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First Barbary War

The First Barbary War (1801–1805), also known as the Tripolitan War, was a naval and amphibious conflict between the United States and the Regency of Tripoli, a Barbary state in North Africa, sparked by Tripoli's declaration of war after the U.S. refused to meet increased tribute demands intended to protect American merchant vessels from state-sanctioned piracy. In response to Pasha Yusuf Karamanli's actions, which included seizing U.S. ships and crew, President Thomas Jefferson dispatched a squadron under Commodore Richard Dale to enforce a blockade and deter further attacks, marking the first deployment of U.S. naval forces overseas as an independent power. Key American achievements included Lieutenant Andrew Sterrett's victory aboard USS Enterprise against a Tripolitan corsair in August 1801, Lieutenant Stephen Decatur's raid in February 1804 to destroy the captured frigate USS Philadelphia and prevent its use against the U.S., and a combined mercenary-U.S. Marine force under William Eaton capturing the port of Derna in April 1805, advancing overland from Egypt. The war ended with a treaty in June 1805, negotiated after the Derna victory pressured Tripoli, whereby the U.S. secured the release of captives without further tribute payments, though the agreement's long-term effectiveness was limited as piracy resumed under other Barbary rulers until the Second Barbary War. This conflict underscored the necessity of a capable U.S. Navy for commerce protection and national sovereignty, contributing to the phrase "to the shores of Tripoli" in the Marines' Hymn and establishing precedents for American military projection against extortionate powers.

Antecedents to Conflict

Barbary States and State-Sponsored Piracy

The —, , , and —were North African polities along the Mediterranean coast that systematically sponsored as a core economic and military practice from the 16th to early 19th centuries. These regencies, with , , and holding loose allegiance to the while exercising independence, operated fleets of state-commissioned privateers that preyed on shipping of Christian nations, capturing vessels, cargo, and crews for sale or . The Regency of , under Pasha 's rule from to 1832, exemplified this system, maintaining a fleet that conducted raids across the Mediterranean and coordinated informally with and through shared ties and mutual interests in extortion. Karamanli's regime derived substantial revenue from prize shares, slave sales, and tribute payments extracted from European powers to avert attacks, functioning as an organized racket enforced by naval power. Piracy's scale was vast, with enslaving an estimated 1 to 1.25 million between the 16th and alone, including thousands in the and early 19th centuries held in coastal strongholds like , where over 20,000 were reportedly imprisoned at peak periods. faced forced labor, pressures, or death, with ransoms and demands accumulating to equivalents of millions in modern dollars; for instance, annual protections sought by victims' nations often exceeded hundreds of thousands of dollars per state, funding the corsair operations and rulers' courts. This predation persisted due to the states' fortified harbors, fast-sailing xebecs and galleys adapted for pursuit, and the relative weakness of fragmented naval responses until the late . Ideologically, Barbary piracy was framed as religious warfare, rooted in interpretations of Islamic doctrine mandating against non-Muslims. In , Tripoli's envoy to , Sidi Haji Abdrahaman, articulated this to American diplomats and , stating that the Koran authorized Muslims to plunder and enslave "sinners" who rejected the Prophet, promising paradise to those slain in such conflicts. This justification underpinned the states' refusal of neutrality with powers, viewing commerce raids as a divine right and duty rather than mere , which sustained the systemic enslavement and despite intermittent European bombardments.

U.S. Independence and Loss of Protections

Upon achieving independence in 1783 via the , the lost the protective umbrella of the , which had previously shielded American colonial vessels—sailing under the British flag—from Barbary corsair attacks through convoy escorts and retaliatory demonstrations of force. This vulnerability manifested immediately, as Barbary states, unbound by European tribute arrangements that deterred aggression against major naval powers, began targeting U.S. merchant shipping. The first capture occurred on October 11, 1784, when Moroccan corsairs seized the American brig Betsey off , detaining its crew for eventual ransom negotiations. Algiers escalated the threat in 1785 by capturing two U.S. vessels, the schooner Maria on July 25 and the brig Dauphin shortly thereafter, enslaving their crews of approximately 21 men under harsh conditions in Algiers' prisons and galleys. By the early 1790s, cumulative seizures had resulted in over 100 American captives held across Barbary ports, with crews subjected to forced labor, torture, and conversion pressures while families petitioned Congress for relief. The economic ramifications compounded these human costs, as Mediterranean commerce was essential for exporting U.S. staples like , , and —constituting roughly one-sixth of such shipments by 1790—to European and markets amid post-war recovery needs. Seizures not only destroyed cargoes valued in thousands of dollars per vessel but also inflated premiums to prohibitive levels, effectively pricing many American traders out of the region and stifling export revenues critical to the young republic's fiscal stability. Lacking a standing —the Continental Navy having been disbanded in 1785 amid fiscal constraints and ideological opposition to permanent military establishments under the —the federal government initially prioritized ad hoc diplomatic missions over naval armament. This approach reflected both the Confederation's limited taxing authority and a broader aversion to concentrated military power, delaying organized defense until the 1794 Naval Act authorized six frigates, though construction proceeded slowly due to ongoing debates over expense and necessity.

Pre-War Diplomacy, Tribute Payments, and Escalation

Following American independence, the pursued diplomatic treaties to safeguard its Mediterranean commerce from Barbary piracy. The Treaty of Peace and Friendship with , signed on June 23, 1786, established relations without requiring annual , though subsequent informal payments occurred as gestures of goodwill. In contrast, after Algerian corsairs captured American ships and crews in the early , the U.S. negotiated a 1795 treaty with that stipulated an initial payment of $642,500 for ransoms and peace, plus ongoing annual in naval stores and goods valued at approximately $20,000 to $25,000. The 1796 Treaty of Peace and Friendship with , ratified on June 10, 1797, explicitly renounced "any periodical or farther payment" in Article 11, yet involved upfront delivery of a 60-gun or equivalent value, plus and stores exceeding $25,000, which Barbary leaders often recast as precedents for recurring demands. These arrangements echoed long-standing European practices, where tribute payments—totaling millions over centuries—failed to curb Barbary aggression and instead perpetuated it by signaling weakness and inviting higher extortions, as no unified naval response materialized despite occasional expeditions. , serving as U.S. minister to France in the 1780s, observed this dynamic firsthand and rejected as a sustainable , arguing in correspondence with that such payments merely "encouraged" further depredations, drawing on Europe's empirical record of escalating costs without security. By 1790, Jefferson advocated instead for a multilateral naval coalition or independent American force to suppress decisively, estimating war's one-time expense at less than perpetual 's cumulative burden. Under , who seized power in in 1795, these incentives manifested in overt escalation. In late 1800, shortly before 's inauguration, Karamanli issued an ultimatum demanding a lump-sum increase to $225,000—framed as back —plus $25,000 annually, far exceeding prior understandings. The incoming Jefferson administration refused, prompting Karamanli on May 14, 1801, to order the chopping down of the U.S. flagpole at the American consulate in Tripoli harbor, a traditional declaration of hostilities that underscored 's role in breeding impunity rather than deterrence. This act terminated the fragile diplomatic equilibrium, revealing the extortionate logic whereby initial concessions invited unrelenting hikes, as Karamanli exploited perceived American vulnerability post-independence from protection.

Outbreak of War

Tripoli's Demands and Formal Declaration

In December 1800, , of , demanded through U.S. Consul William Eaton that the increase its annual tribute payment from $56,500 to $225,000, under threat of war if the demand went unmet. Karamanli justified the escalation by citing perceived U.S. delays in payments and the need to align 's share with those extracted from other European powers, while invoking Koranic authority to wage war against non-Muslims as a religious obligation to plunder infidel shipping. The rejected the ultimatum, prompting Tripoli to declare war on May 14, 1801, via the symbolic act of chopping down the at the American consulate in Harbor. This formal rupture immediately unleashed Tripolitan corsairs to seize American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean, including the brig Franklin and several others, with crews imprisoned for as was customary in Barbary . Tripoli's rulers calculated that the young , having lost naval protection after and possessing only a nascent fleet, would prove as pliable as smaller European states like and , which routinely paid tribute to avoid predation; Karamanli aimed to compel submission through and captures rather than from strength.

Jefferson's Policy Shift to Force

Upon assuming the presidency on March 4, 1801, Thomas Jefferson abandoned the prior policy of acquiescing to escalating tribute demands from the Barbary states, opting instead for naval deterrence to safeguard American commerce. This realist approach stemmed from his assessment that concessions to predators motivated by religious imperatives—rather than mere opportunism—inevitably spurred greater extortion, as tribute merely signaled weakness rather than resolving underlying hostilities. Jefferson's conviction was rooted in a 1786 encounter in London, where he and John Adams questioned Tripoli's envoy, Sidi Haji Abdrahaman, who asserted that the corsairs' right to seize ships and enslave Christians derived from the Koran, entitling Muslims to plunder all non-adherents as a religious duty, with martyrs assured paradise. Such admissions underscored to Jefferson the futility of negotiation with entities viewing aggression as divinely sanctioned, rendering sustained appeasement not only dishonorable but strategically counterproductive. Tripoli's formal on May 14, 1801—prompted by 's refusal to pay an increased annual tribute of $225,000 plus a $25,000 personal gift to —precipitated immediate executive action. On May 15, convened his to authorize dispatch of a under Richard Dale, consisting of three frigates (, , ) and the schooner , with explicit instructions to escort merchant vessels, deliver consular dispatches, and—should Tripoli initiate attacks—impose a on its ports while sinking, burning, or destroying hostile vessels. These orders, issued without prior congressional consultation or , were framed as a proportionate defensive measure against unprovoked aggression, invoking the 's constitutional authority to repel sudden attacks on commerce without awaiting legislative deliberation, which could delay response amid seasonal sailing windows. later informed on December 8, 1801, that the 's deployment had averted immediate threats, capturing a Tripolitan via without U.S. casualties, validating the preemptive posture. Domestically, the policy elicited debate reflecting partisan divides: Federalists, who had championed naval expansion under Adams, endorsed the forceful stance as essential to national honor and trade security, while some Republicans, prioritizing fiscal restraint, initially questioned the expense of maintaining a standing navy beyond coastal defense. Yet consensus coalesced around repudiating tribute dependency, with Republicans viewing the Barbary challenge as a test of republican virtue against monarchical precedents of , ultimately securing congressional on February 6, 1802, for expanded operations including seizures of vessels and prizes. This pivot not only curtailed immediate depredations but affirmed force as a credible alternative to perpetual , aligning with earlier advocacy for a league of Mediterranean powers to jointly suppress , though unilateral action proved necessary absent allied commitment.

Military Operations

Naval Blockade and Squadron Deployments

In June 1801, President Thomas Jefferson dispatched Commodore Richard Dale with an initial squadron consisting of the frigates USS President, USS Philadelphia, and USS Essex, along with the schooner USS Enterprise, to enforce a blockade of Tripoli harbor and protect American shipping in the Mediterranean. The squadron arrived at Gibraltar on July 1, 1801, and proceeded to Tripoli by late July, where Dale positioned vessels to intercept corsairs, though restrictive rules of engagement—limiting actions to defensive responses after being fired upon—severely hampered offensive operations. Underfunding and the absence of shallow-draft vessels for harbor pursuits further rendered the blockade intermittent and largely ineffectual, with only sporadic captures, including Enterprise's victory over a Tripolitan ketch on August 1, 1801. Dale's command returned to the United States in September 1802 without decisively impacting Tripoli's commerce. A subsequent under Richard V. in proved equally unproductive due to similar constraints and poor leadership, prompting to authorize a more robust force under Edward in 1803, comprising nine vessels including the frigate USS as , reinforced schooners, and bomb ketches for shore bombardment capability. arrived off in early August 1803 and tightened the , maintaining a continuous presence despite seasonal gales that forced temporary withdrawals. Samuel relieved in mid-1804 due to the latter's health issues, assuming command of an expanded of eleven ships that continued the isolation strategy into 1805, emphasizing sustained pressure over decisive assault. These deployments adapted to resource limitations by incorporating captured prizes and local provisioning, though coordination remained decentralized under division into cruising groups. The blockade significantly disrupted Tripoli's trade in , grains, and livestock, capturing or destroying approximately a dozen corsair vessels and merchant ships by late 1804, which strained Karamanli's finances amid the ongoing that diverted European naval attention elsewhere. U.S. forces faced acute challenges, including outbreaks of and that reduced crews by up to 20% in Sicilian ports like Syracuse—secured through cooperation for basing—and chronic supply shortages requiring transatlantic convoys every six months. Limited collaboration with Sweden's squadron, engaged in its own war against since 1800, provided intelligence sharing but no joint operations, while harbor access at and Syracuse proved essential for repairs and resupply, mitigating isolation in the theater. These logistical hurdles underscored the nascent U.S. Navy's reliance on adaptive tactics and allied facilities to sustain the economic strangulation of .

Principal Engagements at Sea

The initial significant naval clash of the war took place on August 1, 1801, west of , where the U.S. Enterprise, under Lieutenant Andrew Sterrett, engaged the 14-gun Tripolitan polacre commanded by Rais Mahomet Rous with a crew of 80. Over three hours, Enterprise maneuvered for superior firing positions, raking the enemy vessel multiple times; the Tripoli struck her colors three times but resumed fighting until subdued, suffering 20 killed and 30 wounded while Enterprise incurred no casualties or serious damage. This victory, the first for U.S. forces, demonstrated effective close-quarters tactics and superior gunnery against a larger adversary. A pivotal event unfolded on October 31, 1803, when the USS Philadelphia, commanded by Captain William Bainbridge, ran aground during a scouting mission off harbor and was captured by Tripolitan gunboats, yielding a powerful 44-gun vessel and over 300 prisoners to the enemy. To deny its use, Lieutenant , with 60 volunteers aboard the disguised Intrepid, infiltrated the heavily guarded harbor under cover of night on February 16, 1804; his men boarded the Philadelphia, killed or dispersed her 20-man prize crew, set fires to her timbers and stores, and withdrew amid cannon fire from shore batteries and corsairs, sustaining only one slight wound. The raid's success, achieved through audacious and rapid execution, prevented Tripoli from commissioning the frigate against American shipping and elevated U.S. naval prestige. These engagements exemplified American naval prowess in , with U.S. forces consistently achieving decisive results—zero fatalities in both actions versus approximately 40 enemy dead—via disciplined small-unit operations that compensated for limited numbers against Tripolitan advantages in vessels and harbor defenses. Such outcomes empirically affirmed the efficacy of Jefferson's small-squadron strategy, emphasizing offensive initiative over passive convoy protection.

Land Campaign and Capture of Derna

In early 1805, William Eaton, the U.S. naval agent to the Barbary states, organized an overland expedition to destabilize Karamanli's regime in by supporting his exiled brother, Hamet Karamanli, in an attempt to seize control. Eaton assembled a comprising approximately 500 Arab and mercenaries, a company of Greek Christians, and a small detachment of about 10 U.S. under Presley N. O'Bannon, totaling around 400-500 men. The expedition departed from near Alexandria, Egypt, on March 6, 1805, embarking on a grueling 500-mile march across the toward the port city of Derna, enduring harsh conditions including water shortages and internal disputes that tested the coalition's cohesion. After arriving on April 25, the force coordinated with U.S. naval vessels for an amphibious assault on Derna on April 27, 1805, where O'Bannon led a daring charge to capture the Tripolitan battery after mercenaries faltered, marking the first instance of the U.S. being raised over a captured foreign fortress by American ground troops. The battle resulted in a decisive victory for Eaton's forces, with American casualties limited to two killed and several wounded, alongside a total of 14 dead from the expedition; Tripolitan losses were heavier but exact figures remain undocumented. Holding Derna provided a strategic foothold that demonstrated U.S. resolve and military capability on land, compelling to engage in negotiations despite the eventual U.S. decision to prioritize a direct settlement over sustaining Hamet's claim.

Resolution

Shift to Negotiations

Following the successful capture of Derna on April 27, 1805, by a combined force under William Eaton and Hamet Karamanli, the held a strategic foothold threatening from the east, while the ongoing naval blockade—initiated in 1801 and intensified under Commodore —had severely disrupted Tripolitan commerce, exacerbating food shortages and economic distress in the capital. 's naval capabilities were largely neutralized after repeated U.S. attacks destroyed or captured most corsairs, leaving unable to project power or sustain prolonged resistance amid mounting internal pressures from famine-like conditions induced by the blockade's prevention of grain imports. On the American side, the campaign's escalating costs—approaching one million dollars by mid-1805, including squadron maintenance, payments, and —fueled domestic calls in for resolution, as the expedition strained federal resources without decisive victory. Commodore Samuel Barron, arriving in September 1804 with reinforcements to bolster operations, assumed command but soon succumbed to severe illness, which impaired his ability to press aggressive actions and inclined him toward supporting diplomatic overtures for . Acting on prior instructions from dated June 6, 1804, Consul-General joined Barron off Syracuse to lead negotiations, leveraging the Derna position and blockade as bargaining tools while coordinating with Danish consul Nissen to facilitate indirect talks with . Although U.S. agents had initially backed Hamet Karamanli's restoration claim to undermine , Lear prioritized expediting a settlement over risking further overland advances across inhospitable terrain with unreliable local allies. The decision to forgo full conquest reflected the practical limits of American : Hamet's forces showed faltering loyalty, broader regional alliances proved elusive, and sustaining the distant campaign risked higher casualties and indefinite commitment without assured or support against . deteriorating health culminated in his resignation on May 26, 1805, handing interim authority to John Rodgers and enabling Lear to conduct talks aboard the , marking a pivot from escalation to pragmatic amid mutual exhaustion. This shift capitalized on U.S. battlefield gains to compel concessions without the uncertainties of , aligning with Jefferson's broader policy of decisive but contained force.

Treaty of 1805 and Its Terms

The Treaty of Peace and Amity between the and Tripoli was signed on June 4, 1805, aboard the in Tripoli Harbor, formally ending the First Barbary War. The agreement was ratified by the U.S. Senate on April 6, 1806, and proclaimed by President on June 10, 1806. Negotiated by American consul following military victories, including the capture of Derna, the treaty reflected Tripoli's concessions extracted under duress from U.S. naval pressure rather than diplomatic concessions alone. Key provisions included the immediate cessation of all hostilities and the release of approximately 307 American held in , without demands for prisoner exchange or additional ransom payments beyond specified terms. In exchange, the delivered merchandise valued at $60,000 to the Bashaw of , explicitly framed as compensation rather than or annuity, marking a departure from earlier Barbary pacts that required ongoing annual payments for safe passage. The treaty mandated mutual restitution of any prizes or property captured during the conflict after , with 3 stipulating restoration of vessels and goods taken post-exchange of ratifications. Unlike predecessor agreements, such as the 1796 which included tribute obligations, the 1805 accord imposed no recurring financial demands on the , establishing perpetual peace and friendship under Article 1, with provisions for future amendments via additional articles. Article 6 further prohibited from authorizing operations against American shipping, reinforcing non-aggression commitments. To enforce compliance, the U.S. naval squadron under John Rodgers remained deployed in the Mediterranean post-signing, monitoring Tripoli's adherence and deterring violations, which validated the efficacy of sustained military presence over mere tribute.

Consequences and Legacy

Immediate Strategic and Economic Impacts

The First Barbary War's resolution through the June 10, 1805, immediately secured American merchant shipping from Tripolitan corsairs, allowing resumption of Mediterranean trade without the ongoing threat of captures and ransoms that had disrupted commerce since 1801. The treaty ended all tribute obligations to —previously established under the 1796 , which included annual payments—and required only a one-time $60,000 ransom for the repatriation of approximately 300 American captives, thereby alleviating a recurring financial burden on the young republic. This outcome not only restored access to lucrative markets for U.S. exports like timber and grains but also elevated national prestige, as the victorious return of prisoners and the demonstrated naval efficacy under leaders like bolstered public support for Jefferson's policy of force over submission. Tripoli's strategic position was severely undermined by the war's naval blockades, key engagements such as the destruction of the USS Philadelphia in 1804, and the land capture of Derna in April 1805, which exposed internal vulnerabilities and compelled Pasha Yusuf Qaramanli to negotiate from weakness. operations, central to Tripoli's and revenue through prizes and , were effectively curtailed in the immediate aftermath, as the U.S. squadron's sustained presence disrupted their bases and forced under terms prohibiting further raids on American vessels. This reduction in persisted until leadership changes and broader regional dynamics prompted a partial resurgence around 1815, but the short-term loss of naval assets and prestige left Tripoli economically strained and diplomatically isolated. The U.S. victory rippled across the Barbary states, prompting and to temper demands for increased tribute out of fear of similar naval coercion; Commodore Decatur's squadron sailed to post-treaty, securing the release of seized American ships and a renewed agreement without escalated payments. This temporary moderation preserved U.S. trade routes against multi-state aggression, as the regencies avoided provoking the now-proven American fleet, though underlying tensions simmered until the Second Barbary addressed renewed threats from in 1815.

Effects on U.S. Military and Foreign Policy

The First Barbary War demonstrated the effectiveness of a standing in protecting American commerce from foreign aggression, validating congressional investments made since the , which authorized the construction of six frigates in response to earlier Barbary seizures. Successes under commanders like and , including the burning of the captured USS on October 16, 1804, elevated naval officers as national heroes and reinforced professional standards that became foundational to U.S. military culture. These exploits provided for maintaining and incrementally expanding naval capabilities, countering pre-war efforts to reduce the fleet and shifting domestic consensus toward sustained maritime defense. In , the conflict established a for rejecting payments—totaling over $1 million annually to Barbary states by some European estimates—and instead employing naval to deter extortion, diverging from the multilateral practiced by and , who subsidized to weaken rivals' trade. Jefferson's deployment of squadrons without prior congressional underscored "," proving that armed deterrence could secure safe passage for American vessels without perpetual or ransom, a lesson applied in subsequent engagements like the War of 1812. This approach critiqued reliance on alone, as initial agreements from the had failed to prevent escalating demands, such as Tripoli's 1801 ultimatum for $225,000 plus annual payments. Domestically, the war's favorable outcome vindicated against accusations of waging an unconstitutional "," as broad congressional authorization on February 6, 1802, empowered executive naval actions while debates over war powers persisted into Madison's administration. The victory bolstered support for preparedness, diminishing isolationist impulses and affirming engagement with global threats to commerce, though it highlighted tensions between fiscal restraint and the costs of projection—estimated at $2 million for the Mediterranean squadron alone.

Historical Assessments and Contemporary Relevance

Historians regard the First Barbary War as a pivotal early assertion of American sovereignty, marking the nation's initial successful projection of military power beyond the and demonstrating the efficacy of naval force in halting extortionate demands from the Barbary states. The conflict temporarily secured free navigation for U.S. merchant vessels in the Mediterranean, reducing annual payments from approximately $1 million equivalent in prior agreements to nominal ransoms and consular gifts under the 1805 treaty, thereby validating President 's preference for decisive action over perpetual . himself argued in correspondence that merely invited escalating demands, as evidenced by Tripoli's Pasha Yusuf Karamanli's 1801 after the U.S. withheld increased payments, underscoring the causal link between perceived weakness and aggression. However, the war's incomplete resolution—necessitating a second conflict in 1815—highlights limitations, with critics noting the financial burden of roughly $2 million in expenditures alongside the failure to fully dismantle the Barbary system. Criticisms from contemporaries, particularly s, centered on perceived overreach and logistical shortcomings, such as the grounding and capture of USS Philadelphia in October 1803, which exposed vulnerabilities in squadron coordination and intelligence despite subsequent daring raids. The abandonment of allied Bashaw Hamet Karamanli, Yusuf's exiled brother, after the capture of Derna drew rebuke for prioritizing expediency over commitments, eroding trust in U.S. partnerships and allowing to retain power. publications decried the war's costs and Jefferson's initial hesitancy in escalating land operations as evidence of mismanagement, contrasting with their prior advocacy for naval buildup but accusing the administration of inconsistent application. Scholarly debates persist on the war's drivers, with some emphasizing economic piracy rooted in state revenue needs, yet primary accounts reveal ideological underpinnings: Tripoli's 1801 casus belli invoked Koranic precepts justifying enslavement of infidels, echoing the 1786 explanation by Tripoli's envoy to and Adams that captures constituted religious warfare rather than mere . This framework, admitted by Barbary diplomats, refutes reductions to motives alone, as regency fleets targeted Christian shipping systematically under suzerainty's religious sanction, blending fiscal gain with doctrinal imperative. In contemporary terms, the war illustrates the futility of tribute as deterrence against ideologically fueled extortion, a lesson echoed in modern counter-piracy efforts off and analyses of state-sponsored threats where economic incentives alone fail to curb religiously motivated actors. Jefferson's rejection of payments—proven effective in compelling negotiations—underscores causal in : force deters when signals vulnerability, informing U.S. doctrines on against non-state and rogue actors persisting into the 21st century.