Union studies to promote excellence worldwide. Named after Jean Monnet, a foundational figure in European integration, these actions focus on EU history, institutions, policies, and core values including democracy, human rights, and the rule of law. They target higher education institutions primarily but extend to schools, vocational training, and associations to integrate EU perspectives across educational levels.[56][57] The primary objectives are to generate specialized knowledge and insights that inform EU policymaking, foster dialogue between academia, policymakers, and society, and enhance public diplomacy by addressing gaps in EU studies. These actions also promote active European citizenship, highlight the EU's global role, and encourage linkages between EU policies and fields like science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). By emphasizing outreach and sustainability, they aim to embed EU content durably in curricula and public awareness.[56][57] In higher education, Jean Monnet Actions fund three main formats under the "Teaching and Research" category:- Modules: Compact teaching programmes delivering at least 40 hours of EU-focused content annually over a minimum of three years, integrated into existing degree courses to provide specialized training without forming standalone degrees.[56]
- Chairs: Dedicated teaching positions for established scholars, requiring at least 90 hours of annual EU-related instruction over three years, aimed at developing expertise and mentoring future EU studies professionals.[56]
- Centres of Excellence: Institutional hubs consolidating advanced research, multidisciplinary training, and outreach on EU themes, funded for three years with a cap of €100,000 per centre; only one such centre is permitted per higher education institution at a time.[56][58]