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Formamide

Formamide (HCONH₂), the simplest monocarboxylic amide, is a colorless, viscous liquid with a faint ammoniacal odor, molecular weight of 45.04 g/mol, melting point of 2–3 °C, boiling point of 210 °C, and density of 1.134 g/mL at 25 °C.^[1]^[2] It is fully miscible with water, ethanol, and acetone, making it a versatile polar solvent, though it decomposes slowly in moist air to formic acid and ammonia.^[3]^[4] Industrially, formamide is primarily produced by the ammonolysis of methyl formate, though alternative methods include the carbonylation of ammonia with carbon monoxide under catalytic conditions.^[4]^[5] It serves as a key chemical intermediate in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, dyes, and plastics, and is notably used in the large-scale production of hydrogen cyanide via dehydration.^[1]^[3] Additionally, formamide functions as an effective solvent for processing polymers like polyacrylonitrile and as a denaturing agent in biochemical applications, such as stabilizing RNA during gel electrophoresis.^[2]

Properties

Physical properties

Formamide has the molecular formula HCONH₂ and a molecular weight of 45.04 g/mol.^[1] It is a colorless, hygroscopic liquid with a faint ammonia-like odor.^[1]^[6] Key physical constants of formamide are summarized in the following table:

Property	Value	Conditions
Melting point	2.55 °C	-
Boiling point	210 °C	760 mmHg
Density	1.134 g/cm³	20 °C
Viscosity	3.76 mPa·s	20 °C (dynamic)

Formamide is fully miscible with water, ethanol, acetone, and other polar solvents due to its high polarity.^[1] Its Hansen solubility parameters are δ_d = 17.2 MPa^{1/2}, δ_p = 26.2 MPa^{1/2}, and δ_h = 19.0 MPa^{1/2}, reflecting its strong hydrogen-bonding and polar interactions.^[8] The refractive index of formamide is 1.447 at 20 °C, and its dipole moment is 3.73 D.^[1] Regarding thermal stability, formamide decomposes above 180 °C into carbon monoxide (CO), ammonia (NH₃), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), and water.^[1]^[6]

Chemical properties

Formamide possesses a planar molecular structure, characteristic of amides, with an experimentally determined C=O bond length of 1.212 Å and C-N bond length of 1.368 Å as obtained from gas-phase electron diffraction studies.^[9] This partial double-bond character in the C-N linkage arises from resonance delocalization, where the nitrogen lone pair conjugates with the carbonyl π-system, yielding canonical structures that include a zwitterionic form with positive charge on nitrogen and negative on oxygen.^[10] The amide resonance significantly influences the molecule's electronic distribution, enhancing stability and restricting rotation around the C-N bond. The N-H bond exhibits moderate acidity, with a pK_a of approximately 23 (in DMSO) for deprotonation, reflecting the resonance stabilization of the resultant anion.^[3] Formamide also displays weak basicity, with a pK_b around 15 corresponding to protonation primarily at the oxygen atom, forming a resonance-stabilized conjugate acid.^[11] These acid-base properties enable formamide to engage in hydrogen bonding, functioning as both a donor via its N-H groups and an acceptor via the carbonyl oxygen, which contributes to its intermolecular interactions. Hydrolysis of formamide proceeds under acidic or basic catalysis to produce formic acid and ammonia, as depicted by the reaction:

\mathrm{HCONH_2 + H_2O \rightarrow HCOOH + NH_3}

This process involves nucleophilic attack by water on the carbonyl carbon, facilitated by protonation or deprotonation to enhance electrophilicity.^[12] Additionally, formamide can undergo tautomerization to isocyanic acid (HN=C=O), a less stable isomer, though this equilibrium strongly favors the amide form due to thermodynamic preferences. Spectroscopic characterization confirms these structural features. In the infrared spectrum, the amide I band corresponding to the C=O stretch appears at approximately 1670 cm⁻¹, shifted lower than typical carbonyls due to resonance, while the N-H stretching vibrations occur around 3300 cm⁻¹, often as broad bands indicative of hydrogen bonding.^[13] Proton NMR reveals the formyl hydrogen at δ 8.3 ppm and the NH₂ protons at δ 7.5 ppm, deshielded by the adjacent electronegative oxygen; the ¹³C NMR signal for the carbonyl carbon is observed at δ 161 ppm, consistent with amide carbonyl environments.^[14]^[15]

Production

Historical methods

Formamide was first prepared in the early 19th century through the reaction of ammonia with formic acid to yield ammonium formate as an intermediate, followed by heating. This early preparation laid the foundation for subsequent production techniques.^[16] In the 19th century, the primary method for producing formamide involved the thermal decomposition of ammonium formate, obtained by neutralizing formic acid with ammonia. Upon heating ammonium formate to 170–180 °C, it undergoes dehydration according to the equation:

\ce{NH4HCO2 -> HCONH2 + H2O}

This process required careful temperature control to favor formamide formation over further decomposition. Formic acid for this method was historically derived from the dry distillation of wood or the reduction of oxalic acid, sources that were labor-intensive and limited in scale.^[17]^[18]^[19] Early industrial attempts in the 1920s sought to scale up production using formates sourced from wood distillation or oxalic acid reduction, followed by conversion to ammonium formate and distillation. These efforts marked the transition from laboratory-scale synthesis to rudimentary commercial processes, though they remained constrained by available raw materials.^[20] These historical methods suffered from significant limitations, including low yields typically ranging from 50–60%, the formation of side products such as carbon monoxide (CO) and ammonia (NH₃) due to over-decomposition at higher temperatures, and high energy demands from the heating requirements. By the mid-20th century, these inefficiencies prompted a shift toward more effective carbonylation approaches.^[21]^[1]

Industrial synthesis

The primary industrial method for producing formamide is the aminolysis of methyl formate with ammonia, which operates under milder conditions of 80–100 °C and atmospheric pressure, yielding formamide and methanol as a byproduct: HCOOCH₃ + NH₃ → HCONH₂ + CH₃OH. This method benefits from the availability of methyl formate, often produced via methanol carbonylation, and allows for straightforward integration into existing chemical plants. An alternative route involves the carbonylation of ammonia using carbon monoxide and water, typically catalyzed by transition metals such as copper or ruthenium-based systems. The reaction proceeds as NH₃ + CO + H₂O → HCONH₂ under high-pressure conditions of 100–200 atm and temperatures ranging from 150–200 °C. Global production of formamide is estimated at approximately 300,000 metric tons per year as of 2023, with major manufacturing hubs in Asia driven by demand in solvent applications.^[22]^[23]^[24]^[5] Following synthesis, formamide is purified primarily through vacuum distillation to separate residual water, unreacted ammonia, and minor impurities, achieving overall process yields exceeding 95%. Recent advancements emphasize more sustainable approaches, including electrochemical syntheses from carbon monoxide and ammonia or from methanol and ammonia under ambient conditions, as well as catalytic processes utilizing syngas to reduce reliance on high-pressure operations and fossil-derived feedstocks. Developments reported in 2024–2025 include Pt foil catalysts for continuous electrosynthesis and oxidant-free artificial photosynthesis routes from methanol and aqueous ammonia.^[5]^[25]^[26]^[27]

Applications

Solvent and industrial uses

Formamide serves as a versatile polar aprotic solvent in various industrial applications, owing to its high dielectric constant of 111, which facilitates the dissolution of ionic compounds and salts that are insoluble in water or other common solvents.^[28] This property makes it particularly effective for processing materials requiring high solvation capacity, such as in the extraction of polar substances and the stabilization of electrolyte solutions. Its miscibility with water and low volatility further enhance its utility in formulations where uniform mixing and controlled evaporation are essential.^[29] In the polymer industry, formamide is employed as a solvent for the processing of thermoplastics, notably in the dissolution of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) for fiber spinning to produce acrylic textiles and synthetic fibers.^[30] Its ability to dissolve high-molecular-weight polymers at elevated temperatures enables the formation of viscous dopes suitable for wet-spinning processes, contributing to the production of durable fibers used in textiles and composites. Additionally, formamide acts as a plasticizer in polymer formulations, improving flexibility and processability in applications like synthetic plastics.^[31] Formamide finds use in the manufacture of adhesives, inks, and dyes, where its high boiling point of 210°C supports high-temperature processing without rapid evaporation, ensuring stable formulations during application.^[3] In adhesives, it serves as a softener in animal glues and water-soluble gums, enhancing adhesion properties in paper and textile bonding. For inks, it acts as a solvent to dissolve resins and pigments, aiding in the production of high-quality printing inks. In dye production, formamide facilitates the synthesis and application of dyes by dissolving intermediates and improving dye penetration into substrates.^[32]^[33] In the pharmaceutical sector, formamide functions as an extraction solvent for natural products, leveraging its polar nature to isolate bioactive compounds from plant and microbial sources. It is also utilized as an intermediate in the synthesis of various vitamins.^[34] This role underscores its importance in producing pharmaceutical intermediates with high purity and yield.^[35] Agriculturally, formamide is incorporated into pesticide formulations as a solvent and penetrant, enhancing the delivery and absorption of active ingredients into plant tissues or soil. It serves as a feedstock for synthesizing agrochemicals, such as 1,2,4-triazoles used in herbicides and fungicides, improving efficacy in crop protection.^[34]^[36] Due to its classification as reproductively toxic, there is growing interest in less hazardous substitutes, though alternatives like N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) face similar toxicity scrutiny, prompting research into greener options such as bio-based solvents.^[37]

Synthetic reactions

Formamide undergoes dehydration to hydrogen cyanide upon heating with phosphorus pentoxide at approximately 200 °C, providing a synthetic route to this key industrial chemical:

\ce{HCONH2 ->[P2O5][200^\circ C] HCN + H2O}

This reaction proceeds via removal of the elements of water from the amide functionality, yielding HCN as a gaseous product that requires careful handling due to its toxicity.^[38] In a variant of the Vilsmeier-Haack reaction, formamide reacts with phosphorus oxychloride (POCl₃) to generate an electrophilic formylating species, which can be used for the formylation of electron-rich aromatic compounds. The reagent, analogous to the classic Vilsmeier complex from N,N-dimethylformamide, introduces a formyl group ortho or para to activating substituents on the arene, with subsequent hydrolysis yielding the aldehyde. This unsubstituted variant is less common than those using N-substituted formamides but offers access to primary formamides or related derivatives in heterocyclic synthesis. The reaction typically proceeds at room temperature to 60 °C in aprotic solvents, with the iminium-like intermediate [(H₂N=CHCl)⁺Cl⁻] acting as the active species.^[39] Formamide can be reduced to methylamine via catalytic hydrogenation using hydrogen gas and a nickel catalyst, such as Raney nickel:

\ce{HCONH2 + H2 ->[Ni] CH3NH2 + H2O}

This deoxygenative reduction cleaves the C=O bond, converting the amide to the corresponding amine while eliminating water. The process requires elevated temperatures (150–250 °C) and pressures (50–100 bar) to achieve selectivity over side products like CO or NH₃, and it is mechanistically similar to reductions of higher amides, proceeding through intermediate surface-bound species on the catalyst. Nickel-based systems are preferred for their activity in C-O bond scission, though ruthenium catalysts have also been explored for milder conditions. This method provides an alternative route to methylamine, avoiding direct handling of formaldehyde in reductive amination.^[40] Formamide participates in cyclization reactions to form heterocycles such as oxazoles, particularly under acidic conditions with α-hydroxy ketones in the Blümlein–Lewy synthesis. The reaction involves condensation and dehydration, yielding 2-substituted oxazoles where the formamide provides the C2 carbon and nitrogen:

\ce{R-C(O)-CH2OH + HCONH2 ->[acid] oxazole derivative + H2O}

Typically conducted by heating the reactants in the presence of dehydrating acids like sulfuric acid or polyphosphoric acid at 100–150 °C, the mechanism proceeds via initial nucleophilic addition of the amide nitrogen to the carbonyl, followed by cyclization involving the hydroxy group and dehydration. This approach is selective for 2-unsubstituted oxazoles and has been applied to synthesize biologically active compounds, with yields ranging from 50–80% depending on the ketone substituent. Representative examples include the formation of 2-methyloxazole from hydroxyacetone.^[41] Under basic conditions, formamide undergoes tautomerization to formamidic acid (HN=CH-OH), which is relevant in prebiotic modeling and provides intermediates for further derivatization. This equilibrium is catalyzed by bases such as hydroxide or amines. Quantum chemical studies indicate a low barrier for this intramolecular rearrangement in the gas phase (around 40–50 kcal/mol), but solvent and base effects stabilize the transition state in solution. Experimental observation often requires low temperatures or matrix isolation, with base-catalyzed rates increasing by orders of magnitude.^[42]

Laboratory and niche applications

In laboratory settings, formamide is employed as a denaturant for DNA in nucleic acid analysis, particularly in sequencing applications. A 98% formamide solution is commonly used to disrupt hydrogen bonds in double-stranded DNA, facilitating its separation on polyacrylamide gels during electrophoresis for Sanger sequencing or related techniques.^[43] This high concentration ensures effective denaturation without excessive gel distortion, improving resolution of nucleotide sequences.^[44] Formamide also serves as a cryoprotectant in cell biology for cryopreservation protocols. As a penetrating cryoprotectant, it permeates cell membranes and lowers the freezing point of aqueous solutions, thereby preventing the formation of damaging ice crystals during freezing and thawing of cells, tissues, or embryos.^[45] Its use in combination with other agents like DMSO enhances viability post-thaw by promoting vitrification over crystallization.^[46] In spectroscopic studies, formamide acts as a model solvent for investigating hydrogen bonding interactions due to its amide structure mimicking peptide bonds. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in pure or aqueous formamide reveals details of N-H...O=C hydrogen bonds, providing insights into solvent-solute dynamics and conformational equilibria in biological systems.^[47] For niche synthetic applications, formamide functions as a reagent in organometallic reactions, particularly as a source of carbon monoxide (CO) in palladium-catalyzed aminocarbonylations of aryl halides. This allows efficient incorporation of CO into amides without handling toxic CO gas directly, enabling small-scale synthesis of pharmaceuticals or fine chemicals in laboratory environments.^[48] Historically, formamide has been prepared in laboratories through the reaction of urea with formic acid, often for educational demonstrations of amide formation. Heating urea and excess formic acid yields formamide via dehydration and ammonolysis, producing CO2 as a byproduct, a method suitable for small-scale teaching labs due to its simplicity and use of accessible reagents.^[49] Recent post-2020 research highlights formamide's role in perovskite solar cell fabrication as a co-solvent and stabilizer. In solution-processed perovskite films, formamide's high dielectric constant and boiling point promote uniform crystallization and phase stabilization, reducing defects and enhancing device efficiency and longevity in lab-fabricated prototypes.^[50]

Biological and prebiotic roles

Occurrence in biology

Formamide occurs at trace levels in the human body, primarily as a metabolite resulting from exposure to formamide itself or from the breakdown of related compounds such as N,N-dimethylformamide.^[51] It has been detected in human urine, with mean concentrations of approximately 8.6 mg/L in non-exposed individuals, though levels can rise following occupational exposure.^[51] Formamide does not play a major endogenous role in mammalian physiology but serves as an intermediate in the detoxification pathways of certain xenobiotics, including metabolites derived from industrial solvents like N,N-dimethylformamide. In microorganisms, formamide is produced by certain microbes through enzymatic reactions, such as the hydration of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) released from cyanogenic plants, facilitating its integration into microbial metabolism.^[52] Soil bacteria and other microbes utilize formamide as a nitrogen source via formamidases (EC 3.5.1.49), enzymes that catalyze its hydrolysis to formate and ammonia, thereby contributing to nitrogen cycling processes in ecosystems.^[37] This activity is widespread in soil environments, where amidases enable the breakdown of amides, releasing bioavailable nitrogen for microbial growth and broader biogeochemical cycles.^[53] Formamide has been detected in the interstellar medium through radioastronomical observations in star-forming regions, marking it as a common interstellar molecule. It is also present in carbonaceous meteorites, such as the Murchison meteorite, underscoring its extraterrestrial abundance and relevance to astrobiological contexts. Studies from the 2020s have highlighted formamide's stability under interstellar and planetary conditions, positioning it as a potential biomarker in exobiology for assessing habitability and prebiotic chemistry on other worlds.^[54] Its persistence in harsh radiation and temperature extremes makes it a valuable indicator for tracing organic evolution beyond Earth.^[55]

Prebiotic chemistry

Formamide has been proposed as a key intermediate in prebiotic synthesis pathways simulating early Earth conditions, particularly through reactions involving hydrogen cyanide (HCN), carbon monoxide (CO), and ammonia (NH₃). In variants of the Miller-Urey experiment using reducing atmospheres, formamide forms via hydrolysis of HCN or reactions of CO with NH₃ under electrical discharge, yielding approximately 1-5% of the total organic products depending on gas mixtures and conditions.^[56] These experiments demonstrate formamide's accumulation as a stable precursor, bridging simple gases to more complex organics without requiring enzymatic catalysis. As a prebiotic solvent, formamide exhibits superior solubility for polar biomolecules compared to water, particularly at elevated temperatures of 80-100 °C, where it remains liquid and facilitates the dissolution of nucleotides and amino acids.^[57]^[58] This property arises from its high dielectric constant (111 at 25 °C), enabling concentration of precursors in hydrothermal or impact-heated environments without rapid hydrolysis.^[59] In such settings, formamide supports non-aqueous reactions that mimic abiogenic molecular assembly, as evidenced by its stability and reactivity in lab simulations of early Earth pores or vents.^[60] Formamide contributes to biomolecule formation through thermal hydrolysis and related reactions, yielding purines such as adenine and guanine, as well as pyrimidines like cytosine and 4(3H)-pyrimidinone.^[61] These processes occur at temperatures around 160-180 °C in the presence of catalysts like phosphates or minerals, with adenine yields reaching up to 4% from pure formamide.^[62] Additionally, formamide enables prebiotic phosphorylation of nucleosides to nucleotides using dihydrogen phosphates or mineral surfaces, producing adenosine monophosphates and cyclic derivatives in yields of 10-20% under mild heating (60-100 °C).^[63]^[64] A pivotal reaction in nucleobase synthesis involves formamide (HCONH₂) reacting with HCN to form formamidine intermediates, which further cyclize to purine precursors like 2-iminoacetonitrile, with laboratory yields up to 20% under thermal or impact conditions.^[65] This pathway integrates HCN polymerization with formamide's amido group, providing a deterministic route to canonical nucleobases without side products dominating.^[55] Astrophysically, formamide's relevance is underscored by its detection in comets, including in situ observations on 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko during the Rosetta mission (2014-2016), where it appeared in both surface dust and coma volatiles at levels consistent with interstellar inheritance.^[66]^[67] Such detections suggest comets delivered formamide to early Earth, seeding prebiotic pools.^[68] Recent models from 2022-2025 emphasize formamide-based pathways in the RNA world hypothesis, where it drives sequential synthesis of nucleobases, nucleosides, and short oligomers, potentially encapsulating them in lipid-like assemblies from carboxylic acid byproducts.^[65] As of 2025, studies have explored formamide-based chemistry for generating non-natural compounds with antiviral potential, extending its prebiotic relevance to modern synthetic applications.^[69] These simulations integrate impact or hydrothermal heating to achieve RNA precursors, with lipid formation via formamide-derived amphiphiles supporting protocell emergence alongside genetic molecules.^[70]

Safety and environmental aspects

Health hazards

Formamide exhibits low acute toxicity via oral administration, with an LD50 of 6000 mg/kg in rats.^[71] It is moderately irritating to the skin and eyes, causing redness.^[72] Chronic exposure to formamide can lead to reproductive toxicity, including teratogenic effects observed in rats at doses of 100 mg/kg/day, manifesting as reduced fetal body weight.^[73] It also induces central nervous system depression in animal models, with symptoms including drowsiness and headache.^[74] In humans, symptoms of exposure include nausea and dizziness, particularly from inhalation or dermal absorption.^[75] Formamide is metabolized in biological systems through hydrolysis by formamidase to formic acid (formate), which is neurotoxic, and ammonia.^[76] The National Toxicology Program (NTP) has identified formamide as showing equivocal evidence of carcinogenic activity in female mice based on increased incidences of hepatocellular adenoma or carcinoma (combined), though it lacks an IARC classification.^[77] Occupational exposure limits include a NIOSH recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 ppm (15 mg/m³) as a 10-hour time-weighted average, with skin notation due to dermal absorption potential; OSHA has not established a permissible exposure limit (PEL).^[75]

Environmental impact

Formamide demonstrates ready biodegradability in aerobic aquatic environments, with degradation exceeding 60% within 28 days under OECD 301A (DOC Die-Away Test) conditions, mediated by soil and water microbes that convert it primarily to carbon dioxide, ammonia, and formate. This process aligns with standard criteria for inherent biodegradability, indicating low persistence in natural waters under favorable conditions.^[78] Ecotoxicity assessments reveal low acute toxicity to fish, with LC50 values greater than 1000 mg/L (e.g., 6569 mg/L for Leuciscus idus over 96 hours and 34,000 mg/L for Pimephales promelas), suggesting minimal short-term harm to vertebrate aquatic life. Toxicity to invertebrates is similarly low, as evidenced by Daphnia magna EC50 >500 mg/L (immobilization endpoint over 48 hours), while algae exhibit moderate sensitivity with an EC50 >500 mg/L.^[79] Overall, these profiles classify formamide as not acutely harmful to most aquatic organisms at environmentally relevant concentrations. Formamide's high mobility stems from its complete miscibility with water (solubility >1000 g/L at 20°C), facilitating rapid transport through soil and potential leaching into groundwater from industrial spills or effluent discharges.^[1] This solubility enhances its dissemination in aqueous systems but increases contamination risks in subsurface environments lacking robust biodegradation.^[80] Regulatory frameworks address these risks: under the EU Toy Safety Directive 2009/48/EC (Appendix C), formamide in foam toys is restricted to a content of ≤200 mg/kg; if exceeding 200 mg/kg, emissions must be ≤20 μg/m³ after 28 days.^[81] As of 2025, the European standard EN 71-15 specifies test methods for determining formamide content in foam toy materials to ensure compliance with the limits.^[82] Environmental emissions primarily arise from pesticide runoff in agricultural settings and industrial wastewater, with atmospheric persistence limited to approximately days due to hydrolysis (half-life ~200 years in neutral water but accelerated in air via OH radical reactions).^[83] Mitigation efforts in the 2020s emphasize green chemistry transitions to less hazardous solvents like N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) for industrial applications, coupled with wastewater monitoring protocols that detect formamide at parts-per-billion (ppb) levels to ensure compliance and prevent aquatic buildup.^[84]

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RAPID QUANTIFICATION OF MULTI-CRYOPROTECTANT ... - NIH
The goal of this study was to quantify the toxicity of five of the most common CPAs: glycerol, DMSO, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, and formamide. The ...
[46]
Hydrogen bonding in pure and aqueous formamide
Real Structure of Formamide Entrapped by AOT Nonaqueous Reverse Micelles: FT-IR and 1H NMR Studies. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 2005, 109 (44) ...
[47]
Formamide as a Combined Ammonia Synthon and Carbon ...
Experimental details, including general considerations and the general procedure for the synthesis of amides 1−8. This material is available ...Missing: method | Show results with:method
[48]
Diformylurea and reaction products of urea and carboxylic acids
Diformylurea has been prepared by reacting formic acid with urea in a molar ratio of about 1.8-2.0 moles formic acid to 1.0 mole urea. In a first example ...
[49]
Self-Driven Prenucleation-Induced Perovskite Crystallization ...
May 22, 2023 · Among them, formamide, with ultra-high dielectric constant, low Gutman donor number, and a high boiling point, is selected as the co-solvent.
[50]
Chemistry, biological activity, and uses of formamidine pesticides
A significant feature of the metabolism and toxicity of these agents is the possible activation of chlordimeform by N-demethylation in vivo. Strong evidence ...
[51]
Biological monitoring of workers exposed to N, N-dimethylformamide
Our results in respect of 19 urine samples analysed with the injection port of the gas chromatograph at 250°C gave a mean of 8.6 mg/l of formamide.
[52]
Bacterial Degradation of Cyanide and Its Metal Complexes under ...
Feb 1, 2005 · In addition, enzymatic activities catalyzing either the formation of formamide from cyanide, the hydrolysis of formamide into ammonium, or the ...
[53]
Amidase Activity Of Soils Under Potato Cropping With Conventional ...
The amidase enzyme (important in the nitrogen cycle) occurs widely in nature and catalyses amide hydrolysis to produce ammonium and carboxylic acid by acting on ...<|separator|>
[54]
Identifying the wide diversity of extraterrestrial purine and pyrimidine ...
Apr 26, 2022 · The uracil concentrations in the Murchison #1 and #2 meteorites were 15 and 1 ppb, respectively, showing that uracil is distributed ...
[55]
Fluctuations of formamide hydrolase activity in a barley field soil ...
Formamide hydrolase activity in a barley field soil was described by a two-component, rather than a one-component model of Michaelis–Menten kinetics.
[56]
Interstellar Formamide (NH 2 CHO), a Key Prebiotic Precursor
Sep 10, 2019 · The present review primarily addresses the chemistry of formamide in the interstellar medium ... Tentative detection of cyanoformamide NCCONH2 in ...
[57]
Determinism of formamide-based biogenic prebiotic reactions
... Murchison meteorite; the energy source applied was thermal. Looking in ... Variety and structural motif of the reaction products obtained from formamide and ...
[58]
[PDF] THE 1953 STANLEY L. MILLER EXPERIMENT:
He also claimed that glycine is produced when wet carbon monoxide and ammonia are subjected to the silent discharge; he proposed formamide as the intermediate ...
[59]
Why formamide may have been early life's alternative to water | News
May 3, 2018 · Scientists have found that formamide can be made by mixing water with hydrogen cyanide and radioactive minerals. On the primitive Earth, ...
[60]
Prebiotic Synthesis of N-Formylaminonitriles and Derivatives in ...
May 5, 2023 · ... formamide more rapidly than formamide itself is hydrolyzed to ammonium formate. ... For example, heating a 0.1 M formamide solution of ...
[61]
Prebiotic Organic Chemistry of Formamide and the Origin of Life in ...
This discovery has changed our geochemical view of the infancy and the youth of the planet. It has also allowed a new timing for the beginning of prebiotic ...
[62]
Accumulation of formamide in hydrothermal pores to form prebiotic ...
The aim of this article is to show that prebiotic nucleobases can be formed in hydrothermal pores, through a significant accumulation of formamide.
[63]
A possible prebiotic synthesis of purine, adenine, cytosine, and 4(3H)
5, 16 Pioneering studies have shown that purine can be synthesized from neat formamide when treated at high temperature.17, 18, 19 Noteworthy, the ...<|separator|>
[64]
A possible prebiotic synthesis of purine, adenine, cytosine, and 4(3H ...
Aug 6, 2025 · We report here a plausible new prebiotic synthesis of naturally occurring purine and pyrimidine derivatives from formamide under catalytic ...
[65]
Prebiotic phosphorylation of nucleosides in formamide - PubMed
A possible prebiotic phosphorylation method has been investigated in which formamide served as the reaction medium.
[66]
Nucleoside Phosphorylation by Phosphate Minerals - ScienceDirect
In the presence of formamide, crystal phosphate minerals may act as phosphate donors to nucleosides, yielding both 5′- and, to a lesser extent, ...
[67]
Formamide-Based Post-impact Thermal Prebiotic Synthesis in ...
12 May 2022 · We present a synergistic experimental and computational investigation of the intermediates of chemical reactions of the formamide-based synthesis of canonical ...
[68]
The hunt for formamide in interstellar ices - Astronomy & Astrophysics
Three of these bands are identified as potential formamide tracers in observational ice spectra: the overlapping C = O stretch and NH2 scissor bands at 1700.3 ...
[69]
In Situ Detection of Organics in the Comet 67P/Churyumov ...
Dec 8, 2016 · The main results from the COSIMA instrument are the detection of organic matter in the particles collected from the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko.
[70]
Complex organic molecules in comets C/2012 F6 (Lemmon) and C ...
We report the detection of ethylene glycol (CH2OH)2 (aGg' conformer) and formamide (NH2CHO) in the two comets. The abundances relative to water of ethylene ...
[71]
Harnessing prebiotic formamide chemistry: a novel platform ... - Nature
Aug 2, 2025 · Stability studies. Stability in DMSO and ACN was conducted for Mix 1c at room temperature, protected from light, for more than 30 days ...
[72]
Exploring the Lipid World Hypothesis: A Novel Scenario of Self ...
According to the Lipid World hypothesis, life on Earth originated with the emergence of amphiphilic assemblies in the form of lipid micelles and vesicles ...
[73]
https://academic.oup.com/toxsci/article/57/2/284/1634824
[74]
[PDF] workplace exposure limits - NJ.gov
* Exposure can cause skin irritation and rash. * Exposure to Formamide can irritate the nose, and throat. Chronic Health Effects. The following chronic (long ...
[75]
Evaluation of the Developmental Toxicity of Formamide in Sprague ...
The present study was designed to establish NOAELs and LOAELs for maternal and developmental toxicity following daily oral exposure throughout the embryo/fetal ...Missing: epidemiological | Show results with:epidemiological
[76]
ICSC 0891 - FORMAMIDE
Effects of short-term exposure The substance is moderately irritating to the eyes and skin. The substance may cause effects on the central nervous system.
[77]
Formamide - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - CDC
Exposure Limits. NIOSH REL. TWA 10 ppm (15 mg/m3) [skin]. OSHA PEL. none See Appendix G ; Measurement Methods. None available. See: NMAM or OSHA Methods.
[78]
Formamide-based production of amines by metabolically ... - NIH
May 29, 2023 · Formamide is rarely used as nitrogen source by microorganisms. Therefore, formamide and formamidase have been used as protection system to allow ...
[79]
[PDF] TR-541: Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Formamide ...
Formamide is classified as a high production volume chemical by the ... formamide (IARC, 1999). Humans. No absorption, distribution, metabolism, or ...
[80]
Screening Assessment for the Challenge Formamide - Canada.ca
May 16, 2024 · The maternal toxicity caused by formamide included reduced food consumption, reduced body weight gain and decreased gravid uterine weight; fetal ...
[81]
[PDF] NIOSH Skin Notation Profile Formamide | CDC
However, studies in rats have demonstrated that dermally applied formamide can bring about systemically toxic effects [BASF Wyandotte 1985]* and slight increase ...Missing: chronic | Show results with:chronic
[82]
[PDF] Formamide Structural Formula - OECD Existing Chemicals Database
The acute dermal LD50 in rats is estimated to be > 3000 mg/kg bw, based on two independent OECD TG 411 90-day repeated dose rat studies. Mortalities were 1/20 ...
[83]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237845733_Aspects_of_the_hydrolysis_of_formamide_Revisitation_of_the_water_reaction_and_determination_of_the_solvent_deuterium_kinetic_isotope_effect_in_base
[84]
[PDF] Safety Data Sheet: Formamide - Carl ROTH
Formamide ≥98 %, extra pure article number: 4095. Version: 5.1 en ... 3,331 mm²/s at 20 °C. Dynamic viscosity. 3,764 mPa s at 20 °C. Solubility(ies).
[85]
EU Strengthens Chemical Safety in Certain Toys - SGS
Nov 30, 2015 · It is interesting to note that Directive (EU) 2015/2115 places a restriction of no more than 200 mg/kg formamide content in foam toy materials, ...
[86]
Aspects of the hydrolysis of formamide: Revisitation of the water ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Formamide is hydrolyzed slowly by water at room temperature to give formic acid + ammonia. Recently, the revisitation of the hydrolysis of ...
[87]
Replacement of Less-Preferred Dipolar Aprotic and Ethereal ...
Feb 24, 2022 · (4) It is the intention of this review to present credible, greener, safer, and more sustainable alternatives to a number of dipolar aprotic and ...