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Fixed-pattern noise

Fixed-pattern noise (FPN), also known as spatial nonuniformity, is a deterministic type of noise in digital imaging sensors that manifests as consistent, pixel-to-pixel variations in output signal under uniform illumination or dark conditions, independent of the input light intensity.^[1] These variations stem from inherent manufacturing imperfections in the sensor array, including differences in photodiode size, doping density, transistor threshold voltages, and dark current generation across pixels.^[1]^[2] In charge-coupled device (CCD) sensors, FPN primarily arises from photodetector parameter mismatches and readout electronics nonuniformities, while in complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) sensors, it includes additional contributions from pixel transistors and column amplifiers.^[1]^[3] FPN is typically divided into two main components: dark signal nonuniformity (DSNU), which quantifies variations in the dark current or offset levels among pixels with no illumination, and photoresponse nonuniformity (PRNU), which measures differences in pixel sensitivity or gain under illuminated conditions.^[4] According to the EMVA 1288 standard for characterizing image sensors, DSNU is calculated as the spatial standard deviation of pixel outputs in dark frames divided by the system gain (in electrons), while PRNU is the relative standard deviation of the photoresponse at 50% sensor saturation, often expressed as a percentage.^[4] These metrics are derived from averaging multiple frames (at least 16) to isolate spatial fixed patterns from temporal noise, with PRNU requiring high-pass filtering to emphasize nonuniformities.^[4] FPN levels can range from less than 0.1% to over 4% of the sensor's full well capacity, depending on the technology and fabrication process.^[1] In practice, FPN degrades image quality by introducing visible artifacts such as random patterns in CCD images or columnar stripes in CMOS outputs, particularly noticeable in low-light or high-dynamic-range scenarios where it reduces the signal-to-noise ratio and limits detection accuracy.^[1]^[3] For instance, in photon-counting detectors, FPN from pixel sensitivity variations can cause systematic errors that affect scientific applications like astronomy or medical imaging.^[3] Mitigation techniques include correlated double sampling (CDS) to reduce offset-related FPN, though it is less effective against gain or DSNU components, and non-uniformity correction (NUC) methods such as calibration with flat-field images or temporal high-pass filtering.^[1] In advanced sensors, like logarithmic or active pixel sensors, FPN correction is often integrated on-chip to preserve dynamic range.^[1] Overall, controlling FPN remains a critical challenge in sensor design, as quantified in qualification tests for space or high-reliability applications.^[5]

Fundamentals

Definition

Fixed-pattern noise (FPN) is a deterministic, spatially fixed noise pattern superimposed on images, arising from non-uniformities in sensor response that remain constant across multiple exposures under identical conditions.^[1] This noise manifests as repeatable variations in pixel output under uniform illumination, distinguishing it from random fluctuations.^[6] The mechanism of FPN stems from inherent variations in pixel sensitivity or offset within the imaging sensor, producing a consistent spatial pattern rather than stochastic changes.^[7] Unlike temporal noise, which varies randomly from frame to frame, FPN is fixed in position and reproducible under the same conditions.^[6] FPN was first prominently observed in early charge-coupled device (CCD) sensors during the 1970s.^[8] It applies to all solid-state imaging technologies, including complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) sensors.^[9] Visually, FPN typically appears as a fixed pattern of brighter or darker pixels in uniform scenes, becoming especially evident in low-light or long-exposure images where signal levels are low relative to the noise.^[9]^[10]

Types

Fixed-pattern noise (FPN) in image sensors is primarily categorized into two main types based on their manifestation under different illumination conditions: dark signal non-uniformity (DSNU) and photo response non-uniformity (PRNU). DSNU refers to pixel-to-pixel variations in the output signal when the sensor is not illuminated, arising from differences in dark current, which depends on temperature and integration time, and fixed offsets, which are independent of these factors. These variations manifest as a fixed spatial pattern in dark frames and are typically quantified in electrons (e⁻) or digital numbers (DN), with modern sensors achieving values as low as 1-2 e⁻ root-mean-square (RMS).^[11]^[10] PRNU, on the other hand, represents multiplicative gain variations across pixels that become apparent under uniform illumination, where differences in photosensitivity lead to non-uniform response to incident light. This gain FPN is expressed as a percentage relative to the mean signal level, often around 1-2% in contemporary CMOS and CCD sensors. PRNU patterns are stable over time and serve as a unique sensor signature, enabling applications such as camera identification in multimedia forensics, a technique developed and applied since the early 2000s.^[12] In broader classifications, FPN is subdivided into offset FPN, which encompasses the time- and temperature-independent fixed offsets that form part of DSNU, while DSNU also includes temperature- and time-dependent dark current nonuniformity, and gain FPN, corresponding to the signal-amplification disparities of PRNU. DSNU tends to dominate in cooled scientific CCDs, where low dark currents—achieved through cryogenic cooling—minimize thermal generation while highlighting residual fixed offsets. These types are particularly visible in long-exposure imaging, where accumulated signals amplify the non-uniform patterns.^[13]^[14]^[4]

Causes

Sensor Variations

Fixed-pattern noise in imaging sensors arises primarily from intrinsic hardware imperfections and manufacturing inconsistencies that create spatially fixed variations in pixel response. These sensor variations manifest as non-uniformities in charge collection, amplification, and readout processes, leading to consistent patterns across images taken under uniform illumination. Such defects are inherent to the sensor architecture and fabrication, distinguishing them from temporal noise sources. At the pixel level, variations in photodiode size and doping concentration result in inconsistent charge collection efficiency, while differences in transistor thresholds cause uneven readout gains, producing pixel-to-pixel fixed-pattern noise.^[1] These mismatches lead to spatial non-uniformities in both dark signal and photoresponse, with the former affecting low-light conditions and the latter scaling with illumination intensity.^[1] Architectural designs further contribute to fixed patterns. In CMOS sensors, shared column amplifiers and analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) introduce row or column-specific non-uniformities, often appearing as vertical stripes due to gain and offset variations across columns.^[15] In contrast, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) exhibit full-frame non-uniformities stemming from variations in charge transfer inefficiencies during pixel-to-pixel shifting, which can amplify sensitivity differences across the array.^[16] Technology-specific factors influence the severity of these variations. Early CCD sensors suffered higher photoresponse non-uniformity (PRNU) levels, up to 5% of the signal, due to limited control over pixel uniformity, whereas modern CMOS sensors achieve PRNU under 1% through per-pixel amplifiers that mitigate shared circuitry effects.^[1] Additionally, microlens arrays and color filter array (CFA) variations in CMOS designs introduce fixed patterns by causing uneven light collection and spectral response across pixels.^[17] These variations originate during sensor fabrication processes, such as photolithography, where process-induced mismatches in material properties and geometry create statistical deviations typically following a Gaussian distribution with standard deviations of approximately 0.5-2% for PRNU.^[1]^[15]

External Factors

External factors, such as environmental and operational conditions, can significantly exacerbate fixed-pattern noise (FPN) in image sensors by amplifying inherent non-uniformities or introducing apparent patterns that mimic sensor-based FPN. These influences are distinct from intrinsic manufacturing variations, as they arise from modifiable external parameters and can vary across imaging sessions or over the sensor's operational life. Temperature plays a critical role in modulating dark signal non-uniformity (DSNU), a key component of FPN, primarily through its effect on dark current generation in silicon-based sensors. Dark current, which represents thermally generated charge in the absence of light, exhibits an exponential dependence on temperature, typically doubling every 6-8°C in silicon photodiodes and CCDs. This rapid increase leads to heightened DSNU, manifesting as thermal fixed patterns where pixel-to-pixel variations in dark current become more pronounced at elevated temperatures, such as those exceeding 60°C in automotive or industrial applications. For instance, in CMOS sensors, DSNU increases with temperature; at low gain (0 dB), it rises from about 3 LSB at 0°C to 5 LSB at 60°C, while at high gain (24 dB), it can reach over 60 LSB at 60°C, underscoring the need for temperature-controlled environments in precision imaging.^[18] Operational parameters like exposure time and gain settings further intensify DSNU and offset FPN. Longer integration times accumulate more dark charge, proportionally amplifying dark current non-uniformities across pixels, which is particularly evident in low-light scenarios where DSNU dominates the noise floor. Similarly, high analog gain amplifies fixed offset variations in the low-signal regime, making offset FPN visible even when signal levels are below the read noise threshold; for example, at 24 dB gain, DSNU in CMOS sensors can increase by factors of 10-20 compared to unity gain, revealing patterns that were otherwise masked. These effects are compounded by sensor self-heating during extended exposures, indirectly linking back to temperature influences.^[9]^[18] Optical factors, including non-uniform illumination, can induce patterns resembling photoresponse non-uniformity (PRNU), though these are external artifacts rather than true sensor FPN. Lens vignetting, which causes radial falloff in light intensity toward image edges, interacts with pixel responsivity to create apparent fixed multiplicative patterns that vary with aperture and field angle. Stray light from veiling glare or lens flare scatters illumination unevenly, further distorting low-luminance regions and introducing additive-like non-uniformities that mimic DSNU under uniform scene assumptions. Such optical influences are correctable via flat-fielding but must be distinguished from sensor-intrinsic PRNU to avoid misattribution in calibration workflows.^[19] Sensor aging and degradation over time introduce evolving fixed patterns, particularly in harsh environments like space applications. Radiation damage from high-energy protons, as encountered by the Hubble Space Telescope's CCDs since its 1990 launch, displaces atoms in the silicon lattice, creating traps that degrade charge transfer efficiency (CTE) and generate hot pixels with elevated dark current. This results in persistent but slowly evolving FPN components, such as CTE-related noise patterns that dominate in proton-irradiated devices, with non-uniformity increasing by orders of magnitude after cumulative doses equivalent to years in low-Earth orbit. In ground-based sensors, similar degradation from cosmic rays or thermal cycling can lead to gradual DSNU growth, necessitating periodic recalibration.^[20]

Measurement

Techniques

Fixed-pattern noise (FPN) in imaging systems, encompassing dark signal non-uniformity (DSNU) and photo response non-uniformity (PRNU), is detected and quantified through standardized measurement procedures that isolate pixel-to-pixel variations under controlled conditions.^[9]^[21] One primary technique for measuring DSNU involves capturing multiple dark exposures (at least 16) with zero illumination under identical temperature and integration time conditions. The mean dark frame is computed by averaging these exposures to suppress temporal noise, and a high-pass filter (e.g., 5×5 box) is applied to remove low-frequency trends. DSNU is then quantified as the spatial standard deviation of the filtered mean dark frame.^[6]^[22]^[21] For PRNU assessment, flat-field imaging employs uniform illumination sources, such as an integrating sphere, to expose the sensor to a homogeneous light field at approximately 50% of saturation level, ensuring linearity without clipping. Multiple frames (at least 16) are captured, and dark frames are subtracted to obtain net signal frames. The mean signal frame is computed by averaging, followed by pixel-by-pixel division by its mean value to map relative gain variations, with high-pass filtering applied to isolate fixed patterns.^[23]^[21] Statistical averaging enhances the precision of both DSNU and PRNU measurements by acquiring 16 to 400 frames under the specified controlled conditions, suppressing random temporal noise through the averaging process before computing spatial standard deviations on the filtered mean frames to reveal the underlying fixed patterns.^[6]^[24]^[21] Specialized tools facilitate efficient FPN mapping, including on-chip test modes in CMOS sensors that enable rapid generation of uniform test patterns or dark references directly within the sensor array for in-situ characterization. Additionally, software implementations adhering to the EMVA 1288 (ISO 24942:2025) standard provide procedural guidelines for industrial validation, incorporating automated averaging, high-pass filtering, and nonuniformity extraction from dark and illuminated frame sets.^[25]^[21]^[26]

Metrics

Fixed-pattern noise is quantified using standardized metrics that capture its spatial variations and stability, enabling consistent evaluation across imaging systems. The dark signal non-uniformity (DSNU), a key component of fixed-pattern noise in the absence of light, is defined as the standard deviation (\sigma_\text{dark}) of the dark signal across pixels after averaging and high-pass filtering, typically expressed in electrons and reported as the root mean square (RMS) value. In high-end CMOS sensors, DSNU values are often below 1 e⁻ RMS, reflecting advanced fabrication techniques that minimize pixel-to-pixel offset variations.^[21]^[9] The photo-response non-uniformity (PRNU), which characterizes gain variations under illumination, is computed according to EMVA 1288 (ISO 24942:2025) as \sqrt{\sigma_{50}^2 - \sigma_{\text{dark}}^2} / \mu_{50} \times 100\%, where \sigma_{50} and \mu_{50} are the standard deviation and mean of the filtered signal at 50% sensor saturation (after dark subtraction), and \sigma_{\text{dark}} is the DSNU standard deviation; this corrects for dark nonuniformity contributions. Acceptable PRNU levels are generally below 0.5% for consumer-grade cameras, ensuring adequate uniformity for everyday imaging, while scientific applications demand stricter thresholds under 0.1% to preserve precision in quantitative measurements.^[21]^[9] To verify the fixed nature of the pattern, temporal stability is evaluated by computing correlation coefficients between the noise patterns extracted from successive frames under identical conditions, with high values (close to 1) indicating persistence over time and distinguishing it from random temporal fluctuations.^[27] These metrics are guided by established standards, such as EMVA 1288 (ISO 24942:2025), which outlines procedures for quantifying both temporal and spatial fixed-pattern noise components like DSNU and PRNU through controlled dark and illuminated frame analyses.^[21]^[26]

Suppression

Calibration Approaches

Calibration approaches for fixed-pattern noise (FPN) primarily involve hardware-integrated or pre-acquisition techniques that compensate for pixel-to-pixel variations during the image capture process, targeting both dark signal non-uniformity (DSNU) and photoresponse non-uniformity (PRNU). These methods are essential in sensors like CMOS and infrared focal plane arrays, where FPN arises from manufacturing inconsistencies and can degrade image quality if not addressed at the source. By applying corrections at the sensor level or through dedicated calibration frames, these techniques minimize the need for extensive post-processing while maintaining real-time performance in applications such as machine vision and remote sensing. Flat-field correction (FFC) is a widely used pre-processing method to mitigate PRNU by normalizing pixel sensitivities using calibration images acquired under uniform illumination. The process begins by capturing a flat-field frame (uniform light exposure) and a dark frame (zero illumination) to generate a correction map that accounts for both gain variations and offset noise. The corrected image is then obtained via:

\text{corrected} = \frac{\text{raw} - \text{dark}}{\text{flat}}

where \text{raw} is the input image, \text{flat} is the uniform illumination frame, and \text{dark} is the zero-light frame, both normalized to match the raw image's exposure conditions.^[4] This approach effectively removes multiplicative FPN components, improving uniformity in linescan cameras and infrared systems, with implementations often accelerated via FPGA for real-time application. In comparative studies of 1D linescan cameras, FFC variants have demonstrated superior PRNU suppression compared to simpler offset corrections, particularly under varying illumination. Correlated double sampling (CDS) is an on-chip technique integrated into CMOS image sensor readouts to eliminate offset-related FPN, such as reset noise and threshold voltage variations across pixels. During pixel readout, CDS samples the signal twice: first at the reset level (pre-charge) and second at the signal level (post-exposure), then subtracts the two values to cancel correlated noise components. This on-chip subtraction, typically performed in voltage or current mode, reduces fixed-pattern offset by up to several orders of magnitude without requiring external calibration frames, making it suitable for high-speed imaging. In CMOS designs, CDS has been shown to lower FPN from levels exceeding 1% to below 0.5%, enhancing dynamic range in low-light conditions while minimizing readout circuitry complexity. Dark current subtraction addresses DSNU by periodically capturing dark frames under conditions matching the acquisition temperature and exposure time, then subtracting them from raw images to remove thermally induced pixel variations. DSNU arises from non-uniform leakage currents in sensor pixels, which manifest as fixed offsets in dark conditions; correction involves averaging multiple dark frames (e.g., thousands) to suppress temporal noise before subtraction, often scaled by factors accounting for gain and temperature dependencies. For instance, in CMOS modules for machine vision, dark frames captured at discrete temperatures (e.g., 0–60°C) and gains (e.g., 0–24 dB) enable multipoint interpolation for precise DSNU removal, reducing non-uniformity to below 1 LSB. This method is particularly effective in cooled sensors but requires matching environmental conditions to avoid residual artifacts. Factory calibration provides a one-time, sensor-specific mapping of PRNU during manufacturing, storing gain and offset coefficients in firmware for real-time on-chip application during operation. This involves exposing the sensor to uniform light sources at multiple intensities to characterize pixel responses, followed by computation of a correction matrix applied multiplicatively to incoming signals. In modern CMOS and CCD sensors, such calibrations significantly reduce PRNU from typical uncorrected levels of 1–2% to below 0.2%, achieving over 90% noise suppression in space-borne and industrial applications. Stored in non-volatile memory, these maps ensure consistent performance across device lifetimes without recurring user intervention, though periodic recalibration may be needed for temperature drifts.

Digital Correction

Digital correction of fixed-pattern noise (FPN) involves post-acquisition processing techniques that apply software algorithms to raw images in order to estimate and subtract non-uniformity patterns, thereby enhancing image quality without relying on real-time hardware interventions. These methods typically utilize pre-computed correction maps or derive noise estimates directly from the image data, making them suitable for applications where initial calibration data is available or scene content can be exploited adaptively.^[28] Non-uniformity correction (NUC) represents a foundational approach in digital FPN mitigation, employing iterative algorithms to model and remove spatial variations in sensor response. Similarly, polynomial fitting techniques approximate the gain and offset variations across the sensor array using low-order polynomials, enabling subtraction of the modeled FPN map from the raw image; such approaches simplify calibration by reducing the parameter space while achieving effective uniformity in logarithmic CMOS image sensors.^[29] These NUC methods often leverage calibration-derived offset and gain maps as inputs for the correction process.^[28] Machine learning approaches have emerged in the 2020s as adaptive solutions for FPN correction, particularly for photo-response non-uniformity (PRNU), by training neural networks on sensor-specific noise patterns to predict and remove fixed patterns in real-time video streams. Deep convolutional neural networks (CNNs), for example, learn hierarchical features from pairs of noisy and clean infrared images, enabling end-to-end mapping that suppresses FPN without explicit modeling of physical parameters; a 2023 model using CNNs for infrared NUC demonstrated robust performance across varying temperatures by incorporating residual learning to focus on noise residuals.^[30] Dual-stream attention networks further enhance this by processing spatial and temporal dimensions separately, attending to PRNU artifacts in dynamic scenes for improved accuracy in video applications.^[31] Scene-based methods provide calibration-free alternatives by adaptively estimating FPN from image statistics within the captured scene, ideal for dynamic environments where uniform references are unavailable. These techniques exploit temporal or spatial redundancies, such as motion-induced variations, to isolate low-frequency FPN components; for example, dual-domain corrections in the spatial and wavelet domains simultaneously remove stripe and optics-induced FPN by aligning scene statistics across frames.^[32] Histogram matching variants adjust pixel distributions to a reference histogram derived from scene averages, effectively equalizing non-uniform responses without prior calibration; this has been applied to CMOS sensors to eliminate column-wise FPN by sparse decomposition of the image into uniform and noise components.^[33] Effective digital correction can reduce residual PRNU to below 0.1%, significantly improving overall image uniformity.^[18] A basic formulation for NUC is given by the two-point correction equation:

I_{\text{corrected}}(x,y) = \frac{I_{\text{raw}}(x,y) - \text{offset\_map}(x,y)}{\text{gain\_map}(x,y)}

where I_{\text{raw}}(x,y) is the raw pixel value at coordinates (x,y), and the maps represent spatially varying offset and gain estimates derived from prior calibration or scene analysis.^[28]

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