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Flight computer

A flight computer, also known as the E6B or whiz wheel, is a manual analog calculating device resembling a circular slide rule, designed specifically for aviation use to perform essential flight planning and in-flight computations such as determining groundspeed, wind correction angles, fuel burn rates, true airspeed, and density altitude.^[1]^[2] Invented in 1940 by U.S. Navy pilot Philip Dalton, a graduate of Cornell and Princeton universities, the E6B was introduced to the Army Air Corps as a tool to enhance navigation accuracy by accounting for wind drift and enabling dead reckoning calculations based on heading, speed, time, and environmental factors.^[1] Following the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941, the U.S. Army Air Forces ordered 400,000 units, making it a staple among pilots, particularly those flying B-17 bombers during World War II, where it proved instrumental in precise navigation over long distances.^[1] The device features two primary sides: the slide rule side for logarithmic calculations involving conversions between units (e.g., nautical miles to statute miles), time-speed-distance problems, and performance metrics like estimated time of arrival; and the wind side, which includes a rotating compass rose and plotting grid for resolving crosswind effects and computing headings.^[2]^[1] Despite the advent of digital alternatives and electronic flight bags, the manual E6B remains a standard tool in pilot training, is required for FAA knowledge exams, and is commonly used in visual flight rules (VFR) operations due to its reliability, lack of need for batteries, and ability to provide immediate, verifiable results without electronic interference.^[2] Modern versions often incorporate additional scales for sectional chart plotting and are produced by aviation suppliers like ASA and Gleim for both student and professional pilots.^[2]^[1]

History

Origins and Invention

The flight computer, an analog device essential for aviation navigation, was invented in the 1930s by Philip Dalton, a U.S. Navy aviator and physics enthusiast who recognized the need for simplified mechanical tools to perform complex calculations during flight.^[1]^[3]^[4] After graduating from Cornell University in 1924 and earning a master's in physics from Princeton, Dalton joined the Naval Aviation School in Pensacola in 1931, where his experiences in reconnaissance missions aboard cruisers highlighted the limitations of existing navigation aids.^[1]^[4] Drawing inspiration from circular slide rules used in scientific and artillery applications, Dalton designed his devices to address aviation-specific challenges, particularly dead reckoning, which involved estimating position based on speed, time, and wind corrections without relying on landmarks or radio.^[3]^[4] Dalton's early prototypes functioned as mechanical analogs to logarithmic calculators, enabling pilots to perform multi-step computations rapidly by aligning scales on a handheld device, thus overcoming the inaccuracies and time demands of manual arithmetic in the pre-electronic era.^[1]^[4] His initial innovations included the Aircraft Plotting Board VC-2, released by the Navy Hydrographic Office in June 1933, and the Mark VII handheld computer, which gained adoption by the British Air Ministry by the mid-1930s for its portability and one-handed operability during flight.^[4] These prototypes were born out of practical necessity during naval floatplane operations launched from ship catapults, where pilots faced isolation from ground support and had to navigate vast ocean expanses with minimal instrumentation.^[1]^[3] The first commercial models emerged in the 1940s, with Dalton's designs, including the renowned E-6B—patented in 1937 and formally adopted by the U.S. Army Air Corps in 1940—focusing on streamlining E6B-style calculations for time, speed, distance, and wind effects without requiring electricity.^[3]^[1]^[4]^[5] Often referred to collectively as the Dalton Computer series, these tools marked a shift from ad-hoc prototypes to standardized production, with over 400,000 E-6B units ordered by the Army Air Forces following the 1941 Pearl Harbor attack to equip pilots in diverse aircraft like the B-17 bomber. Dalton died in a training accident in July 1941, shortly after Pearl Harbor.^[3]^[1] This commercialization occurred amid the interwar period's aviation boom, a time of rapid expansion in commercial and military flying when open-cockpit biplanes dominated, demanding quick, reliable aids for pilots to manage navigation amid variable winds and limited visibility.^[4]^[3]

Development in Aviation

During World War II, the flight computer gained widespread adoption for pilot training in the U.S. Army Air Forces, serving as an essential tool for dead reckoning navigation amid the demands of rapid wartime expansion. The Weems E6B model, developed through prior collaboration between Philip Dalton and navigation expert Philip Van Horn Weems before Dalton's death in 1941, entered mass production in 1942 following a U.S. Army contract and became the standard issue for aviation calculations. Over 400,000 units were manufactured during the war, primarily by companies like G. Felsenthal & Sons, equipping pilots across Army and Navy programs for tasks such as time-speed-distance and wind correction computations.^[3]^[6] In the post-war era of the 1950s and 1960s, refinements focused on enhancing durability and compatibility with advancing aviation infrastructure. Manufacturers shifted toward plastic materials for key components, replacing heavier wartime steel and early cardboard elements to reduce weight and improve resistance to environmental stresses like humidity and impact. This evolution also supported integration with standardized Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) navigation charts, as the proliferation of VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) stations and updated sectional maps required precise manual cross-referencing for route planning and enroute adjustments.^[7]^[8]^[9] The jet age of the 1970s influenced further adaptations, yielding more compact designs tailored to the constrained cockpits of high-speed aircraft like early commercial jets. These sleeker versions, often in lightweight aluminum or reinforced plastic, maintained the E6B's core slide-rule mechanisms while minimizing bulk for quick in-flight access during supersonic-era operations. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), established in 1958, incorporated the flight computer into pilot training curricula to ensure foundational skills in manual navigation.^[7]^[9] By the 1980s, the primary reliance on manual flight computers waned as electronic aids, including early glass cockpits and flight management systems, automated computations in commercial and military aviation. However, the devices endured in general aviation certification exams, where FAA knowledge tests continue to require proficiency in E6B-based calculations to verify pilots' understanding of fundamental aerodynamics and navigation principles.^[10]^[11]

Post-WWII Advancements

Following World War II, flight computer designs evolved with a focus on material innovations to improve portability, durability, and environmental resistance for aviation use. In the 1950s, manufacturers shifted to injection-molded plastics, which offered lighter weight and enhanced weather resistance compared to wartime cardboard and metal versions. This transition is exemplified by the Jeppesen Sanderson CR-3 model, patented in 1955 and constructed primarily from plastic components for its circular slide rule structure.^[12]^[8] Into the 21st century, analog flight computers have persisted as essential backup tools in cockpits equipped with advanced avionics, valued for their reliability without power requirements.^[1]^[3]

Design and Components

Physical Construction

Traditional analog flight computers, such as the E6B model, are typically built as circular devices around 6 inches in diameter or rectangular slide-rule-style units measuring approximately 9 by 5 inches, utilizing aluminum or plastic frames to ensure lightweight portability within aircraft cockpits.^[13]^[14]^[15] These devices feature a layered structure consisting of a fixed base plate, a sliding or rotating disk for scale alignment, a movable cursor arm, and a protective cover to safeguard the assembly during use.^[16]^[17] Weighing roughly 4 to 6 ounces, the construction allows for easy manipulation even when wearing gloves in turbulent conditions.^[18]^[19] Early 1940s models, introduced during World War II, employed plastic or cardboard materials for cost-effective production while maintaining sufficient rigidity against cockpit vibrations through reinforced rivets and hinged elements.^[20] Later iterations shifted to aluminum for enhanced durability, resisting warping and wear over extended service.^[15]^[21] Ergonomic enhancements evolved in subsequent designs, incorporating non-slip edges on the frame and color-coded markings to improve visibility and handling in low-light cockpit environments.^[22]^[23] Specific scales for navigation and computation are overlaid directly onto these structural layers.^[24]

Core Mechanisms

The core mechanisms of the flight computer rely on analog principles derived from the slide rule, enabling manual computation of aviation parameters without electronic components. Central to this is the use of logarithmic scales inscribed on rotating disks, which facilitate multiplication and division through simple alignment. By positioning numbers on these scales—where the distance from a reference point corresponds to the logarithm of the value—users add or subtract logarithmic distances to achieve the equivalent of multiplying or dividing the original numbers, a technique adapted specifically for aviation tasks like speed and distance calculations.^[25]^[26] A sliding grid mechanism enhances cross-referencing of variables across the scales, allowing users to overlay and align multiple data points for complex interconnections, such as vector resolutions in navigation. This is supported by mechanical linkages that synchronize the movement of disks and grids, ensuring precise coordination without the need for batteries or external power. In typical designs, these linkages employ geared or slotted connections to maintain alignment during adjustments.^[27] Friction-based rotation governs the disks' movement, providing smooth, controlled adjustments while detents—small notches or stops—enable precise locking at specific positions to prevent drift during readings. Advanced models incorporate pivoting vector arms, mechanically linked to the disks, which represent directional components like wind vectors in the wind triangle solution; these arms pivot to form graphical triangles, resolving relative speeds through sine theorem applications on logarithmic scales.^[27] Despite their reliability, these mechanisms introduce manual error margins of approximately 1-2%, primarily from parallax when viewing scales at an angle, though calibration marks on the edges help mitigate this by guiding perpendicular alignment. Overall accuracy can vary to 1-6% depending on the model and input precision, underscoring the device's suitability for quick, approximate computations in flight planning.^[27]

Scales and Markings

The scales and markings on a flight computer, such as the classic E6B model, are precisely etched to facilitate quick visual alignment for aviation computations, with the primary scales divided between a fixed outer ring and a rotating inner disk. The outer fixed ring, known as the A-scale, is calibrated for true airspeed in knots (typically marked in red), indicated airspeed in MPH or knots (in black), and distances in nautical miles (NM near the 66 mark), statute miles (SM near 76), or kilometers (KM near 12), allowing pilots to reference ground speed, fuel consumption in pounds or gallons, and corrected altitude in feet. The inner rotating scale, or B-scale, aligns with the outer for ground speed and distance measurements, featuring a triangular index at the 60 position to denote rates like knots per hour, while the time arc below it provides hour-minute conversions, with markings for increments such as 1:30 below 90 and 5:00 below 300 minutes.^[28]^[29] Navigation markings on the wind side of the flight computer include a 360-degree heading indicator rose, divided into degree increments for true course alignment via a true index (TC), and radial drift angle lines spaced at 1- or 2-degree intervals (e.g., 2° up to 150° and 1° beyond) to indicate wind correction angles. A density altitude scale appears in a dedicated window on the calculator side, calibrated from -10,000 to +45,000 feet for pressure and temperature adjustments, with tick marks for thousands of feet between positions like 1:30 and 1:50. The crosswind component grid on the wind side features horizontal and vertical axes marked from 0 to 90 degrees (extending to 180 for full wind vectors), with arcs for wind velocities in knots from 0 to 80 or 160, enabling visual estimation of crosswind effects.^[28]^[29] Color coding enhances readability and distinguishes key values: red markings denote true airspeed (TAS) on the outer scale, while black indicates calibrated or indicated airspeed (CAS) on the inner scale, with additional contrasts for fuel types (e.g., oil in pounds near 10 and fuel near 80). These markings adhere to ICAO standards using primary units like knots, nautical miles, feet, and Celsius, but post-1970s models incorporate dual imperial/metric calibrations, such as statute miles alongside NM, U.S./imperial gallons near 13 and 11 respectively, and kilograms alongside pounds for broader international compatibility.^[28]^[29]

Functions and Calculations

Time, Speed, and Distance Computations

The flight computer's slide rule side enables pilots to perform essential dead reckoning calculations involving time, speed, and distance by mechanically solving proportional relationships through scale alignments, bypassing manual arithmetic. These computations rely on logarithmic scales where the outer fixed scale denotes distance in nautical miles, the inner rotatable scale indicates time in minutes or hours, and speed values are set via the index marker or dedicated speed window. Ground speed serves as the key input for these operations, representing the aircraft's effective progress over the ground; in the absence of wind, it equals true airspeed, while wind adjustments integrate briefly to yield the value used here.^[30]^[28] To implement ground speed from true airspeed, the scales are aligned such that the true airspeed marker is positioned opposite the wind correction angle, allowing direct readout of the adjusted ground speed from the appropriate index. This graphical process approximates the relationship GS = [TAS](/page/TAS) \times \cos(\theta), where \theta is the wind correction angle, providing a practical estimate for the reduction in forward progress due to crosswind components without solving complex vector equations.^[30]^[28] Once ground speed is established, time en route is computed by dividing distance by ground speed via the proportional scales: rotate the inner scale to align the index with the ground speed value on the outer scale, locate the total distance on the outer scale, and read the elapsed time directly from the inner scale opposite that point. This method yields results in minutes for short legs or hours for longer ones, facilitating efficient flight planning. For instance, to fly 120 nautical miles at a ground speed of 150 knots, align the index with 150 on the outer scale, place 120 under the outer scale hairline, and read 48 minutes from the inner scale—a process that emphasizes the device's no-arithmetic efficiency for real-time use.^[28]^[30]^[31] These computations inherently assume constant ground speed over the entire leg, potentially introducing errors if unaccounted factors like accelerating fuel burn reduce airspeed or if en route wind variations alter ground track progress. Pilots mitigate such limitations by periodically recalculating during flight based on actual performance data.^[30]

Wind and Course Corrections

The wind triangle solution on a flight computer, such as the E6B, enables pilots to compute the effects of wind on navigation by graphically resolving vectors for true airspeed (TAS), wind velocity, and groundspeed (GS) to determine the required true heading (TH) and wind correction angle (WCA). This method plots the wind vector against the desired true course (TC), allowing the pilot to adjust for drift caused by crosswinds. The underlying approximation for the drift angle (equivalent to WCA) is given by \sin \delta \approx \frac{w \sin \theta}{TAS}, where w is wind speed and \theta is the angle between wind direction and course, though the E6B performs this via mechanical alignment rather than direct computation.^[29] To solve the wind triangle step-by-step on an E6B, the pilot first sets the TAS at the index mark on the computer's wind face, then rotates the disk to align the true course under the true index. Next, a small dot or mark is placed on the velocity arc corresponding to the wind speed, positioned along the radian line for the wind direction relative to the course. From this mark, the groundspeed is read directly opposite the TAS arrow, and the WCA is determined by the angular displacement between the course line and the TAS vector, typically added or subtracted from the TC to obtain the TH (e.g., for a TC of 090° and a 14° left WCA due to a 40-knot wind from 045°, the TH becomes 076°). This process assumes inputs like TAS from prior speed calculations and is particularly suited for visual flight rules (VFR) cross-country planning, where pilots verify results against charted winds aloft forecasts.^[29] Crosswind components, essential for takeoff and landing adjustments, are calculated on the E6B by aligning the reported wind direction with the runway heading on the computer's wind side, then reading the perpendicular force from the velocity scale. For instance, a 20-knot wind at 30° to the runway yields a 10-knot crosswind component, as the device scales the wind speed by the sine of the angle (w_c = w \sin \phi, where \phi is the angle from the runway centerline). The parallel component (headwind or tailwind) is read along the runway line, aiding in decisions about runway selection or crab/wing-low corrections during approach.^[29] These corrections rely on steady-state wind assumptions, limiting accuracy in gusty or variable conditions where real-time adjustments via instruments like the heading indicator are necessary; the E6B does not account for turbulence or shear, requiring pilots to cross-check with actual flight observations.

Fuel and Weight Management

Fuel management on the flight computer primarily involves determining the amount of fuel required for a flight by multiplying the aircraft's fuel burn rate, typically in gallons per hour (GPH), by the estimated en route time obtained from prior speed and distance computations.^[30] For instance, an aircraft with a burn rate of 15 GPH planning a 2-hour flight would require 30 gallons of fuel.^[30] This calculation ensures sufficient fuel for the cruise phase while allowing pilots to add reserves as mandated by regulations.^[30] Endurance estimation uses the inverse operation: dividing total usable fuel by the burn rate to find available flight time.^[28] For example, 48 gallons at 10 GPH yields approximately 4 hours and 40 minutes of endurance.^[28] Pilots adjust this for climb and descent phases, which consume fuel at higher and lower rates respectively, often by incorporating empirical allowances from aircraft performance charts to account for non-cruise segments.^[30] Weight and balance calculations on the flight computer use the slide rule side for general arithmetic, such as multiplication to compute moments (weight × arm) and division for center of gravity (CG = total moment / total weight), to maintain CG within safe limits from a reference datum. The device's scales also include conversions for fuel and oil weight (e.g., gallons to pounds). Shifts in CG due to fuel burn or payload changes are assessed to prevent instability.^[28] The flight computer's scales feature specific markings to facilitate these computations, including hour-by-hour tick marks on the inner time scale for precise fuel duration readings, where intervals represent minutes (e.g., 5-minute ticks between 1:50 and 2:00).^[28]

Types and Variants

Analog Slide Rule Models

The E6B flight computer represents the standard analog slide rule model. This device features a dual-sided design, with the front side dedicated to proportional calculations such as pressure and altitude conversions along with unit transformations, while the back side handles navigation tasks including wind correction and groundspeed calculations via a triangular grid.^[1] Its enduring popularity stems from its mechanical simplicity, requiring no power source and enabling one-handed operation in the cockpit.^[3] Construction of the E6B varies by intended use, with student versions typically made from affordable cardboard or plasticized fiberboard for durability during training, while professional models employ lightweight aluminum for repeated field use.^[15] These slide rule-style devices measure approximately 10 inches in length by 5 inches in width, making them compact yet legible for quick reference.^[32] Basic models cost under $20, rendering them accessible for aspiring pilots without compromising core functionality.^[33] Key features include logarithmic scales for proportional calculations like time, speed, distance, and fuel consumption, alongside built-in conversion tables for units such as knots to miles per hour (MPH), nautical miles to statute miles, and Celsius to Fahrenheit.^[28] The device's fixed and sliding components align indices to perform multiplications, divisions, and trigonometric adjustments essential for basic flight planning, often supplemented by a vinyl case and instruction booklet.^[34] Since the 1950s, the E6B has achieved global adoption as a standard tool in civilian pilot training, forming a core component of FAA knowledge exams and practical instruction for cross-country navigation.^[1] It similarly underpins EASA-approved curricula, where proficiency with the analog model ensures foundational skills before advancing to digital aids.^[35] Military adaptations, such as those issued to WWII-era forces, built on this civilian foundation but optimized for combat scenarios.^[1]

Specialized Military Versions

Specialized military versions of flight computers were developed to meet the demands of combat operations, incorporating enhanced durability and mission-specific scales for navigation during high-risk maneuvers. During World War II, the British Air Ministry issued the Mk III navigational computer for Royal Air Force pilots, enabling rapid calculations of position, course, and drift in tactical scenarios such as bombing raids.^[36] Similarly, the Mk VIIIA model, a circular variant based on the E-6B design, was employed by Allied forces for aerial navigation, featuring integrated scales for true airspeed and wind corrections without a separate drift slide.^[37] In the United States, the Army Air Corps adopted models like the C-2 alongside early E-6B variants manufactured by companies such as Cruver and Felsenthal, constructed from stainless steel or aluminum for rugged field use in bombers and fighters.^[37] These devices supported tactical bombing runs by incorporating specialized slide rule mechanisms for distance and speed computations under combat conditions. During WWII, military flight computers integrated bomb drop tables, allowing pilots to factor in variables like release altitude and target range; for instance, slide rules developed for B-29 Superfortress operations included replaceable charts for precise SHORAN-aided bombing corrections.^[38] During the Cold War, the United States Air Force advanced these tools with the C-2 update, designated as the Felsenthal CPU-48/P in 1964, tailored for B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress bombing and navigation missions. This 8-inch aluminum model provided enhanced computational scales for strategic operations, including drift adjustments that accounted for environmental factors in long-range flights.^[37] Military variants emphasized durability with metal casings resistant to harsh conditions and, in some cases, glow-in-the-dark markings for low-light usability, such as those from General Luminescent Corp.^[37] By the 1990s, many of these designs had been declassified, allowing their principles to influence civilian aviation tools and training aids, as documented in historical collections and technical archives.^[37]

Modern Hybrid Designs

In the 2010s, hybrid flight computers emerged that blended the tactile, analog slide rule interface of traditional E6B models with digital electronics for improved accuracy and speed. A key example is Sporty's Electronic E6B, released in 2013, which features an LCD screen for automated unit conversions, timers, and clocks while preserving the familiar layout for manual navigation, weight-and-balance, and fuel computations.^[39] This device performs 24 aviation-specific functions and 20 standard conversions, aiding pilots in FAA knowledge tests and in-flight planning without fully abandoning analog principles.^[40] Post-2020 developments have emphasized niche innovations tailored to specific aviation segments, including eco-friendly and connected features for training. Glider-specific designs incorporate specialized scales for thermal climb analysis, addressing the demands of soaring flight where precise vertical speed management is critical. These niche designs cater to a dedicated subset of pilots focused on unpowered flight. Since 2015, open-source 3D-printed designs have democratized hybrid customization, allowing users to fabricate E6B variants with adjustable scales and materials via affordable printers. Platforms like Yeggi host printable models that replicate core mechanisms while permitting modifications for personal use, fostering community-driven enhancements in aviation tools.

Usage and Alternatives

Training and Operational Application

Flight computers, such as the E6B, play a central role in pilot training under FAA regulations, where they are authorized as calculating aids for the private pilot knowledge test to perform aeronautical computations like time, speed, and distance. The Airman Certification Standards (ACS) for private pilot certification outline proficiency requirements across multiple areas of operation, encompassing over 20 tasks such as takeoffs, landings, stalls, steep turns, ground reference maneuvers, and navigation procedures, where hands-on use of a flight computer supports accurate preparation and execution of dead reckoning and pilotage techniques. In operational settings, pilots employ flight computers during visual flight rules (VFR) cross-country flights as a quick-reference tool for real-time adjustments to headings, groundspeeds, and fuel estimates based on observed conditions.^[41] Commonly secured to the aircraft yoke for accessibility, the device enables efficient in-flight verification of precomputed data, minimizing reliance on mental arithmetic and thereby reducing potential errors in navigation.^[42] Training methodologies emphasize repeated practice with flight computers in flight simulators to build muscle memory for seamless operational application, allowing pilots to intuitively apply corrections without diverting attention from primary flight tasks.^[43] Best practices for flight computer use include completing all primary calculations during pre-flight planning to establish baseline headings and fuel requirements, followed by in-flight cross-verification against actual performance indicators like GPS-derived tracks to maintain situational awareness and accuracy.^[41]

Transition to Digital Tools

The transition from analog flight computers to digital tools began in the late 1980s and 1990s with the introduction of handheld electronic calculators designed specifically for aviation computations. Devices like the ASA CX-1 Pathfinder, released in the late 1980s, automated key calculations such as wind triangles, true airspeed, and density altitude through button-driven menus and microchip technology, reducing the manual effort required with slide rule models.^[44] These early electronic aids marked a shift toward portability and speed, allowing pilots to perform complex navigation and performance calculations without mechanical sliders or charts, though they retained a calculator-like interface familiar to users of traditional tools.^[45] By the 2000s, the integration of digital computations advanced further with the advent of glass cockpit systems in general aviation aircraft. The Garmin G1000, introduced in June 2004, embedded flight management functions directly into integrated displays, automating wind corrections, fuel planning, and course computations using real-time data from GPS and sensors.^[46] This avionics suite transformed cockpits by replacing disparate analog instruments with unified digital interfaces, enabling seamless processing of time, speed, distance, and weight management tasks previously handled by handheld devices. The 2010s saw explosive growth in mobile applications, further accelerating the shift to software-based solutions. ForeFlight, launched in 2007 with its iPad app debuting in 2010, leveraged GPS for real-time flight planning, including dynamic wind triangle solutions and live updates to routes and fuel estimates.^[47] By 2020, electronic flight bags (EFBs) like ForeFlight had achieved widespread adoption in general aviation, driven by enhanced accuracy and integration with avionics. As of 2024, the EFB market continues to grow, with projections estimating a value of USD 6.01 billion by 2032 at a 7.2% CAGR, indicating increasing adoption in general aviation.^[48] This evolution reflected a broader industry trend toward automation, minimizing reliance on manual computations while improving safety through data-driven insights. Despite these advancements, analog flight computers persist in regulatory contexts to ensure foundational skills. As of 2025, manual and electronic aids like the E6B are permitted for knowledge exams per Advisory Circular 60-11C, and practical tests assess pilots' understanding of underlying computational principles.^[49] This dual approach bridges traditional techniques with modern digital efficiency, maintaining proficiency in core aviation calculations.

Contemporary Relevance

Despite the dominance of digital avionics and electronic flight bags in modern aviation, flight computers retain significant contemporary relevance as reliable backup tools, particularly during GPS outages or electronic failures in remote or under-equipped areas. These analog devices enable pilots to perform essential dead reckoning calculations, such as time, speed, distance, and wind corrections, without relying on power sources or satellites, which is critical in scenarios like jamming or spoofing events that have increased in frequency. For instance, aviation authorities emphasize the importance of backup navigation methods to ensure operational continuity in general aviation (GA) flights where advanced redundancies may be absent.^[50]^[51] In educational contexts, flight computers foster a deep understanding of fundamental aviation principles, countering the over-reliance on automation that can erode pilots' cognitive and manual skills. Training with these tools encourages pilots to grasp concepts like vector resolution and fuel management intuitively, promoting situational awareness over rote dependence on software. However, NASA research from 2018 underscores a key critique: prolonged automation use often diverts pilots' attention from core flying tasks, leading to unrelated thoughts and subsequent degradation of monitoring and decision-making abilities, which manual tools help mitigate through active engagement.^[52]^[53] Globally, the role of flight computers varies markedly, with mandatory proficiency in their use persisting in developing regions where access to sophisticated avionics remains limited, making them indispensable for routine operations and training in resource-constrained environments. Regulatory frameworks, such as those from the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), emphasize manual computation skills in basic pilot certification worldwide, but this is especially pronounced in areas like parts of Africa and Asia, where digital alternatives are less prevalent due to infrastructure challenges. In contrast, advanced economies integrate them primarily as backups, highlighting a divide in aviation technology adoption.^[54]^[55] The enduring appeal of flight computers lies in their pros and cons relative to digital counterparts: their compact portability and independence from batteries or charging make them ideal for diverse operational settings, including bush flying or emergency situations, while offering hands-on precision for quick verifications. Drawbacks include slower computation speeds and potential for human error in complex scenarios compared to automated apps, yet their simplicity ensures accessibility and reliability in an era of increasing cyber threats to electronic systems. Brief references to digital alternatives underscore this balance, as electronic tools dominate planning but cannot fully replace the tactile assurance of analogs in high-stakes backups.^[56]

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I am always grateful for hints at necessary additions, errors or mistakes (e-mail: info@flight-computer.de). ... The slide rule NL-10 U has an additional ...
[27]
E6B Flight Computer Instructions - Gleim Aviation
In the center of the rotating portion are three “holes” (windows) used to compute corrected (true) altitude, density altitude, and true airspeed. ... The numbers ...Missing: analog mechanisms principles
[28]
None
### Summary of E6B Flight Computer Scales and Markings
[29]
None
Summary of each segment:
[30]
How to Calculate Time with E6B - Home - CYA Aviation
Feb 21, 2022 · Find the distance on the outside scale, match the speed on the movable ring, then check the time arrow to find the time. For example, 120 ...
[31]
[PDF] Chapter 16: Navigation - Federal Aviation Administration
In reality, most pilots use a mechanical flight computer called an E6B or electronic flight calculator. These devices can compute numerous problems ...
[32]
[PDF] Weight & Balance Handbook (FAA-H-8083-1B)
The arm of the nosewheel is negative, so the CG is –13.2 or. 13.2 inches ahead of the main wheel weighing points. E6-B Flight Computer. The E6-B uses a special ...
[33]
Metal E6B Flight Computer - ASA
In stock 30-day returnsThe best slide-rule-style flight computer on the market, with solid aluminum construction and easy-to-read lettering. ASA's E6-B features a wind component ...Missing: diameter cost sided<|separator|>
[34]
https://www.sportys.com/media/pdf/asae6b.pdf
[35]
https://cyanavigation.com/what-is-an-e6b-and-why-every-pilot-needs-one/
[36]
What is an E6B and Why Every Pilot Needs One - CYA Aviation
Jun 11, 2025 · Originally developed during World War II by U.S. military aviators, the E6B computer was designed to facilitate in-flight calculations during ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
[37]
RAF MKIII Navigational Computer - Harris Militaria
A WW2-era Air Ministry ICAN MkIII D Navigational Computer. In well used condition with slight damage to the pen clip on the side.
[38]
Aerospace Related Slide Rules (Flight-Navigation/Rocketry/NASA)
One of many specimens in Ray's collection. Carton · Fesenthal MK-8-B Flight Computer Computer ISRM 15.11.03.04, Fesenthal MK-8-B Flight Computer Computer (1964)Missing: Ministry VIIIA encrypted
[39]
[PDF] Slide Rules and WWII Bombing: A Personal History
The slide rules are divided into general slide rules. (primarily for multiplication and division of any two num- bers) and special slides rules for solving ...
[40]
Sporty's Electronic E6B Flight Computer for Pilots - Amazon.com
Sporty's Electronic E6B Flight Computer for pilots ; Product Dimensions: 6.25 x 3.2 x 1 inches; 10.4 ounces ; Item model number: 7095A ; Batteries: 3 AAA batteries ...
[41]
https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/18_phak_ch16.pdf
[42]
LXNAV LX9050 Flight Computer - Wings & Wheels
In stock Free deliveryThermal Average (Green “T”), Speed tape and flap tape. Making it easy to compare the achieved average and thermal climb rates with the MacCready setting.
[43]
Avionics Market Size, Share, Trends, Industry, 2025 To 2030
The avionics market is expected to grow from USD 56.22 billion in 2025 to USD 82.33 billion by 2030, registering a CAGR of 7.9%.
[44]
Make Friends With the E6B - FLYING Magazine
Jul 19, 2022 · The ability to use a mechanical E6B flight computer—a form of a circular slide rule that helps calculate things like fuel burn, wind correction, ...
[45]
[PDF] Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3C) Chapter 7
For a given true airspeed, the radius of turn in the air varies proportionally with the bank angle. To maintain a constant radius over the ground, the bank ...
[46]
Retro Review: ASA CX-1 Flight Computer
Feb 6, 2018 · The CX-1 (and subsequently the CX-2 and CX-3) is a unique type of calculator, which focuses on solving problems in aviation, as well as a timer, ...Missing: introduction 1990s
[47]
[PDF] CX-1a Pathfinder - ASA
The CX-1a Pathfinder is a flight computer with functions including arithmetic, conversions, true airspeed, and pressure/density altitudes.Missing: 1990s | Show results with:1990s
[48]
A Comprehensive Guide to Garmin G1000 NXi - Elliott Aviation
Oct 30, 2020 · The Garmin G1000 first entered the market in June of 2004, where it was delivered in a Diamond DA40. At the time, Garmin was becoming firmly ...
[49]
About ForeFlight
ForeFlight formed in 2007 with one guiding mission: Create software that makes flight planning easier.
[50]
Electronic Flight Bag [EFB] Market Size | Industry Analysis, 2032
The global electronic flight bag (EFB) market size is projected to grow from $4.02 million in 2024 to $7.61 million by 2032, ata CAGR of 8.3%
[51]
[PDF] AC 60-11C - Test Aids and Materials that may be used by Airman ...
It is permissible to use certain calculating devices when taking airman knowledge tests, provided they are used within the guidelines of this AC. The term. “ ...
[52]
On Instruments: The GPS backup - AOPA
Jul 1, 2021 · It's enough to make you want to review VOR procedures, and maybe even—the horror!—NDB tracking if you're planning on flying in foreign airspace.
[53]
Study: GPS disruptions in aviation show importance of backups
Jun 12, 2024 · Previous work by London Economics has shown that disruption of GPS for these ground functions would likely cause numerous flight delays and cancellations.Missing: computer | Show results with:computer
[54]
[PDF] AOSP Newsletter, Jan-Mar 2018, Quarter 2 - NASA
Mar 9, 2018 · Skill Degradation? AeroTime (2/15) reports “the NASA study revealed that during flights with automation, pilots' thoughts were unrelated to ...
[55]
[PDF] Considerations in Assuring Safety of Increasingly Autonomous ...
Jul 1, 2018 · Though replacing one of the pilots with an IA system has several benefits such as reduce costs and perform complex missions, such systems pose ...
[56]
[PDF] AVIATION TRAINING GOING FORWARD - ICAO
The Regulatory Authority required the aircraft to be type certified in order to grant approval for the aircraft type-specific courses to be conducted for the.
[57]
Why We Still Need Manual Flight Computers - Home - CYA Aviation
Jun 28, 2024 · Aviation training programs emphasize the importance of manual flight computer skills. Regulatory bodies like the Federal Aviation Administration ...Introduction · Reliability And Redundancy... · Training And Skill...Missing: mandatory | Show results with:mandatory
[58]
The Basics of the E6B Flight Computer: What You Need To Know
Feb 28, 2023 · The E6B flight computer is one of the most useful tools you can have in the cockpit. For many new pilots, it also is one of the most ...What The E6b Can Do For You · The Wind Side · The Electronic E6b