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Flytoget


Flytoget is a high-speed airport express train service in Norway that connects Oslo Airport, Gardermoen, to Oslo Central Station, covering the 48-kilometer distance in 19 minutes.
Operated by Flytoget AS, the service runs every 10 minutes during peak periods, achieves maximum speeds of 210 km/h on the dedicated Gardermoen Line, and is noted for its reliability with over 96% punctuality.
Established as Norway's first high-speed rail link, Flytoget AS was formed in 1992 with operations commencing in 1998 alongside the airport's opening, providing a comfortable and efficient alternative to road transport with features like Wi-Fi, onboard facilities, and ticketless travel options.
In 2025, Flytoget AS became a subsidiary of the state-owned Vygruppen AS following a merger aimed at enhancing regional rail services, while maintaining its core airport express function.

History

Planning and Decision for Airport Link

In the early , Oslo's Fornebu struggled with capacity limitations amid surging air passenger volumes, prompting decades-long debates on relocating the main airport for . Access to Fornebu depended heavily on automobiles and buses, lacking any direct service, while the adjacent Hovedbanen (Trunk Line) provided only indirect, low-speed connections via shared tracks with freight and regional trains, resulting in unreliable and time-consuming journeys for airport-bound travelers. Gardermoen, situated about 50 km north of along the Oslo-Eidsvoll corridor, emerged as the preferred site due to its potential for efficient , addressing these shortcomings through a purpose-built link. On 8 October 1992, the Norwegian Parliament approved the new airport at Gardermoen and committed to a dedicated connection, opting for a standalone 64 km double-track line parallel to segments of the existing Hovedbanen to prioritize speeds and over mixed-use with commuter or freight operations. This decision followed extensive feasibility assessments emphasizing the need for a reliable alternative to road dependency, with NSB Gardermobanen AS formed on 24 November 1992 to oversee development of the infrastructure. Economic evaluations justified the project through forecasts of substantial passenger uptake, targeting a 50% of airport users, and direct time reductions to 19 minutes from —comparable to prior airport access durations but with greater consistency amid growing traffic peaks. The dedicated alignment was projected to shift travelers from cars and buses, causally easing highway congestion and yielding environmental gains via modal diversion, while supporting a mandated 7.5% return on the estimated 7.7 billion rail investment through fare revenues and broader societal benefits like valued travel-time savings.

Construction Phase

Construction of the Gardermoen Line, dedicated to Flytoget services, commenced in 1994 following the Norwegian parliament's 1992 decision to locate Oslo's new main at Gardermoen, necessitating a high-capacity rail link. The project encompassed 66 kilometers of new double-track alignment, including extensive tunneling and adaptations for high-speed operations. Initial cost estimates stood at 4.6 billion with a ±20% margin, primarily financed through passenger surcharges and government-backed bonds to ensure financial self-sufficiency via user fees. Key engineering challenges included the excavation of the 14.6-kilometer Romeriksporten Tunnel, Norway's longest railway tunnel at the time, which traversed unstable geological formations and required advanced and systems to support 210 km/h speeds. The line featured slab track construction in tunnels and open sections to minimize and enable rapid acceleration, with systems designed for reliable power delivery at elevated velocities. These adaptations prioritized reliability for services, incorporating redundant signaling and given the region's seismic considerations. Significant delays arose from water ingress into the Romeriksporten Tunnel during late construction, stemming from inadequate geological surveys and grout injection failures, which flooded sections and halted progress for repairs. This issue inflated total costs to approximately 7.7 billion, including extraordinary measures like additional sealing and pumping, while deferring full high-speed certification. Despite these setbacks, the line synchronized with Airport's opening on 8 October 1998, following intensive pre-operational testing of infrastructure integrity and train integration at reduced speeds of 160 km/h to mitigate risks. Permanent 210 km/h approval followed in 2003 after remediation and dynamic testing confirmed stability.

Opening and Early Operations

The Flytoget Airport Express Train service launched on 8 October 1998, aligning with the opening of , as a dedicated link to . The inaugural non-stop route covered the 48 km distance in 19 minutes at speeds up to 210 km/h along the new double-track Gardermoen Line, which featured advanced signaling and tunnel infrastructure to ensure reliability. Operations began under NSB Gardermobanen AS, a of the Norwegian State Railways (NSB), deploying an initial fleet of 16 three-car Class 71 (BM71) electric multiple units built by for airport shuttle duty with ergonomic seating for 168 passengers and full accessibility. Early service emphasized frequent departures—every 10 minutes during peaks—with a focus on punctual, comfortable travel to capture demand previously served by slower regional trains and buses from the old Fornebu Airport. Ridership expanded steadily amid Gardermoen's passenger growth from 11 million in 1998, driven by Norway's aviation boom and the train's integration with facilities. By the mid-2000s, annual volumes approached several million, outpacing some pre-launch estimates tied to conservative air traffic forecasts, as evidenced by subsequent dividend payments to the since . In 2001, ownership transitioned when NSB Gardermobanen AS reorganized as the independent Flytoget AS effective 1 January, fully owned by the Ministry of Transport and Communications, while track ownership shifted to the Norwegian National Rail Administration to separate operations from infrastructure. This structure enabled focused management of the express , with adaptations including minor timetable tweaks for peak alignment but preserving core 19-minute timings and trainset reliability through routine NSB . Initial performance data indicated consistent on-time arrivals, supporting traveler preference over alternatives despite higher fares.

Challenges and Reorganizations

The construction and early operation of the Flytoget line encountered significant technical hurdles, including leaks in the Romeriksporten tunnel discovered in 1997, which led to ground subsidence and halted work due to toxic acrylamide contamination in the sealing compound effluent. This necessitated the installation of a treatment plant and postponed tunnel completion until June 1998, with partial line opening on October 8, 1998, and full passenger service commencing only on August 22, 1999, after project costs ballooned from an initial NOK 4.6 billion to NOK 10 billion. These delays stemmed from engineering miscalculations in tunnel waterproofing under Norway's variable geology and climate, highlighting causal factors in rushed infrastructure execution rather than solely external weather variability. In response to these operational strains and to enhance autonomy from parent entity NSB, Flytoget underwent structural reorganization, culminating in the Norwegian state's direct effective January 1, 2003, following its designation as a separate public corporation on , 2002. This shift from NSB Gardermobanen AS—renamed Flytoget AS in 2001—allowed independent refinancing and focused management of the dedicated link, with assets valued at 1,714 million transferred to the National Rail Administration in 2000. By 2004, oversight moved to the Ministry of Trade and Industry, further insulating operations from broader NSB constraints and enabling targeted responses to demand growth. To address rising passenger volumes amid airport expansion, Flytoget implemented capacity upgrades, including the addition of 16 intermediate cars in 2009, boosting per-train seating from 168 to 244 passengers. Concurrently, permanent approval for 210 km/h operations in reduced Oslo-Gardermoen travel time to 19 minutes, mitigating bottlenecks without excusing prior inefficiencies in fleet and signaling reliability. While empirical data indicate high overall around 97%, occasional breakdowns—such as early braking system faults and winter slippage incidents—underscore maintenance lapses in under Nordic conditions, where proactive de-icing and signaling redundancy proved insufficient during initial years. These factors reveal that, despite robust uptime, causal shortcomings in adaptive engineering contributed to disruptions, independent of external demand pressures.

Operations

Route and Stations

The Flytoget service utilizes the dedicated Gardermoen Line, a high-speed, double-track railway spanning 64 kilometers from (Oslo S) to Eidsvoll, with Flytoget operations covering the initial segment to Oslo Airport Station at Gardermoen, approximately 48 kilometers in length. The line is electrified at 15 kV, 16.7 Hz AC overhead , enabling electric multiple-unit trains to achieve maximum speeds of 210 km/h on open sections. Key infrastructure includes the 3.6-kilometer Oslo Tunnel connecting Oslo S to the line's eastern alignment and the 14.6-kilometer Tunnel between the Kløft area and Gardermoen, minimizing surface disruption and enabling express travel times of 19 minutes for direct runs. Flytoget trains serve three primary stations: Oslo Airport Station, Lillestrøm (on select services, with three departures per hour), and Oslo S. Oslo Airport Station, opened in 1998, is integrated directly into the airport terminal via escalators and moving walkways, featuring two platforms designed for trains up to 500 meters long to support future capacity expansions, though Flytoget sets are typically 168 meters. Lillestrøm station functions as an optional intermediate stop at the 12-minute mark from the airport, located at the junction where the Gardermoen Line parallels the older Trunk Line before diverging. Oslo S features dedicated platforms with underground arrival tracks emerging from the Oslo Tunnel, facilitating quick transfers to Vy-operated national and services on adjacent lines, though Flytoget maintains operational priority through dedicated signaling and scheduling to avoid conflicts with regional traffic. The route's design emphasizes separation from conventional rail networks for reliability, with no additional intermediate stops beyond to preserve express speeds, and integration points limited to the endpoints for seamless and urban connectivity.

Service Features and Performance

The Flytoget service achieves an end-to-end travel time of 19 minutes from Oslo Airport to , operating at a maximum speed of 210 km/h along its dedicated high-speed track. Trains maintain consistent 10-minute headways during peak and daytime hours, ensuring frequent departures that align with flight schedules for seamless connectivity. Fares are fixed at 240 for a one-way , with options for ticketless entry via the Flytoget app, which allows passengers to board without physical tickets by validating digitally upon entry. Discounts apply for students, seniors, and youths, while children under 6 travel free with an . Performance metrics demonstrate high reliability, with punctuality rates—defined as arrivals within three minutes of schedule—reaching 97% in recent operations. This benchmark exceeds many services and supports efficient airport access, as the service's speed and frequency yield travel times roughly half those of taxis or buses under typical traffic conditions (40-50 minutes). Such time advantages empirically drive passenger preference for rail over road options, evidenced by consistent high utilization during peak airport demand.

Incidents and Safety

Flytoget has recorded no fatalities in passenger service since operations began in 1998, reflecting the low overall risk of rail accidents in , where only three fatalities occurred nationwide from 2001 to 2008. The service's safety performance aligns with Norway's railway system exceeding the average, supported by rigorous incident tracking and mitigation. Central to safety measures is the Automatic Train Protection (ATP) system implemented on the Gardermoen Line, which enforces speed restrictions, prevents signal violations, and halts trains at danger points to avert collisions or overspeeds. Post-incident analyses and operator protocols, including use of Synergi Life software for logging near-misses, deviations, and employee injuries, have driven reductions in minor incidents such as back strains among staff. Notable disruptions, including signaling faults in recent years, have primarily caused delays and cancellations rather than safety-compromising events, with no reported derailments or collisions involving passengers. This contrasts with road alternatives to , where Norway's traffic fatality rate—approximately 2.5 per billion passenger-kilometers—far exceeds rail's near-zero operational risk for the corridor.

Rolling Stock

Fleet Composition

The Flytoget service has primarily operated using sixteen Class 71 electric multiple units (EMUs) since its inception in 1998, manufactured by (now part of ). These units were originally configured as three-car sets with a of 168 passengers and a maximum operating speed of 210 km/h, powered by a 2,645 kW system on 15 kV 16.7 Hz electrification. In the mid-2010s, Flytoget added sixteen intermediate cars to extend these to four-car formations, increasing per unit to 244 passengers while maintaining the 210 km/h top speed. To accommodate growing demand, Flytoget introduced eight four-car Class 78 EMUs from CAF's Oaris platform starting in 2021, supplementing the Class 71 fleet for a total of 24 units. These newer units offer 232 to 236 fixed seats plus additional folding seats for up to 248 total, with a design maximum speed of 245 km/h though initially limited to 210 km/h to match constraints. The Class 78 trains feature a wider 3.3 m body to maximize interior space within Norway's , providing enhanced luggage storage compared to the narrower Class 71 sets. Both classes incorporate airport-specific design elements, including dedicated luggage racks and straps near doors for securing baggage, prams, and pushchairs, as well as features such as wheelchair-compatible spaces, folding seats adjacent to an in the middle car, and audio induction loops for hearing-impaired passengers throughout the trainsets. All units are fully electric with capabilities to recover energy during deceleration, supporting efficient operation on the dedicated high-speed line.

Maintenance and Recent Transfers

Flytoget conducts maintenance on its fleet through a mix of in-house operations and outsourced contracts, with recent efforts focusing on refurbishments to extend service life. In January 2025, Mantena was awarded a one-year contract to upgrade 15 Class 71 trainsets, including interior refurbishments and various technical enhancements aimed at sustaining operational reliability amid the units' advancing age. These interventions address wear from prolonged high-frequency use on the dedicated airport line, where empirical punctuality stands at 97%, reflecting effective upkeep despite the fleet's origins in the late 1990s. On April 1, 2025, ownership of Flytoget's 23 trains transferred to Norske tog AS, the state-owned , as part of Flytoget AS integrating as a of Vygruppen AS. This shift centralizes fleet oversight under Norske tog, which emphasizes condition-based to preempt faults and minimize , moving away from fixed-interval schedules. Post-transfer, such strategies have contributed to broader reductions in recurring issues across Norske tog-managed assets, including halved battery faults on comparable electric multiple units, though Flytoget-specific failure metrics continue to benefit from the service's insulated infrastructure and targeted upgrades. Aging components have occasionally led to delays, but overall availability remains high, supported by state-coordinated resources that prioritize empirical fault prediction over reactive repairs.

Economic Impact

Cost-Benefit Evaluations

A 2023 analysis by Vista Analyse, commissioned by Flytoget AS, concluded that the dedicated service generates positive net societal economic returns through efficient allocation of high-value travelers to premium, frequent shuttles, yielding benefits from reduced travel times and modal shifts away from . The report modeled choices using the Ada disaggregated model, projecting that maintaining the standalone operation preserves traffic volumes and economic value, with causal benefits tied to productivity gains for business and connecting air s who prioritize reliability and speed over lower fares. In contrast, integrating Flytoget into Vy-operated regional services by 2028 was estimated to produce a loss of 1.4 billion to society, primarily from diminished capacity, lower ridership on routes due to reduced and quality, and foregone gains in time savings that do not offset increased operational subsidies. This scenario assumes uniform low fares under tariffs, leading to government costs exceeding 500 million annually in subsidies without commensurate ridership growth, as regional train projections fell short of prior estimates by the Norwegian Railway Directorate. The dedicated model's avoidance of general taxpayer funding—relying instead on user fees covering track access and yielding a required 7.5% return on initial infrastructure investment as stipulated by in 1992—supports financial viability without distorting broader budgets. These evaluations prioritize causal mechanisms such as alleviation on parallel roads and highways, where Flytoget's shift from and taxis to —facilitated by 10-minute headways and dedicated right-of-way—delivers quantifiable societal gains in reduced externalities, though exact benefit-cost ratios were not publicly detailed beyond affirming overall profitability exceeding unity for the standalone configuration. Independent critiques, such as WSP's review for , contested some assumptions on ridership elasticity but affirmed the directional superiority of differentiated pricing for high-demand airport corridors in sustaining economic returns.

Contributions to Regional Economy

Flytoget has significantly enhanced connectivity to , which recorded 26 million passengers in 2024, enabling sustained growth in air traffic by diverting demand from roadways. The service's dedicated high-speed line and frequent departures—every 10 minutes—have maintained a stable of 31-35% for since 2001, contributing to an overall utilization exceeding 70% at the airport by 2016. This shift has alleviated road pressure, with Flytoget transporting over 100 million passengers since 1998 and thereby reducing equivalent car usage on the route. A 2023 analysis by Vista Analyse affirmed Flytoget's net societal economic benefits, highlighting its profitable model with premium fares and high-quality service as superior to subsidized regional alternatives in terms of capacity and reliability for airport access. By streamlining labor mobility for travelers and easing access for —who represent a substantial inbound flow—the service amplifies multiplier effects in Oslo's economy, where efficient transport infrastructure underpins sectors reliant on the airport hub. , bolstered by such connectivity, accounts for 3.6% of Norway's GDP and 6.1% of as of 2020 data. Prior to Flytoget's launch in 1998, coinciding with the relocation from congested , ground access to Gardermoen depended largely on roads and buses, creating bottlenecks that constrained regional expansion; the dedicated rail resolved this by prioritizing high-volume shuttles over mixed traffic, fostering long-term efficiency gains.

Environmental Aspects

Sustainability Metrics

Flytoget operates exclusively on electric power drawn from Norway's national grid, where renewable sources—primarily hydropower—account for over 95% of electricity generation as of 2024. This composition yields near-zero direct operational emissions from fuel combustion. In 2024, train operations consumed 51.8 GWh of electricity, procured entirely from renewable sources verified by origin guarantees. The company's Oaris fleet features advanced , which recovers and feeds back 16.6% of consumed energy to the grid during braking, reducing net energy demand. Specific energy use for Flytoget services measures approximately 0.182 kWh per passenger-kilometer, based on operational analyses of similar high-speed electric rail. Greenhouse gas emissions reporting follows the , with Scope 1 emissions at 9.1 tonnes CO₂e in 2024 (from refrigerants and minor sources), Scope 2 at 591 tonnes CO₂e (market-based accounting for purchased electricity), and Scope 3 at 1,242 tonnes CO₂e (including , , and travel). Total Scope 1-3 emissions fell 43% from 2,141 tonnes CO₂e in 2023, attributed to methodological refinements and efficiency gains. Flytoget holds ISO 14001 certification for environmental management systems, verified through annual audits. Waste management includes targeted , with 44 IT components reused in 2024 to minimize contributions. These metrics underscore Flytoget's reliance on and grid decarbonization for low-emission performance, though Scope 3 dominates totals due to indirect factors.

Comparisons to Road Alternatives

Flytoget diverts substantial passenger volumes from road-based alternatives, with each express train capable of replacing up to 600 private cars on the route from Oslo Airport to the city center, thereby reducing vehicle numbers on the parallel highway. This high-capacity service, operating on dedicated tracks at speeds up to 210 km/h, minimizes exposure to road traffic variability, offering consistent 19-minute journey times regardless of peak-hour demand, in contrast to cars and buses subject to delays that can extend travel by 20-50% during rush periods. The Airport Express has maintained a modal share of 31-35% for ground transport to Oslo Airport since 2001, contributing to overall rail penetration that exceeds many international airport links and prevents an equivalent increase in road trips amid projected air traffic growth to double or triple by 2040. By shifting passengers from automobiles, Flytoget avoids thousands of tons of CO2 emissions annually; for instance, its 6.5 million passengers in 2016 would have generated 33,916 additional tonnes if traveling by car, equivalent to the yearly output of over 7,000 average vehicles. Relative to buses, which operate on the same corridor with capacities limited to about 50 passengers per vehicle and vulnerability to the same traffic impediments, Flytoget achieves higher throughput—transporting over 300 passengers per trainset—while leveraging Norway's hydroelectric-powered electric for near-zero direct s per passenger-kilometer, compared to buses' 20-50 grams CO2 equivalent per passenger-kilometer depending on and type. and ride-hailing services, often single-occupancy, exacerbate per-passenger emissions (typically 100-150 grams CO2 per kilometer) and add to peak-time road strain without the fixed-route scalability of . Empirical assessments of access underscore dedicated rail links like Flytoget as more effective for mitigation and emission reductions than undifferentiated bus expansions or road subsidies, which fail to match 's unit on high-demand corridors.

Controversies

Tendering and Competition Disputes

In March 2023, Norway's Jernbanedirektoratet announced it would not renew Flytoget's operating contract for the dedicated Airport Express line beyond its 2028 expiration, opting instead to award services via a limited tender favoring state-owned (formerly NSB) to integrate the route into broader regional operations and foster competition. This decision followed Flytoget's loss of a separate bid for regional services to , prompting Flytoget to plan market withdrawal post-2028 unless open-access opportunities emerged elsewhere. Proponents of the shift, including transport authorities, argued it would enable lower fares through subsidized operations and optimize capacity on the high-speed Gardermobanen line for mixed traffic, citing Flytoget's monopoly as constraining innovative routing. Critics, including analysts and Flytoget stakeholders, contended the plan undervalued the dedicated infrastructure's role in delivering superior , with Flytoget's exclusive enabling consistent 210 km/h speeds, 10-minute headways, and rates exceeding 95%—metrics unattainable under shared-track scenarios prone to delays from regional freight and passenger conflicts. Empirical data from comparable lines showed reliability drops of 10-20% when high-speed services integrate with general networks, potentially eroding Flytoget's societal benefits like reduced and emissions without yielding verifiable reductions, as Vy's subsidized model relies on public funding rather than Flytoget's profitable structure. By December 2024, mounting operational disruptions at —including widespread delays and capacity shortfalls—intensified disputes, with opposition parties and advocates pushing back against integration, arguing it risked diluting priority service on the purpose-built line amid Vy's documented 2024 performance shortfalls. Vy countered by campaigning for acquisition, claiming synergies for connectivity, though skeptics highlighted state favoritism toward Vy over evidence-based tenders, preserving Flytoget's priority until regulatory reversals. This tension underscored broader debates on whether open-access mandates enhance efficiency or undermine specialized infrastructure's causal advantages in high-demand corridors.

Pricing and Accessibility Debates

Flytoget maintains a fixed adult single fare of 258 from Oslo Airport to , positioning it as a premium, unsubsidized service that contrasts with Vy-operated regional trains, which offer subsidized tickets around 110-129 but require more stops and longer travel times of 25-30 minutes. This pricing structure enables Flytoget to generate profits for operational costs, maintenance, and contributions toward track usage fees that service infrastructure debt from the Gardermoen Line's construction, without relying on taxpayer subsidies unlike competing services. The elevated fares have sparked debates on value, with proponents emphasizing the 19-minute express journey, dedicated airport routing, and onboard amenities like free Wi-Fi and spacious seating as justifying the premium for time-sensitive travelers, where the time savings equate to an implicit value exceeding the fare differential for many users based on average wage rates in Norway. Critics, including some passengers, contend the cost disproportionately burdens budget-conscious individuals, such as low-income residents or occasional tourists, arguing it undermines broader public transport equity despite available cheaper alternatives. Accessibility features include ramps certified for up to 350 kg, dedicated spaces with folding seats, accessible toilets, and audio loops in all trains, facilitating use by passengers with disabilities. However, affordability concerns persist in discussions, with some viewing the fares as a barrier for lower-income groups despite discounts for seniors and students at 129 , as the service's opt-in premium model prioritizes reliability over universal low-cost access. Annual ridership exceeding 8 million passengers, representing about 10% of Norway's total rail travel, underscores diverse usage across business commuters, tourists, and locals, countering claims of exclusivity by demonstrating sustained demand that reflects perceived value over cheaper but slower options.

Future Prospects

Merger and Ownership Changes

In September 2024, the Norwegian government announced the merger of Flytoget AS with , designating Flytoget as a wholly owned of Vygruppen AS effective January 1, 2025, to streamline state-owned rail operations in . This restructuring responded to escalating capacity pressures in the Oslo rail tunnel and rising passenger volumes driven by urban expansion, enabling to optimize slot allocation without immediate infrastructure expansions. An independent analysis identified potential synergies in administrative, maintenance, and procurement functions, projecting efficiency gains while preserving Flytoget's specialized role. As part of the transition, ownership of Flytoget's 23 dedicated airport express trainsets transferred to Norske tog, the state-owned rolling stock company, on April 1, 2025, aligning fleet management with national standards and reducing Flytoget AS's asset liabilities. This of assets from operations maintained Flytoget's operational autonomy under Vy while centralizing maintenance and procurement at Norske tog, potentially lowering long-term costs through across Vy's broader fleet. Post-merger implementation showed service continuity, with Flytoget's high-frequency shuttle operations integrated into Vy's scheduling from 2025 onward; Vy's first-half 2025 financials reported seamless inclusion of Flytoget revenues and no material disruptions in or metrics. Flytoget retained its distinct branding and route prioritization for airport connectivity, mitigating risks to its specialized service amid Vy's expanded oversight.

Infrastructure and Service Expansions

In response to Airport's expansion, which increased annual passenger capacity to 28 million following the opening of Terminal T2 on , 2024, Flytoget has advocated for enhanced track capacity on the Gardermoen Line to accommodate rising demand. However, government plans emphasize fiscal restraint, prioritizing timetable optimizations and existing infrastructure utilization over new track construction, with ridership forecasts indicating 20-30% growth in over the next decade driving the need for resilient core route operations. To bolster punctuality and service frequency, Flytoget benefits from Norway's nationwide signaling upgrades, including the rollout of the (ERTMS), which aims to reduce delays and enable denser scheduling on high-speed corridors like the 66 km double-track Gardermoen Line. These digital enhancements, managed by Bane NOR, are projected to improve overall network capacity by minimizing signal failures and supporting up to 96% on-time performance, as historically achieved by Flytoget services. Service expansions beyond the primary Oslo Airport to route have included exploratory open-access applications to Statens Jernbanetilsyn (SJT). In June 2024, Flytoget sought regulatory approval to operate passenger trains on southern regional lines, anticipating a SJT response by year-end to test economic viability and path allocation. Regulatory hurdles emerged, however, with SJT denying the assessment for Package 1 on October 11, 2024, underscoring challenges in diversifying operations amid capacity constraints.

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