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Thermal decomposition

Thermal decomposition, also known as thermolysis, is a chemical reaction in which a single compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances upon the application of heat, serving as an endothermic process that absorbs energy to disrupt molecular bonds.^[1]^[2] This breakdown occurs at characteristic decomposition temperatures specific to each substance, often resulting in the release of gases or formation of new solids, liquids, or gases.^[3] Common examples of thermal decomposition illustrate its role in both laboratory and natural settings. For instance, heating mercury(II) oxide produces liquid mercury and oxygen gas, as represented by the equation $2\text{HgO} \rightarrow 2\text{Hg} + \text{O}_2.^[4] Similarly, calcium carbonate decomposes at high temperatures to yield calcium oxide and carbon dioxide: \text{CaCO}_3 \rightarrow \text{CaO} + \text{CO}_2.^[5] Another everyday example is the thermal decomposition of sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) during cooking, which releases carbon dioxide to help dough rise: $2\text{NaHCO}_3 \rightarrow \text{Na}_2\text{CO}_3 + \text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{CO}_2.^[6] These reactions highlight how thermal decomposition can be controlled by temperature and conditions to produce desired products.^[7] Thermal decomposition finds wide applications across industries and scientific fields due to its efficiency and versatility. In the construction sector, the decomposition of limestone to quicklime is essential for manufacturing cement and mortar.^[3] It is also utilized in metallurgy for extracting metals from ores^[8] and in environmental processes like biomass conversion for biofuel production.^[9] Additionally, in analytical chemistry, thermal decomposition aids gravimetric analysis by volatilizing components,^[10] while in pyrotechnics and propellants, it enables controlled gas release for effects or thrust.^[11] These uses underscore its importance in advancing materials science, energy production, and chemical processing.^[12]

Fundamentals

Definition and Mechanism

Thermal decomposition, also known as thermolysis, is a chemical reaction in which a single compound breaks down into two or more simpler substances when subjected to heat, typically without the involvement of other reactants. This process is fundamentally endothermic, as the supplied thermal energy provides the activation required to overcome bond dissociation energies, resulting in the cleavage of molecular bonds and the formation of products with lower molecular complexity.^[13]/07%3A_Chemical_Reactions_-_Energy_Rates_and_Equilibrium/7.02%3A_Heat_Changes_during_Chemical_Reactions) The general mechanism begins with the initiation phase, where high temperatures cause the homolytic or heterolytic cleavage of covalent bonds within the molecule, often generating reactive intermediates such as free radicals. These radicals can then propagate the decomposition through chain reactions, including hydrogen abstraction or beta-scission, or undergo rearrangement to yield stable products; in some cases, the process involves concerted molecular eliminations without radical intermediates. This contrasts with pyrolysis, which denotes thermal decomposition primarily of organic matter in an oxygen-free environment, frequently yielding volatile gases and char, whereas thermal decomposition encompasses a wider range of compounds and conditions. Additionally, while the majority of decompositions absorb heat, certain unstable materials exhibit exothermic behavior, where bond formation in products releases energy faster than input, potentially escalating to thermal runaway—a self-accelerating process that can culminate in explosions if heat dissipation fails.^[14]^[15]^[16] A representative equation for thermal decomposition is:

\ce{AB ->[heat] A + B} \quad (\Delta H > 0)

Here, AB denotes the reactant compound, A and B the decomposition products, and the positive enthalpy change (\Delta H > 0) confirms the endothermic nature, as energy is consumed in bond breaking. One historical milestone in recognizing this phenomenon occurred in 1774, when Joseph Priestley heated mercuric oxide, observing the liberation of a gas later identified as oxygen, marking an early documented instance of thermal decomposition yielding elemental products./07%3A_Chemical_Reactions_-_Energy_Rates_and_Equilibrium/7.02%3A_Heat_Changes_during_Chemical_Reactions)^[17]

Decomposition Temperature

The decomposition temperature of a substance undergoing thermal decomposition is defined as the lowest temperature at which the rate of decomposition becomes significant, typically measured as the onset temperature where observable mass loss or heat effects occur.^[18] This threshold is often determined by thermodynamic equilibrium considerations, where the Gibbs free energy change favors product formation, or by kinetic factors such as the activation energy required to overcome reaction barriers.^[19] A common practical metric is the 5% onset decomposition temperature (T_{d,5%}), representing the point at which 5% of the material has decomposed, serving as a conservative indicator for thermal stability limits.^[18] Several factors influence the decomposition temperature. Pressure affects gas-producing decompositions via Le Chatelier's principle, where higher pressure shifts the equilibrium toward reactants, thereby increasing the required temperature for significant decomposition.^[20] Particle size plays a role by altering surface area and heat transfer; smaller particles generally lower the decomposition temperature due to enhanced reactivity, while larger ones delay onset.^[21] The surrounding atmosphere also impacts the process: inert environments (e.g., nitrogen) promote pure thermal decomposition, whereas oxidative atmospheres (e.g., air) can lower the temperature by facilitating combustion-like reactions.^[22] Decomposition temperatures are primarily measured using thermal analysis techniques such as differential thermal analysis (DTA), which detects endothermic or exothermic heat flows, and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), which monitors mass loss as a function of temperature.^[19] These methods are conducted under controlled heating rates, often revealing sigmoidal mass loss curves indicative of decomposition progress. The International Confederation for Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry (ICTAC) recommends integrating these measurements with thermokinetic modeling to derive reliable activation energies and predict behavior under varying conditions, emphasizing model-free isoconversional methods for complex processes.^[19] For example, the thermal decomposition of water vapor into hydrogen (H_2), oxygen (O_2), and hydroxyl radicals (OH) begins at temperatures exceeding 2000 °C, driven by high-energy dissociation in the gas phase.^[20] Determining precise decomposition temperatures presents challenges, including non-sharp transitions due to kinetic barriers that cause gradual rather than abrupt onset, influenced by heating rates and thermal lag effects.^[23] Additionally, historical claims of extremely high decomposition temperatures for stable compounds, such as carbon monoxide, require verification against modern computational and experimental data to account for kinetic limitations and measurement artifacts.^[19]

Types and Examples

Inorganic Compounds

Thermal decomposition of inorganic compounds typically involves the breakdown of salts or oxides into simpler substances, often releasing gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, or oxygen, upon heating. These reactions are endothermic and occur at specific temperatures depending on the compound's stability and structure. Representative examples include carbonates, nitrates, azides, oxides, sulfates, and ammonium salts, where the products are metal oxides or elements alongside gaseous byproducts. Carbonates of metals, particularly alkaline earth metals, undergo thermal decomposition to yield metal oxides and carbon dioxide. The general reaction for many metal carbonates is represented as \ce{MCO3 -> MO + CO2}, where M is a metal cation.^[24] For calcium carbonate, a common example, the decomposition proceeds as \ce{CaCO3(s) -> CaO(s) + CO2(g)} at approximately 825°C, producing quicklime used in various processes.^[25] Nitrates and related nitrogen-containing compounds decompose to form metal oxides, nitrogen dioxide, oxygen, or other nitrogen gases. Lead(II) nitrate exemplifies this with the reaction \ce{2Pb(NO3)2(s) -> 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)} upon heating, releasing brown fumes of NO₂.^[26] Ammonium nitrate decomposes as \ce{NH4NO3(s) -> N2O(g) + 2H2O(g)} around 200–260°C, yielding nitrous oxide and water vapor, but can lead to explosive decomposition if conditions escalate beyond controlled heating.^[27] Azides, such as sodium azide, break down to sodium metal and nitrogen gas via \ce{2NaN3(s) -> 2Na(s) + 3N2(g)} (or equivalently \ce{NaN3 -> Na + 1.5N2} per mole) in the range of 240–365°C.^[28] Certain metal oxides decompose reversibly upon heating, illustrating equilibrium shifts with temperature. Mercury(II) oxide decomposes according to \ce{2HgO(s) -> 2Hg(l) + O2(g)} above 500°C, a reaction famously used by Joseph Priestley in 1774 to isolate oxygen; the process is reversible, with oxygen recombining with mercury at lower temperatures to reform the oxide.^[29]^[30] Sulfates exhibit varying thermal stabilities based on the metal. Anhydrous copper(II) sulfate decomposes between 560–650°C to copper(II) oxide and sulfur trioxide: \ce{CuSO4(s) -> CuO(s) + SO3(g)}.^[31] In contrast, potassium sulfate remains stable up to its melting point of approximately 1,069°C without significant decomposition.^[32] Ammonium compounds, like ammonium carbonate, decompose at relatively low temperatures, releasing ammonia, carbon dioxide, and water. The reaction is \ce{(NH4)2CO3(s) -> 2NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)}, occurring around 60–80°C due to the instability of the ammonium ion.^[33]

Organic and Polymeric Materials

Thermal decomposition of organic compounds typically involves complex, multi-step processes that break down molecular structures into smaller fragments, often through free radical mechanisms. In organic materials, this degradation frequently proceeds via beta-scission, where a radical site on the polymer chain leads to cleavage at the beta carbon position, producing olefinic and radical fragments, or random chain scission, which randomly breaks C-C bonds along the backbone, generating a variety of volatile hydrocarbons, tars, and carbonaceous residues like coke.^[34] These pathways dominate in non-polar organics and polymers, contrasting with the more predictable gas evolution in inorganics, and result in diverse products depending on temperature, atmosphere, and material structure.^[35] Amino acids and other biomolecules exhibit thermal decomposition starting around 160–240 °C, where they undergo endothermic breakdown into volatile gases and non-volatile residues. For instance, glycine decomposes primarily to ammonia (NH₃), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and water (H₂O), with initial gas evolution observed near 260 °C and maximum release rates at approximately 282 °C.^[36] This process is relevant in forensic science, as elevated temperatures degrade amino acid residues in latent fingerprints, compromising traditional development methods above 100 °C.^[37] In carbohydrates like sugars, thermal decomposition initiates above 160 °C, leading to caramelization where sucrose breaks down into glucose and fructose, followed by further fragmentation into dehydrated products, CO₂, and H₂O.^[38] At 185 °C in the presence of air, primary reactions yield a mixture of caramel-like oligomers and smaller volatiles, with the process accelerating as temperatures rise, emphasizing the role of dehydration and polymerization in residue formation.^[39] Polymeric materials undergo thermal cracking through random chain scission and beta-scission, producing hydrocarbons, char, and other fragments in the 250–500 °C range. Polyethylene degrades via free radical initiation, yielding a distribution of alkanes, alkenes, and wax-like volatiles, with char formation increasing at higher temperatures due to cross-linking and cyclization.^[35] Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), in contrast, decomposes in two stages: initial dehydrochlorination between 200–360 °C releases HCl gas, followed by cyclization to benzene derivatives and polyene structures up to 500 °C.^[40] Recent applications extend these mechanisms to polymer recycling through pyrolysis of waste plastics in inert atmospheres at 400–600 °C, where random scission converts polyethylene and similar polymers into recoverable hydrocarbons and minimal char, enabling chemical recovery without oxidation.^[41] This controlled decomposition prioritizes liquid fuel yields, with temperatures around 450–550 °C optimizing olefin production from mixed thermoplastics.^[42]

Influencing Factors

Thermodynamic and Kinetic Aspects

Thermal decomposition reactions are governed by thermodynamic principles that dictate their spontaneity and kinetic factors that control their rates, providing a framework for predicting and modeling these processes under varying conditions. The spontaneity of thermal decomposition is determined by the Gibbs free energy change, expressed as \Delta G = \Delta H - T \Delta S, where a negative \Delta G signifies a thermodynamically favorable process at temperature T.^[43] Most thermal decompositions are endothermic, characterized by a positive enthalpy change \Delta H, but the generation of gaseous products typically results in a positive entropy change \Delta S, which drives \Delta G toward negativity at elevated temperatures, favoring decomposition.^[44] This entropy contribution is particularly pronounced in reactions producing multiple gas molecules, shifting the equilibrium toward products as temperature increases.^[45] From a kinetic perspective, the rate of thermal decomposition is described by the Arrhenius equation, k = A e^{-E_a / RT}, where k is the rate constant, A is the pre-exponential factor, E_a is the activation energy, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature.^[46] The activation energy E_a represents the energy barrier to initiation and is commonly derived from thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) data by analyzing mass loss as a function of temperature under controlled heating rates.^[47] Higher E_a values indicate slower decomposition rates at a given temperature, emphasizing the role of kinetics in practical observations. For modeling complex, multi-step decomposition mechanisms, isoconversional methods—such as the Friedman differential approach and Vyazovkin integral method—allow evaluation of activation energy variation with conversion degree without assuming a specific reaction model, while master plots facilitate identification of the underlying kinetic model by comparing experimental data to theoretical curves. These techniques are recommended by the ICTAC Kinetics Committee for robust analysis of thermal decomposition kinetics, particularly for materials exhibiting overlapping or competing reactions, as outlined in their 2023 guidelines. In exothermic decomposition scenarios, such as that of ammonium nitrate, thermal runaway can occur when the internal heat generation rate exceeds the heat dissipation rate, expressed as dT/dt > heat loss rate, leading to accelerating temperature rise and rapid reaction propagation.^[48] This phenomenon arises from autocatalytic effects where decomposition products enhance the reaction, potentially resulting in explosive behavior if not controlled.^[49] A key distinction exists between thermodynamic predictions and kinetic realities: while thermodynamics identifies the temperature at which \Delta G = 0 for equilibrium, kinetic limitations from high E_a often confine observable decomposition to temperatures above this threshold, preventing equilibrium attainment under typical experimental conditions.^[43]

Ease of Decomposition by Compound Type

The ease of thermal decomposition in metal compounds correlates inversely with the metal's position in the reactivity series, where compounds of low-reactivity metals such as copper and silver exhibit lower stability and decompose at comparatively modest temperatures, while those of high-reactivity metals like sodium and potassium remain stable up to significantly higher temperatures. For instance, copper(II) sulfate decomposes around 590°C, whereas sodium sulfate requires temperatures exceeding 1,000°C for decomposition.^[50]^[51] This trend arises because less reactive metals form weaker bonds with anions, facilitating easier breakdown upon heating, in contrast to the robust ionic lattices of compounds from more reactive metals.^[52] Anion type plays a pivotal role in decomposition propensity, with nitrates generally decomposing more readily than sulfates owing to the relatively weaker N-O bonds compared to the stronger S-O bonds in sulfates. Transition and alkaline earth metal nitrates often begin decomposing between 400–600°C, yielding oxides, nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen, while sulfates of the same metals resist decomposition until well above 800°C due to the higher stability of the sulfate ion. Similarly, metal oxalates decompose at lower temperatures than their carbonate counterparts, typically converting to carbonates with CO and CO₂ evolution around 400–500°C, after which the resulting carbonates require additional heating for further breakdown.^[53]^[54] Cation identity further modulates stability, with transition metals generally lowering the decomposition temperature relative to alkali metals for the same anion, as seen in carbonates where copper carbonate decomposes at approximately 290°C compared to sodium carbonate, which remains intact beyond 800°C. This difference stems from the higher charge density and polarizing power of transition metal cations (often +2), which distort anions more effectively, reducing overall lattice stability, whereas the larger, monovalent alkali metal cations form more ionic and enduring structures.^[55] A quantitative trend observes that decomposition temperatures tend to increase with higher lattice energy of the compound, reflecting stronger ionic interactions that resist thermal breakdown, though this is modulated by anion polarizability; conversely, trends with metal electronegativity show that lower electronegativity (more electropositive metals) correlates with higher decomposition temperatures in carbonates, as weaker cation-anion bonding requires more energy to disrupt.^[56]^[55] An notable exception occurs with ammonium salts, where decomposition proceeds largely independently of the metal cation through an initial proton transfer mechanism from the ammonium ion to the anion, leading to ammonia release and subsequent anion breakdown, often initiating below 200–300°C regardless of the accompanying metal.^[57]

Applications and Implications

Industrial Processes

Thermal decomposition plays a central role in several large-scale industrial processes, where controlled heating drives the breakdown of materials to produce essential commodities like construction materials, fuels, and metals. These processes leverage high temperatures to achieve efficient decomposition, often in kilns or reactors, enabling the extraction of valuable products while managing byproducts such as gases. Key applications include the production of lime and cement, hydrogen generation, ore processing, polymer recycling, and calcination for advanced materials. In lime and cement production, thermal decomposition of limestone (CaCO₃) occurs in rotary kilns or calciners, where the material is heated to 900–1,000 °C, yielding calcium oxide (CaO, or quicklime) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) via the endothermic reaction CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂.^[58] This quicklime serves as a primary ingredient in cement manufacturing, where it reacts with clay-derived components at higher temperatures (up to 1,450 °C) to form clinker, the foundational material for Portland cement used globally in construction.^[58] The process accounts for a significant portion of industrial CO₂ emissions but remains indispensable due to its scalability and the durability of the resulting products.^[59] Hydrogen generation via thermochemical water splitting utilizes thermal decomposition in cycles like the sulfur-iodine (S-I) process, which operates at temperatures exceeding 800 °C to decompose sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄ → SO₂ + H₂O + ½O₂) and hydrogen iodide (2HI → H₂ + I₂), ultimately producing hydrogen from water without net consumption of chemicals.^[60] Developed for integration with high-temperature nuclear or solar heat sources, the S-I cycle achieves theoretical efficiencies up to 50% and has been demonstrated in pilot facilities producing approximately 50 liters of H₂ per hour.^[61] Metal oxide reductions, such as the two-step cycle involving cerium oxide (CeO₂ → CeO_{2-x} + ½x O₂ at >1,500 °C, followed by reoxidation with water), offer an alternative for clean hydrogen production in concentrated solar plants.^[60] Ore processing employs roasting, a thermal decomposition technique for sulfide minerals, to convert them into oxides suitable for subsequent metal extraction; for instance, zinc sulfide (ZnS) is roasted at 900–1,000 °C in air to produce zinc oxide (ZnO) and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) via 2ZnS + 3O₂ → 2ZnO + 2SO₂.^[62] This exothermic process removes sulfur as a gas, preventing issues in smelting, and is widely applied in the extraction of base metals like zinc, copper, and lead from refractory ores.^[63] Fluidized-bed roasters enhance efficiency by ensuring uniform heating and gas-solid contact, supporting annual production of millions of tons of metals.^[64] Polymer recycling through pyrolysis addresses plastic waste by thermally decomposing polymers at around 500 °C in an oxygen-free environment, breaking long chains into recoverable fuels, gases, and monomers such as olefins from polyethylene or styrene from polystyrene.^[65] This process yields up to 80% liquid oils usable as diesel substitutes and has gained momentum post-2020 with stricter global regulations on plastic disposal, enabling circular economy approaches for mixed waste streams.^[66] Commercial plants now process thousands of tons annually, recovering valuable chemicals while reducing landfill burdens.^[65] Calcination, a form of thermal decomposition at high temperatures (typically 500–1,200 °C), is essential for producing ceramics and catalysts by driving off volatiles and inducing phase changes in precursors. In ceramics manufacturing, it decomposes carbonates or hydrates in clays to form stable oxides, enhancing material strength for applications like tiles and refractories.^[67] For catalysts, calcination activates supports like alumina by decomposing metal salts into active oxides, with temperatures tailored (e.g., 500–800 °C) to optimize surface area and dispersion, as seen in petroleum refining and emission control systems.^[68] This versatile process ensures product purity and performance in high-volume industrial settings.^[67]

Safety, Environmental, and Forensic Uses

Thermal decomposition poses significant safety hazards, particularly in the handling of explosives like ANFO (ammonium nitrate-fuel oil), where ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃) can undergo thermal runaway, leading to rapid exothermic decomposition and potential detonation if heated uncontrollably.^[69]^[70] This process is exacerbated under confinement or in the presence of combustibles, as seen in industrial accidents where elevated temperatures trigger self-accelerating reactions.^[71] Additionally, controlled heating with stirring and monitoring prevents localized hotspots that could initiate runaway conditions.^[72] Environmentally, thermal decomposition of carbonates, such as calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) in industrial calcination, releases substantial CO₂, contributing to atmospheric greenhouse gas accumulation and exacerbating climate change.^[73] Similarly, the decomposition of sulfates like gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) during high-temperature processing can emit SO₂ or SO₃ precursors, which oxidize in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acid aerosols, a key factor in acid rain formation and ecosystem acidification.^[74] In waste management, thermal decomposition via incineration breaks down persistent pollutants, including emerging contaminants like per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), into less harmful byproducts, though incomplete combustion may still release volatile organics requiring emission controls.^[14]^[75] Forensic applications of thermal decomposition include the analysis of latent fingerprint degradation on heated surfaces, where eccrine residues such as lactic acid begin to break down at around 50°C, while amino acids remain stable up to 100°C, complicating recovery techniques like cyanoacrylate fuming.^[76]^[77] This temperature-dependent volatility affects the persistence of ridge details, with higher exposures leading to polymerization or evaporation that hinders visualization.^[78] In the 2020s, studies have advanced modeling of thermal decomposition in wildfires, simulating pollutant release from biomass pyrolysis to predict PM₂.₅ and volatile organic compound plumes, as observed in the 2020 U.S. wildfire season where smoke degradation impacted air quality over vast regions.^[79]^[80] Bioforensic techniques in arson investigations leverage thermal decomposition patterns in residues, using vibrational spectroscopy to distinguish accelerant pyrolysis products from background organics, aiding in origin determination despite microbial interference.^[81]^[82] Mitigation strategies often involve conducting decompositions in inert atmospheres, such as nitrogen or argon, to suppress oxidation and prevent secondary exothermic reactions that amplify hazards or alter product yields.^[83]^[84] This approach is particularly effective for sensitive materials, ensuring controlled primary decomposition without interference from atmospheric oxygen.^[85]

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At 479 °C, the oxalate transforms to calcium carbonate with loss of carbon dioxide. Above 684 °C, calcium oxide is formed.Missing: stability | Show results with:stability
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Carbonates thermal decomposition kinetics and their implications in ...
The thermal stability of simple carbonates is explained by the electronegativity of the cations associated with the carbonate anion. Our study provides further ...
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Correlation between the ionic potential and thermal stability of metal ...
In this work, we use density functional theory (DFT) [29] to systematically investigate the relation between the experimental decomposition temperatures of M ( ...
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Thermal Decompsition of Ammonium Salts of Transition Metal ...
The decomposition of the first step started with proton transfer mechanism and the ratio of NH3 to H2O was not 2 : 1 at the beginning. The second step ...
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[PDF] FACT SHEET THE STORY OF CEMENT MANUFACTURE
During this process, known as calcination, the calcium carbonate (limestone) is transformed into calcium oxide (lime), which then reacts with the other ...
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ZeroCAL: Eliminating Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Limestone's ...
However, the thermochemical decomposition of limestone (∼800 °C, 1 bar) to produce lime (CaO) results in substantial carbon dioxide (CO2(g)) emissions and ...
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Hydrogen production using thermochemical water-splitting Iodine ...
A thermochemical water-splitting iodine–sulfur process offers the potential for mass-producing hydrogen at high-efficiency levels, and it uses high-temperature ...
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[PDF] Iodine Thermochemical Cycle for Hydrogen Production - OSTI.GOV
In the S-I process, 1) H2SO4 is catalytically decomposed at high temperature to produce SO2, O2 and H2O. 2) The SO2 is reacted with. H2O and I2 to produce HI ...
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Feb 4, 2021 · In this process, the dead roasting of sulfide is followed by the reduction of oxide to metallic copper by a reducing agent such as hydrogen.
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Jul 1, 2019 · In this part we highlight the roles of phase rule, free energy and activity in roasting and smelting of sulfides.Roasting Of Sulfide Minerals · Smelting Of Sulfide Minerals · Converting Of Copper Matte
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Roasting of Sulfide Minerals - ResearchGate
Roasting of sulfides, in general, is exothermic and hence the temperature of the ore lump remains high enough for the desired chemical reactions to occur ...
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[PDF] Pyrolysis of Plastics to Fuels and Chemicals - OSTI.GOV
When targeting diesel-like products, the optimal operating range for most common plastics is 390–425 °C according to the review by Sheirs et al. [3]. The high ...
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Pyrolysis of waste plastics for alternative fuel: a review of key factors
Dec 10, 2024 · Pyrolysis heats plastics at 455-700°C without oxygen, breaking down molecules into liquid and gaseous products, yielding high-calorific fuel.
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What is Calcination? - FEECO International
Calcination is the process of heating a solid material in order to cause chemical separation of its components. The diversity of chemical separation lends ...Missing: ceramics | Show results with:ceramics
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[PDF] Thermal Treatment of Catalysts
❖ thermal decomposition of salts (nitrates, ammonium salts). ❖ calcination ... calcination temperature is usually slightly higher than that of the.
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Thermal hazard assessment of AN and AN-based explosives
Ammonium nitrate thermal decomposition with additives Runaway reactions present a potentially serious threat to the chemical process industry and the community ...
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[PDF] Thermal Runaway in Large ANFO Charges - DTIC
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[PDF] Ammonium nitrate — decomposition, fire and explosive behaviour
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A green stabilizer for Nitrate ester-based propellants: An overview
These compounds trap decomposition products, delaying further degradation and improving thermal stability, making propellants more resistant to decomposition at ...
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Stabilizer selection and formulation strategies for enhanced stability ...
Stabilizers play a crucial role in preventing undesirable decomposition and degradation reactions of propellants, thus ensuring their long-term performance ...
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Fact Sheet: Heating Reactions | PennEHRS - UPenn EHRS
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Thermal decomposition of magnesium carbonate in methane ...
Abstract. Excess CO2 emissions from the conventional decomposition of carbonate process industry, have a lasting and detrimental effect on the global climate.
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The Geological Availability and Emissions of Sulfur and SO2 from ...
The emission of sulfur and SO2 may affect the manufactured material, ecological system and the major cause of acid rain ((Eq. 5) explored how the sulfur ...<|separator|>
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Thermal Decomposition Pathways of Emerging Contaminants in ...
Jan 19, 2025 · This article explores the thermal decomposition pathways of emerging contaminants during waste incineration, examining the chemical processes ...
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Lipid Degradation - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Lactic acid will decompose at 50°C, while amino acids remain relatively stable up to temperatures of 100–150°C. The degradation of amino acids ... fingerprints ...
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[PDF] Latent Print Detection by MacroRaman Imaging
In contrast, the lactic acid thermal degradation process started between 50 and 100°C along with pyruvic acid generation and subsequent degradation. III.
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and Thermal-Degradation Studies of Select Eccrine Fingerprint ...
Aug 6, 2025 · ... thermal-degradation was initiated at 100 degrees C for the amino acids and 100 degrees C for urea. Lactic acid, the major polymerization ...
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Deterioration of air quality associated with the 2020 US wildfires
Jun 20, 2022 · These various indicators provide a better understanding of the extent of environmental and atmospheric degradation associated with these forest ...
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Chemical Transformations of Infiltrated Wildfire Smoke on Indoor ...
Apr 17, 2025 · This suggests that levoglucosan partially decomposed in the gas phase due to thermal degradation. Another important biomass burning tracer ...
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Recent advancements and moving trends in chemical analysis of ...
This review describes recent advances and current trends in fire debris analysis from 2014 to 2021. Onsite analytical techniques used for fire scene ...Missing: bioforensic thermal decomposition
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Forensic investigation of arson residue by infrared and Raman ...
Apr 11, 2020 · This article reviews studies based on an analysis of fire debris and accelerants by vibrational spectroscopic techniques and considers the limitations and ...Missing: bioforensic | Show results with:bioforensic
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Thermal decomposition kinetics of guarana seed residue through ...
This work aims to analyze the thermal decomposition kinetics of guarana seed residue applying inert and oxidizing atmospheres.Missing: mitigation prevent
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Insights into secondary reactions occurring during atmospheric ...
May 14, 2016 · ... thermal decomposition to be distinguished from those produced by secondary reactions. We discuss the reactions responsible for the observed ...
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(PDF) Catalytic thermal decomposition of polyethylene by pyrolysis ...
Aug 6, 2025 · An experimental study of the thermal decomposition of polyethylene in an inert atmosphere has been carried out in the temperature range 300-800°C