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E6B

The E6B flight computer, often referred to as the "whiz wheel," is a circular slide rule designed for aviation use, enabling pilots to perform analog calculations for navigation, flight planning, and performance without relying on electronic devices.^[1] It features two main sides: the calculator side for basic arithmetic operations like multiplication, division, percentages, and unit conversions, and the wind side for graphical solutions involving wind effects on aircraft movement.^[2] Key applications include determining true airspeed from indicated airspeed and altitude, calculating groundspeed and wind correction angles via wind triangles, estimating fuel burn and time en route, and computing density altitude for performance adjustments.^[1] Constructed typically from durable materials like aluminum or more affordable options such as plastic or fiberboard, the device consists of a fixed outer disk, a rotatable inner disk, and a sliding card for aligning scales, all marked with graduated logarithmic and trigonometric scales.^[3] Invented by U.S. Navy Lieutenant Philip Dalton in the 1930s, the E6B originated as an improvement over existing artillery range calculators, drawing on Dalton's background in physics and aviation training.^[4] It was formally introduced to the U.S. Army Air Corps in 1940 under the designation "E-6B," reflecting its official part number, and quickly became essential for dead reckoning navigation—plotting position based on heading, speed, time, and wind drift.^[4] During World War II, following the 1941 Pearl Harbor attack, the Army Air Forces ordered approximately 400,000 units to equip pilots, particularly in B-17 bomber crews, where it proved vital for long-range missions amid limited radio navigation options.^[4] Tragically, Dalton died in a training accident in July 1941, shortly after its adoption, leaving a legacy that extended into postwar civilian and military aviation.^[4] Despite the advent of digital tools like GPS, electronic flight bags, and smartphone apps since the mid-20th century, the E6B endures as a fundamental training aid in flight schools worldwide, mandated for FAA knowledge tests and practical exams to instill core piloting principles.^[5] Its battery-free reliability makes it an ideal backup during power failures or electronic malfunctions, while its mechanical nature visually demonstrates concepts like wind influence that digital interfaces often abstract.^[1] Available in manual, electronic, and simulator forms, the E6B symbolizes aviation heritage, outselling many modern alternatives and remaining a rite of passage for aspiring pilots.^[5]

Design and Components

Physical Construction

The traditional E6B flight computer features a mechanical design consisting of a stationary frame with a flat circular rotating portion attached via a central metal rivet, allowing smooth rotation for alignment of scales on the calculator side, while the wind side incorporates a rotatable transparent plotting transparency over a fixed grid and an independently sliding card.^[2] This analog construction enables manual computations without any electronic components, emphasizing portability and reliability in aviation settings.^[2] The E6B is typically constructed from durable materials such as aluminum for the frame in premium models, with economical variants using plastic, cardboard, or fiberboard, and transparent plastic or similar synthetics for the rotating disk to facilitate visibility and marking.^[1] Aluminum versions provide robust construction suitable for repeated use, while plastic and fiberboard options offer cost-effective alternatives without compromising core functionality.^[1] The scales are printed directly onto these materials, with the transparent disk allowing pencil markings for temporary annotations during calculations.^[2] Standard E6B models measure approximately 9.75 inches by 5 inches overall, with the functional circular section around 6 inches in diameter, ensuring it fits easily in a pilot's flight bag or cockpit.^[6] Weights vary by material, with paper or fiberboard constructions under 4 ounces (about 0.21 pounds) for maximum portability, and metal aluminum versions around 0.65 pounds to balance durability and ease of handling.^[6] Assembly involves securing the rotating disk to the fixed frame using the central rivet, often with additional clips or fasteners to maintain alignment and prevent slippage during use.^[2] This simple mechanical linkage supports precise rotations essential for the device's slide-rule operations.

Scale Markings and Functions

The E6B flight computer operates on the principle of a circular slide rule, utilizing logarithmic scales to enable multiplication, division, and proportional calculations without electronic aids. These scales are calibrated such that the distance between numbers represents the logarithm of their values, allowing users to align markings for direct ratio computations, such as speed-to-distance conversions.^[2]^[7] The outer fixed scale, often labeled as the A scale, features logarithmic markings for various units including statute miles (SM, positioned near 76), nautical miles (NM, near 66), and kilometers (KM, near 12). These markings facilitate distance, speed, and fuel-related calculations by providing a common logarithmic reference for multiplication and division across imperial and metric systems. For instance, the scale's graduation varies—0.1 between 10 and 11, increasing to 1 at 60—to accommodate precise readings in different ranges.^[7]^[2] The inner rotatable disk, known as the B scale, mirrors the logarithmic progression of the outer scale to support ratio-based operations, with additional specialized arcs such as time markings in hours and minutes. Users rotate this disk to align specific indices, like the airspeed index or the 1 HOUR triangular pointer, with values on the outer scale; this alignment exploits slide rule mechanics to compute proportions, such as deriving time from speed and distance by setting the rate arrow to the known speed and reading the result opposite the distance. The inner scale also includes units like kilograms (KG, near 17), meters (M, near 44), and liters (L, near 48) for conversions.^[8]^[2]^[7] On the back side, the E6B features a triangular wind grid designed for vector solutions in wind correction, with a rotatable compass rose, a central grommet for plotting, and scales for wind speed (typically 0-80 or 0-160 knots). This grid enables graphical determination of groundspeed and drift angle by aligning true course and wind direction. Additionally, a dedicated true airspeed (TAS) conversion window uses data from the NACA Report 218 standard atmosphere model to adjust indicated airspeed for altitude and temperature effects.^[9]^[8]^[2]

Calculations

Time, Speed, and Distance

The E6B flight computer facilitates basic en route planning in aviation through scalar calculations of time, speed, and distance, primarily using its slide rule side with logarithmic scales calibrated in nautical miles and knots. These computations assume a constant speed and enable pilots to determine positional elements without accounting for directional factors like wind, which are addressed separately. The device employs a circular or linear slide mechanism where the inner and outer scales align to solve the fundamental relationship D = S \times T, where D is distance in nautical miles, S is speed in knots, and T is time in hours (or fractions thereof, often converted to minutes for precision).^[10]^[2] To perform these calculations, the E6B uses a fixed "rate arrow" or index marker on the outer scale, typically set to the speed value, allowing direct reading of time or distance from aligned scales. For time en route, align the index with the known speed on the outer scale, locate the distance on the outer scale, and read the corresponding time on the inner scale; times are marked in minutes up to 60, with hours indicated separately for longer durations. This method inherently applies the inverse of the distance formula, T = D / S, by leveraging the logarithmic alignment to compute divisions efficiently. For instance, for a 245-nautical-mile leg at 150 knots, alignment yields approximately 1 hour and 38 minutes.^[10]^[2] Conversely, to find distance covered, set the index to the known speed, position the inner scale's time value under it, and read the distance directly from the outer scale, implementing D = S \times T. A representative example is a 30-minute flight at 120 knots: align the index with 120 on the outer scale, place 30 minutes on the inner scale beneath it, and read 60 nautical miles on the outer scale, confirming the product through scale proportionality. To compute speed (such as ground speed from observed time and distance), align the known time on the inner scale opposite the distance on the outer scale, then read the speed at the index; for 13 minutes covering 26 nautical miles, this results in 120 knots.^[10]^[2] Units conversion is integrated via dedicated markings on the scales, such as NAUT for nautical miles/knots and STAT for statute miles/mph, allowing seamless shifts between aviation standards and land-based measures. For example, setting 90 under the NAUT arrow and reading under STAT yields 103.5 mph, reflecting the 1.15078 conversion factor from knots to mph. These basic operations form the foundation for en route planning and can integrate with subsequent wind corrections for refined ground speed.^[10]

Wind and Heading Correction

The wind and heading correction functionality of the E6B flight computer utilizes its reverse side, known as the wind face, which features a polar grid with concentric speed arcs and radial direction lines to graphically solve the wind triangle. This method allows pilots to account for wind effects on flight path by combining true airspeed (TAS), true course (TC), and wind direction and velocity vectors to determine true heading (TH), wind correction angle (WCA), drift angle, and groundspeed (GS). The graphical approach avoids algebraic computation, relying instead on alignment and measurement on the device's sliding grid and rotatable disk.^[2] To set up the wind triangle, the pilot first rotates the compass rose on the wind face to align the given true wind direction with the true index at the top. Next, the sliding grid is positioned so its central grommet aligns over the TAS value on the appropriate speed arc (e.g., 120 knots). A pencil mark is then placed at a distance representing the wind speed (e.g., 20 knots) outward from the grommet along the wind direction line, creating the wind vector. The compass rose is rotated to place the true course under the true index, and the grid is slid—without rotating—to align the wind mark precisely over the TAS arc. This alignment forms the wind triangle graphically, where the true course line serves as the ground track reference.^[11]^[10] True heading is determined by reading the wind correction angle from the scale where the wind vector intersects the grid lines relative to the true course centerline; a positive value indicates a correction into the wind (e.g., right WCA for a left crosswind). The TH is then calculated as TC ± WCA. The drift angle, which represents the angular deviation between the intended ground track and the actual path without correction, is approximately equal to the WCA for small angles. Groundspeed is read directly under the grommet on the speed scale after alignment, reflecting the resultant vector of TAS adjusted for wind. This process embodies vector addition, where the ground vector is the vector sum of the air vector (TAS along TH) and the wind vector; quantitatively, GS = TAS × cos(drift angle), providing the component of TAS along the ground track.^[12]^[2] For isolating the crosswind component, which causes drift, the E6B's grid employs converging lines spaced to facilitate perpendicular wind effects, often leveraging 60-degree angular relationships in the triangular vector layout to measure the lateral wind force orthogonal to the course. The pilot identifies the angle between wind direction and true course, then uses the grid's radial and arc intersections to scale the crosswind as the perpendicular leg of the wind triangle, distinct from the headwind or tailwind component along the track. This graphical isolation aids in assessing drift without separate trigonometric tools.^[10]^[2] A representative example involves a 100-knot TAS with a 10-knot crosswind at 90 degrees to the true course. Aligning the wind vector perpendicular to the course on the grid yields a drift angle of approximately 5 degrees, requiring a 5-degree WCA into the wind to maintain the ground track. The resulting groundspeed is about 99.5 knots, calculated as 100 × cos(5°), illustrating the minor reduction due to the crosswind's vector opposition.^[12]

Fuel Consumption and Conversions

The E6B flight computer facilitates fuel burn estimation by multiplying the aircraft's fuel flow rate, typically expressed in gallons per hour (GPH), by the planned flight time to determine total fuel required.^[2] For instance, an aircraft with a burn rate of 10 GPH over a 2.5-hour flight would consume 25 gallons, calculated as total fuel = rate × time.^[2] This straightforward scalar multiplication uses the E6B's circular slide rule, where the inner scale aligns with hours and minutes, and the outer scale provides the cumulative gallons opposite the burn rate index.^[10] Endurance, or maximum flight time on available fuel, is computed by dividing total usable fuel by the burn rate on the same slide rule scales.^[2] Using the prior example, 48 gallons of usable fuel at 10.3 GPH yields approximately 4 hours and 40 minutes of endurance.^[2] Pilots reference aircraft-specific rates from the Pilot's Operating Handbook (POH), such as 8.4 GPH at cruise power, to ensure accurate planning.^[10] The E6B includes dedicated conversion scales for aviation units, notably transforming knots (nautical miles per hour) to miles per hour (mph) or statute miles. To convert, align the nautical (NAUT) index opposite the knot value on the middle scale, then read the equivalent under the statute (STAT) index on the outer scale; for example, 90 knots equates to 103.5 mph.^[10] These conversions support integrating speed data across planning phases, such as adapting time inputs from en route calculations. True airspeed (TAS) conversion from indicated airspeed (IAS) relies on the E6B's density window, which applies corrections based on pressure altitude and outside air temperature (OAT) under the 1940s ICAO standard atmosphere model, derived from NACA Report No. 218 tables for pressures and densities up to 65,000 feet.^[13]^[10] Conceptually, TAS approximates IAS divided by the square root of the density ratio to sea-level standard conditions:

\text{TAS} = \frac{\text{IAS}}{\sqrt{\frac{\rho}{\rho_0}}}

where \rho is air density at altitude and \rho_0 is sea-level density; the window provides a lookup approximation by aligning OAT (in °C) with pressure altitude on the upper scales, then reading TAS opposite IAS on the main scales.^[2]^[10] For example, at 15,000 feet pressure altitude and -15°C OAT with 145 knots IAS, TAS reads 183 knots.^[10] Density altitude adjustments extend this window for non-standard conditions, yielding a corrected altitude that influences TAS and indirectly fuel planning by accounting for reduced air density in hot or high scenarios.^[2] After finding TAS, read density altitude under the index; higher values increase TAS for a given IAS, potentially raising fuel consumption due to lower engine efficiency in thinner air, though cruise burn rates remain primarily POH-derived.^[10]^[8]

History

Invention and Early Development

The E6B flight computer was invented by Philip Dalton, a U.S. Navy lieutenant and aviation enthusiast born in 1903, who held a bachelor's degree from Cornell University and a master's in physics from Princeton.^[4] As a naval aviator with experience in reconnaissance missions, Dalton sought to create a more practical tool for in-flight navigation, drawing from his frustration with existing linear slide rules used in artillery and early aviation calculations.^[14] His design emerged in the late 1930s as an adaptation of logarithmic slide rules, tailored specifically for aviation tasks such as solving wind triangles and performing dead reckoning.^[15] Dalton conceptualized the device around 1936, filing for a patent titled "Plotting and Computing Device" that year, which was granted as U.S. Patent 2,097,116 on October 26, 1937. By 1940, prototypes had been developed and introduced to the U.S. military, where initial trials focused on enhancing flight training efficiency for pilots.^[4] The Army Air Corps assigned it the part number E6B that same year, marking its formal recognition as a standardized tool, though production ramped up only after further validation.^[16] Key innovations in Dalton's design included its circular form factor, which allowed for one-handed operation by pilots during flight—a significant improvement over cumbersome linear predecessors.^[15] Additionally, the E6B incorporated a dedicated window for true airspeed (TAS) calculations, based on atmospheric data from NACA Report No. 218, "Standard Atmosphere—Tables and Data," published in 1926 by Walter S. Diehl. These features addressed practical aviation needs, such as altitude corrections and velocity adjustments, stemming from Dalton's firsthand naval experience.^[14] Tragically, Dalton died in a training accident in July 1941.^[4]

Adoption and Standardization

The E6B flight computer was issued as standard equipment to the U.S. Army Air Corps in 1940, marking its initial military adoption as an essential tool for aerial navigation.^[17] During World War II, it saw extensive use in pilot training programs, with over 400,000 units produced to meet the demands of expanding air forces.^[4] Its reliability in performing dead reckoning calculations under combat conditions solidified its role in military aviation curricula across Allied forces. Following the war, the E6B transitioned to widespread civilian and international use, becoming a de facto standard in aviation training by the 1950s. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) incorporated it into private pilot knowledge examinations, where it remains a permitted aid for solving navigation problems.^[18] Production evolved with the shift to civilian manufacturers in the late 1940s and 1950s, including Jeppesen & Company, which began producing versions tailored for commercial pilots.^[16] Minor updates included the addition of metric scales alongside statute miles and nautical miles to accommodate international users, reflecting broader metrication trends in aviation. By the 1970s, while the E6B retained its core status in training, it was increasingly supplemented—though not replaced—by emerging electronic calculators and early digital flight aids, allowing pilots greater speed in routine computations.^[19]

Modern Variants

Improved Analog Models

Following World War II, analog E6B models evolved through material and design refinements that enhanced usability and portability while preserving the device's core slide rule functionality, building on the original metal construction introduced in 1940. Manufacturers shifted to lighter materials like plastic and cardboard for the backing and components, replacing the heavier steel of early wartime versions to reduce overall weight and production costs without compromising accuracy.^[17] Design improvements focused on readability and convenience for pilots in varied cockpit conditions. ASA introduced color-coded scales on their aluminum E6B models, using distinct colors—such as red for weight and volume calculations, blue for distance, time, and temperature, and black for rate arrows—to streamline identification and reduce errors during rapid computations.^[20] Similarly, Jeppesen offers their metal CSG E6B with clear lettering and a non-glare finish for precise scale alignment.^[21] Pocket-sized variants, approximately 6 inches long by 3.5 inches wide, emerged in the mid-20th century to offer greater portability; these compact aluminum models retained full functionality, including wind correction grids, and became favored by military aviators for in-flight use.^[22] Durability features advanced in later decades with solid aluminum frames that prevent bending, warping, or wear from extended handling, making the devices suitable for rigorous training and operational demands.^[23] These enhancements ensured the analog E6B's longevity as a reliable tool, distinct from its heavier WWII-era predecessors. The improved analog E6B continues to hold practical and regulatory significance in aviation training. As of 2025, it is an authorized and essential aid for solving navigation, performance, and wind correction problems on FAA knowledge tests, including the private pilot exam, where applicants may use manual or approved electronic versions alongside plotters and basic calculators.

Digital and Software Versions

Electronic flight computers emerged as successors to the analog E6B in the late 20th century, providing automated calculations for aviation tasks such as true airspeed, wind correction, and fuel planning. One early example is Sporty's Electronic E6B, refined over decades, which performs 24 aviation functions including density altitude and time en route computations on a digital interface.^[3] Modern devices like the ASA CX-3, released in 2017, feature LCD displays and automate complex operations such as wind triangle solutions, allowing pilots to input variables for instant ground speed and heading outputs.^[24]^[25] Mobile applications have further digitized E6B functionality, replicating the device's scales on smartphones and tablets for portable use. The E6BX app, available on iOS and Android since the 2010s, offers a visual E6B simulator alongside tools for navigation logging and weather decoding, with GPS integration enabling real-time coordinate conversions between decimal degrees, degrees-minutes-seconds, and other formats.^[26]^[27] These apps enhance accessibility by incorporating device sensors for precise inputs during flight planning. Software integrations embed E6B capabilities into comprehensive flight management platforms, streamlining pre-flight preparations. ForeFlight, launched in 2011, incorporates E6B-like calculators within its ecosystem, combining sectional charts, airport data, and automated performance computations to replace standalone tools.^[28] These systems employ standard aviation algorithms for true airspeed derivations, drawing from established aerodynamic principles to ensure accuracy in varying atmospheric conditions. Digital versions offer advantages in speed and precision, enabling rapid iterations for scenarios like en route adjustments, though they depend on battery power and electronic reliability, potentially limiting use in low-resource environments.^[29] As of 2025, FAA regulations permit electronic E6Bs on knowledge tests and practical exams, provided they are non-programmable and aviation-specific, but analog models remain recommended for training to build foundational skills.^[30]^[31] Market adoption reflects a shift toward digital tools, with over 250,000 pilots using devices like Sporty's Electronic E6B for routine operations by the early 2020s.^[3] Hybrid approaches, blending analog interfaces with digital outputs in apps like E6BX, cater to pilots preferring tactile simulation while leveraging computational efficiency.^[26]

References

[1]
What is the E6B Flight Computer? - Pilot Institute
Dec 24, 2020 · The E6B flight computer is a circular slide rule used in aviation and one of the first analog calculating devices or “computers” developed in the 21 st century.An overview of the E6B flight... · What is it used for? · Groundspeed and wind...
[2]
E6B Flight Computer Instructions - Gleim Aviation
Click the button below each image to use a manual E6B flight computer online. View Calculator Side. View Wind Side. The Calculator Side of the E6B ...
[3]
https://www.sportys.com/sporty-s-electronic-e6b-flight-computer.html
[4]
Celebrating the E-6B's 80th Birthday - Gleim Aviation
Dec 27, 2019 · The current flight computer design was originally introduced to the Army Air Corps in 1940 as the “E-6B,” which referred to its part number.
[5]
Dogfight: The E6B computer - AOPA
Jul 5, 2013 · Calculators, fuel computers and totalizers, radio navigation, satellite weather, and GPS have all come into being since the E6B was invented ...
[6]
E6B Computer: Celebrating 75 Years Of Flight | InformationWeek
Dec 30, 2015 · The E6B is a cardboard slide rule and calculation wheel, introduced in 1940, considered the definitive flight computing device. It has a ...
[7]
ASA E6-B Metal Flight Computer | Aircraft Spruce ®
In stock Rating 4.7 (17) Specifications · Dimensions: 9-3/4" x 5" · Weight: 0.65 lbs.Missing: physical | Show results with:physical
[8]
None
### Summary of E6B Circular Flight Computer Scale Markings and Functions
[9]
E6B Made Easy: A Beginner's Step-by-Step Guide - Pilot Institute
Feb 1, 2025 · An E6B is a manual flight computer pilots use to perform flight calculations. It's a circular slide rule, calculator, and an aviation graph plotter all packed ...
[10]
What equations and constants did they use to build the E6B flight ...
Jan 30, 2021 · The basis for the E6B atmosphere calculations was NACA Report 218, written by Walter S Diehl of the Bureau of Aeronautics, Navy Department.
[11]
None
### Summary of E6-B Flight Computer Physical Construction, Materials, Dimensions, and Mechanism
[12]
Working the wind wheel - AOPA
Mar 5, 2010 · The E6B wind wheel helps determine groundspeed and wind correction using a compass rose and sliding grid, aiding in preflight planning.
[13]
[PDF] Chapter 16: Navigation - Federal Aviation Administration
Where calculations are required, the pilot may use a mathematical formula or a manual or electronic flight computer. If unfamiliar with the use of a manual or ...
[14]
[PDF] NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR AERONAUTICS
Detailed tables of pressures and densities are given for altitudes up to 20,000 meters and to 63,000 feet. The ICAO Standard Atmosphere was officially accepted ...Missing: E6B TAS
[15]
Story of E-6B & Philip Dalton - Home - CYA Aviation
Aug 6, 2021 · The E-6B is a slide graphic flight computer, a must-to-have tool for FAA exams, and was invented in 1940 during WWII. It is still used in ...
[16]
https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object/nmah_690053
[17]
Dalton E-6B Dead Reckoning Computer by Jeppesen
The Dalton E-6B is a device with a sliding sheet and discs for altitude, airspeed, wind correction, and temperature conversion, developed for the U.S. Army Air ...
[18]
Checklist to Ace Your FAA Private Pilot Written Test
Aug 9, 2025 · Tools Of The Trade. Illustration of checklist, E-6B flight computer, and calculator with bullet points listing. On your knowledge test, you'll ...
[19]
The Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949 - Office of the Historian
The crisis started on June 24, 1948, when Soviet forces blockaded rail, road, and water access to Allied-controlled areas of Berlin. The United States and ...Missing: E6B | Show results with:E6B
[20]
When did digital E6Bs start to show up? : r/flying - Reddit
Oct 25, 2020 · Electronic E6Bs were first patented in the mid 70s (1974). I can remember seeing them in the mid 90s in the pilot catalogs when I first started ...Electronic E6B worth the money? : r/flying - RedditThoughts on e6bx and/or sporty's e6b? : r/flying - RedditMore results from www.reddit.com
[21]
ASA Color Full Size E6B
### Summary of ASA Color Full Size E6B
[22]
https://www.sportys.com/pocket-size-e6b-flight-computer.html
[23]
https://asa2fly.com/metal-e6b-flight-computer/
[24]
Metal E6B Flight Computer - ASA
In stock 30-day returnsThis high-quality aluminum E6-B computer has a wind grid, crosswind chart, and computes time, speed, distance, altitude, true airspeed, and density altitude. ...Missing: 1970s | Show results with:1970s
[25]
CX-3 Flight Computer | ASA Pilot Supplies
$$149.95 In stock 30-day returnsThe most versatile and easy-to-use aviation flight computer for fast, accurate flight planning and calculations. Batteries included.
[26]
E6BX E6B Flight Computer App | Online Aviation Calculators
Rating 4.8 (12) Our GPS Coordinate Converter can convert between Decimal Degrees (DD), Degrees Decimal Minutes (DDM), and Degrees Minutes Seconds (DMS).
[27]
E6BX E6B Flight Computer - Apps on Google Play
Included in this app are a visual E6B Calculator, interactive Weather Reports with METAR and TAF decoders, a NavLog Calculator, and many other tools to assist ...
[28]
ForeFlight for Students
Like a stack of VFR sectionals, airport directories, and an E6B flight calculator all wrapped up in one, ForeFlight consolidates the most important ...Master The Essentials Of... · Inflight Awareness · All In One Solution
[29]
Analog and proud of it - AOPA
Sep 18, 2023 · The electronic E6B is faster and more portable than the manual E6B, and the FAA allows it to be used to calculate problems for knowledge tests.Missing: limitations | Show results with:limitations
[30]
What To Bring To Your FAA Knowledge Test - Gleim Aviation
May 1, 2020 · E6B flight computer (manual or electronic); Small electronic calculator (that only performs basic arithmetic functions and is not capable of ...
[31]
[PDF] FAA Airman Knowledge Testing Matrix
Jan 27, 2025 · An applicant must present state or federal government-issued photo identification as proof they are at least the minimum eligibility age ...