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Fast atom bombardment

Fast atom bombardment (FAB) is a soft ionization technique employed in mass spectrometry, in which a beam of high-energy neutral atoms—typically argon or xenon accelerated to 5–10 keV—bombards a sample dissolved in a viscous liquid matrix, such as glycerol, coated on a metal probe tip, resulting in the sputtering and ionization of analyte molecules into the gas phase for subsequent mass analysis.^[1] Introduced in 1981 by Michael Barber and colleagues at the University of Manchester, FAB represented a significant advancement over earlier methods like electron impact ionization, enabling the analysis of thermally labile and involatile compounds that were challenging to vaporize without decomposition.^[1] The technique produces predominantly singly charged ions, such as [M+H]⁺ in positive mode or [M-H]⁻ in negative mode, yielding relatively simple mass spectra compared to harder ionization methods, and it supports high-resolution measurements up to masses of approximately 6,000 Da, with some applications extending to 10–20 kDa.^[2]^[3] FAB's mechanism relies on the collision of fast atoms with the matrix surface, which ejects a monolayer of analyte molecules that is continuously replenished from the bulk solution, allowing sustained ionization without the need for heating and minimizing fragmentation for fragile biomolecules.^[4] This approach proved particularly valuable in the 1980s and early 1990s for structural elucidation in fields like biochemistry and pharmacology, with key applications including the sequencing of peptides up to 5,700 Da, characterization of glycosphingolipids, polyene antibiotics, and inorganic ion clusters up to 25,800 Da, as well as analysis of organometallics, vitamin B12 coenzymes, ecdysteroids, polysaccharides, and synthetic polymers.^[1]^[2] Its compatibility with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS) further extended its utility for polar compounds like drugs and natural products, offering sensitivity down to 10⁻⁵ M for peptides.^[3] Although FAB offered advantages such as straightforward interfacing with magnetic sector and quadrupole mass analyzers and the avoidance of multiply charged ions that complicate spectra, it was gradually supplanted in the 1990s by more versatile techniques like electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI), which provide broader mass ranges, higher throughput, and better quantification for large biomolecules and proteomics.^[3]^[4] Variants like liquid secondary ion mass spectrometry (LSIMS), which substitute the neutral atom beam with a cesium ion beam, addressed some limitations of FAB by improving signal stability but shared similar matrix-related challenges, such as background noise from matrix ions.^[4] Today, FAB remains relevant in niche areas requiring analysis of involatile salts or specific polar analytes where its soft ionization preserves molecular integrity.^[2]

Introduction and History

Overview

Fast atom bombardment (FAB) is a soft ionization technique employed in mass spectrometry to analyze non-volatile and thermally labile compounds by bombarding a sample-matrix mixture with a high-energy beam of neutral atoms under vacuum conditions.^[5] The beam typically consists of argon or xenon atoms accelerated to energies between 4,000 and 10,000 eV, which sputter ions directly from the sample surface without requiring vaporization.^[6] This method, introduced in the early 1980s, allows for the production of intact molecular species suitable for subsequent mass analysis.^[5] In FAB, the bombardment process desorbs and ionizes analyte molecules primarily through protonation or deprotonation, yielding quasimolecular ions such as [M + H]^+ in positive-ion mode or [M - H]^- in negative-ion mode.^[6] These ions are sputtered from the liquid matrix into the gas phase, where they can be accelerated into the mass analyzer, enabling the detection of molecular weights with minimal fragmentation.^[7] The technique is particularly effective for polar organic molecules, including peptides and carbohydrates, providing structural insights through both molecular ion peaks and fragment patterns.^[6] FAB is closely related to secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), particularly its liquid variant (LSIMS), as both rely on particle bombardment to sputter secondary ions from the sample; however, FAB specifically utilizes a neutral atom beam, whereas traditional SIMS employs an ion beam like cesium.^[7] It supports analysis of compounds up to approximately 5,000 Da, making it well-suited for biomolecules and other thermally sensitive materials that are challenging for harder ionization methods.^[6]

Development

Fast atom bombardment (FAB) was invented in 1980 by Michael Barber and colleagues at the University of Manchester, United Kingdom, as a novel ionization method for mass spectrometry. The technique was first publicly detailed in a 1981 publication, which described its use as an ion source to generate high-quality mass spectra from solid samples that were previously challenging to analyze.^[5] The primary motivation for developing FAB stemmed from the shortcomings of prior ionization techniques, including electron impact ionization, which induced severe fragmentation unsuitable for fragile molecules, and field desorption, which struggled with the thermal stability and size limitations of large biomolecules. FAB addressed these issues by employing a beam of high-energy neutral atoms to sputter and ionize samples directly from a solid matrix, enabling the intact analysis of polar, nonvolatile compounds up to several thousand daltons.^[5] Early advancements in the 1980s included the adoption of liquid matrices, such as glycerol, to sustain sample integrity during prolonged bombardment by continuously renewing the surface layer. A significant milestone occurred in 1983 when FAB was applied to inorganic isotope analysis, notably for quantifying stable calcium isotopes in biological fluids with high precision and sensitivity. In the mid-1980s, the method evolved into liquid secondary ion mass spectrometry (LSIMS), which substituted the neutral atom beam with accelerated ions for improved secondary ion yields while preserving the liquid matrix system.^[5]^[8]^[9] By the 1990s, FAB's prominence waned as electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) emerged, providing greater sensitivity, higher mass ranges, and easier coupling with chromatographic separations for biomolecular studies.^[7]

Ionization and Operational Principles

Mechanism of Ionization

In fast atom bombardment (FAB), high-energy neutral atoms, typically xenon or argon, are generated by first ionizing a gas to produce a beam of positive ions, which are then accelerated to energies of 4–10 keV before undergoing neutralization through charge exchange with neutral gas atoms in a collision cell.^[10] This process yields a beam of fast neutral atoms with kinetic energies approximated by the equation E = \frac{1}{2} m v^2, where m is the mass of the bombarding atom and v is its velocity, typically on the order of $10^5 m/s for keV energies.^[10] The resulting beam strikes the surface of a sample dissolved in a liquid matrix under high vacuum conditions of approximately $10^{-5} to $10^{-6} Torr, ensuring beam integrity and efficient ion extraction into the mass analyzer.^[10]^[1] Upon impact, the fast atoms transfer their kinetic energy to the sample-matrix surface, initiating a sputtering process that ejects a cascade of secondary particles, including neutrals, ions, and electrons, from the uppermost atomic layers.^[10] This energy deposition, often exceeding the binding energies of surface molecules by several orders of magnitude, creates localized heating and momentum transfer, leading to the desorption of intact sample molecules with minimal internal energy deposition, characteristic of the "soft" ionization nature of FAB.^[6] The process results in low fragmentation, preserving molecular ions for analysis.^[11] Ion formation primarily occurs through gas-phase or surface ion/molecule reactions during sputtering, with protonation or deprotonation in the matrix yielding quasimolecular ions such as [M + H]^+ in positive mode or [M - H]^- in negative mode.^[11] Cationization by alkali ions from the matrix can also produce species like [M + Na]^+, but proton exchange dominates due to the abundance of protic sites in typical matrices.^[10] The liquid matrix plays a crucial role by providing a viscous, replenishing environment that continuously reforms the bombarded surface, sustains ion production over time, and facilitates the chemical reactions necessary for ionization without excessive sample degradation.^[1]

Sample Preparation and Matrices

In fast atom bombardment (FAB) mass spectrometry, effective sample preparation relies on dissolving the analyte in a suitable liquid matrix to facilitate stable ionization under high-vacuum conditions. Common matrices include non-volatile liquids such as glycerol, thioglycerol, and 3-nitrobenzyl alcohol, selected for their low vapor pressure, which prevents rapid evaporation in the ion source, good solubility for a wide range of polar and non-polar analytes, and appropriate proton affinity to enhance ion formation by promoting proton transfer or cationization.^[12]^[13]^[14] Additives like trifluoroacetic acid may be incorporated into the matrix to further encourage the production of protonated molecular ions, particularly for peptides and other biomolecules.^[12] The preparation process typically involves dissolving 1–10 nmol of the sample in 1–5 μL of matrix, achieving a matrix-to-sample molar ratio of approximately 1000:1 to ensure the analyte is sufficiently diluted, minimizing aggregation and maintaining a steady sputtering yield during atom bombardment.^[15]^[16] This ratio helps sustain the emission of secondary ions over time, as the excess matrix replenishes the surface eroded by the energetic particle beam. The mixture is then applied directly to the tip of a metal probe, commonly made of copper or stainless steel, which serves as the target for the atom beam.^[17]^[18]^[19] Once prepared, the probe is inserted directly into the vacuum chamber of the ion source, positioning the sample-coated tip perpendicular to the incoming beam of fast atoms, typically xenon accelerated to 6–8 keV. This setup allows for immediate bombardment and ionization without additional heating, addressing key challenges such as sample evaporation and thermal decomposition that plague volatile or thermally labile compounds in traditional electron impact methods. The liquid matrix acts as a protective medium, continuously renewing the sample surface and stabilizing the signal for several minutes to hours, depending on the matrix volume and bombardment intensity.^[15]^[14] The adoption of liquid matrices in FAB represented a significant evolution in the early 1980s, shifting from earlier solid-matrix approaches in secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) to improve signal stability and reproducibility for non-volatile analytes. This transition, pioneered in seminal work using glycerol as the primary matrix, enabled broader application to complex biomolecules by providing a more uniform sputtering environment and reducing matrix effects that could suppress analyte signals.^[20]^[21]^[22]

Variants and Techniques

Conventional FAB

Conventional fast atom bombardment (FAB) employs an ion gun that generates a beam of neutral atoms, typically xenon or argon, accelerated to 6–10 keV and directed at a stationary sample probe inserted into the mass spectrometer's ion source. The beam is rastered over a 1–2 mm spot on the sample surface to ensure even bombardment, with a typical current of 1–2 mA to maintain stable ionization. This setup allows for the analysis of nonvolatile samples dissolved in a liquid matrix, such as glycerol, applied to the probe tip.^[23] In the operational mode, the neutral atom beam performs static bombardment, continuously eroding the matrix surface and sputtering secondary ions from the sample. Spectra are acquired over 5–30 minutes, during which the signal persists until the analyte is depleted, relying on the matrix to replenish the surface layer and sustain ion emission. This batch process is suited for discrete samples weighing under 1 mg, providing a continuous ion yield interspersed with background signals from matrix cluster ions.^[23]^[5] Conventional FAB is compatible with various mass analyzers, including magnetic sector instruments for high-resolution work up to 10,000, as well as quadrupole and time-of-flight analyzers for broader applications. It was the dominant implementation of FAB from the 1980s through the early 1990s, establishing the technique's role in analyzing thermally labile biomolecules before the advent of dynamic variants.^[23]^[5]

Liquid Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (LSIMS)

Liquid secondary ion mass spectrometry (LSIMS) is a variant of FAB that replaces the neutral atom beam with a beam of accelerated ions, typically cesium (Cs⁺) or gallium (Ga⁺), at energies of 5–10 keV. This ion beam bombardment enhances ionization efficiency and provides more stable signals compared to conventional FAB by avoiding fluctuations in neutral atom production. Sample preparation remains similar, involving dissolution in a liquid matrix like glycerol on a probe tip, but LSIMS reduces matrix background noise and improves sensitivity for polar and ionic compounds. Developed in the early 1980s as an evolution of FAB, LSIMS was widely used in the 1980s and 1990s for applications requiring higher stability, such as biomolecule analysis, though it shares similar limitations in mass range and matrix effects.^[4]

Continuous Flow FAB

Continuous flow fast atom bombardment (CF-FAB) was developed in the mid-1980s to overcome the limitations of static FAB, particularly the short analysis times due to surface depletion and instability. Introduced by Caprioli and colleagues in 1986, this variant enables the continuous delivery of a sample-matrix solution at flow rates of 1–10 μL/min through a fused-silica capillary with an inner diameter of 25–75 μm, allowing sustained ionization over extended periods.^[24] In contrast to conventional FAB's batch-mode operation on a static probe tip, CF-FAB maintains a dynamic liquid surface exposed to the atom beam, thereby extending analysis durations to several hours while minimizing manual intervention.^[25] The setup involves positioning the capillary tip 1–5 mm from the ion source target, where the emerging liquid forms a stable meniscus for bombardment by the neutral atom beam. To enhance flow stability and prevent clogging, particularly with viscous matrices, configurations often incorporate a metal frit at the tip or a coaxial sheath gas to nebulize and direct the flow.^[26] This design reduces sample consumption to as low as 10–100 pmol, making it suitable for precious analytes, and supports integration with liquid chromatography (LC-FAB) for online separation and analysis of complex mixtures.^[24]^[27] Operationally, CF-FAB provides significant improvements by continuously renewing the sample surface, which lowers chemical background noise and enhances signal stability compared to static methods. Sensitivity gains of up to 10-fold over static FAB have been reported, attributed to reduced matrix interference and better ion desorption efficiency, enabling detection limits in the femtomole range for polar biomolecules.^[28] However, specific limitations include potential band broadening in hyphenated LC setups due to dead volumes or viscous matrix addition, and the requirement for solvent-compatible matrices to avoid precipitation or flow disruptions.^[29]^[30]

Applications

Biomolecular and Organic Analysis

Fast atom bombardment (FAB) mass spectrometry has found extensive application in the analysis of biomolecules and organic compounds, particularly for peptide sequencing and molecular weight determination of oligosaccharides, lipids, and synthetic polymers up to approximately 5000 Da.^[31] In peptide analysis, FAB provided a soft ionization method that preserved molecular integrity, enabling the characterization of underivatized samples without the need for chemical derivatization. A seminal example from the 1980s involved the structural elucidation of efrapeptin D, a 19-residue peptide containing unusual amino acids, where positive and negative ion FAB-MS confirmed the sequence and stereochemistry in combination with high-resolution MS.^[32] FAB-MS proved effective for intact proteins, such as insulin, yielding prominent [M + H]⁺ ions at m/z 5808 for the underivatized molecule without substantial fragmentation, which was a significant advancement for direct protein analysis.^[33] For oligosaccharides and lipids, the technique facilitated molecular weight assignments and structural insights by producing quasimolecular ions in glycerol matrices, often revealing fragmentation patterns indicative of glycosidic linkages or fatty acid chains.^[34] In glycopeptide studies, FAB enabled the identification of O-linked sugars, as demonstrated in early analyses where spectra displayed intact glycoforms and diagnostic carbohydrate fragments. The hyphenation of FAB with tandem MS (MS/MS) marked a key development for detailed structural elucidation, employing collision-induced dissociation to generate sequence-specific fragment ions like y- and b-series in peptides, which supported de novo sequencing and post-translational modification mapping.^[35] Prior to the emergence of electrospray ionization (ESI) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) in the late 1980s and early 1990s, FAB provided the first viable mass spectra of large biomolecules exceeding 3000 Da, profoundly influencing biochemical research and pharmaceutical development by enabling precise molecular characterization.

Inorganic Analysis

One of the earliest applications of fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry (FAB-MS) in inorganic analysis occurred in 1983, when it was employed to determine calcium isotope ratios in biological fluids such as blood plasma and urine for tracer studies.^[8] This method utilized high-resolution FAB-MS to measure isotopic abundances directly from samples prepared on metallic probes, enabling precise quantification of stable calcium isotopes without extensive chemical separation.^[8] Subsequent extensions of FAB-MS facilitated the analysis of isotope ratios for other essential metals, including iron, magnesium, and zinc, particularly in tracer studies of absorption and metabolism. For instance, FAB-MS was applied to quantify zinc absorption in humans by measuring enriched stable isotope ratios in blood and feces, offering a non-radioactive alternative to traditional methods.^[36] Similarly, it supported iron bioavailability assessments through detection of stable isotope enrichments in erythrocyte incorporation, with sample preparation involving simple dissolution in a liquid matrix.^[36] In the methodology for inorganic analysis via FAB-MS, metal complexes or salts are typically ionized by bombarding the sample, dissolved in a glycerol matrix, with a beam of fast neutral atoms, producing characteristic [M + matrix]⁺ cluster ions that allow identification and quantification of elemental species.^[37] This approach yields high sensitivity due to the soft ionization minimizing fragmentation.^[22] In this context, FAB-MS enables direct analysis of inorganic species without the need for derivatization or extensive preconcentration, contrasting with techniques like ICP-MS that often require acid digestion for certain refractory matrices to avoid interferences.

Advantages, Limitations, and Legacy

Strengths and Benefits

Fast atom bombardment (FAB) is renowned as a soft ionization technique that preserves the integrity of fragile molecules, primarily generating molecular ions with minimal fragmentation.^[3] This characteristic enabled the analysis of thermally labile and polar compounds that were challenging for earlier methods like electron ionization (EI) or chemical ionization (CI), which often required volatilization and resulted in extensive breakdown.^[7] The versatility of FAB extends to a broad range of samples, including non-volatile substances such as salts, peptides, and other biomolecules, without the need for derivatization.^[38] It facilitated the direct examination of polar and ionic species that were inaccessible to traditional gas-phase ionization techniques, thereby broadening the scope of mass spectrometry in organic and biomolecular research.^[10] FAB offered a high mass range, capable of analyzing ions up to approximately 10,000 Da in early instruments, which was instrumental in pioneering studies of large biomolecules like peptides and proteins.^[39] This capability marked a significant advancement over prior methods limited to lower masses, allowing for the structural elucidation of complex macromolecules.^[5] The technique's simplicity was a key strength, requiring no vacuum interlocks for sample introduction via a direct insertion probe, enabling rapid setup and analysis within minutes. This streamlined workflow made FAB accessible for routine laboratory use and accelerated experimental turnaround.^[40] In the variant known as continuous-flow FAB (CF-FAB), sensitivity for flow-based applications rivals that of early electrospray ionization (ESI) methods, achieving detection limits in the attomole to low femtomole range for polar analytes.^[41] Historically, FAB played a pivotal role in advancements in peptide sequencing by enabling the mass spectrometric analysis of underivatized peptides, as demonstrated in early applications for sequence determination.^[42]

Drawbacks and Modern Alternatives

One major drawback of fast atom bombardment (FAB) mass spectrometry is the high chemical background noise arising from matrix cluster ions, which can obscure analyte signals. For instance, when glycerol is used as the matrix, prominent peaks appear at m/z 93 ([C3H8O3 + H]+) and m/z 185 ([C6H14O6 + H]+), corresponding to protonated monomer and dimer clusters, respectively.^[43] This interference complicates the detection of low-abundance analytes, particularly in the low-mass range. Additionally, FAB exhibits limited sensitivity, typically in the femtomole (fmol) range, which restricts its utility for trace-level analysis.^[44] Further limitations include the labor-intensive sample preparation process, which requires manual mixing of analytes with viscous matrices and application to a probe tip, as well as poor quantitative accuracy due to signal instability. In static FAB mode, ion signals decay rapidly as the sample surface is sputtered, limiting analysis times to approximately 5–10 minutes per sample.^[17]^[45] These factors contribute to inconsistent peak intensities and challenges in reproducible quantification. By the early 2000s, FAB had largely fallen out of routine use, as more efficient alternatives emerged.^[46] FAB has been largely superseded by electrospray ionization (ESI) for liquid samples and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) for solid samples, particularly since the 1990s. ESI provides superior sensitivity down to the attomole (amol) level, enables direct online coupling with liquid chromatography without requiring matrices, and supports stable, long-duration analyses.^[47]^[48] In contrast, MALDI offers enhanced spatial resolution for tissue imaging and higher throughput for biomolecular arrays, with detection limits often significantly better than FAB.^[49] Today, FAB is rarely employed except in specialized applications, such as archival analysis or inorganic isotope ratio measurements for transition metal complexes, where its ability to ionize non-volatile salts remains advantageous. As of 2025, FAB continues to find use in niche areas, including the analysis of involatile inorganic salts and transition metal complexes.^[50] Nonetheless, FAB's legacy endures in pioneering soft ionization techniques that minimize fragmentation of large biomolecules, paving the way for modern mass spectrometry paradigms.^[26]

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