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Formate

Formate, with the IUPAC name methanoate, is a monocarboxylic acid anion and the conjugate base of formic acid, possessing the chemical formula HCOO⁻ or CHO₂⁻.^[1] This planar ion exhibits a molecular weight of 45.017 g/mol and features a delocalized negative charge across its two oxygen atoms due to resonance stabilization, which contributes to its distinctive chemical reactivity.^[1] In biochemistry, formate serves as a pivotal intermediate in one-carbon (1C) metabolism, acting as the sole non-tetrahydrofolate (THF)-linked unit in this pathway and functioning as a precursor for the de novo synthesis of purine nucleotides and thymidylate.^[2] It is generated endogenously in mammals through various processes, including the catabolism of serine, glycine, and sarcosine, and is transported between cellular compartments such as mitochondria and cytoplasm to support nucleotide biosynthesis and energy metabolism.^[2]^[3] Formate also intersects with microbiome-host interactions and nutritional pathways, influencing overall metabolic health.^[4] Beyond biology, formate ions are integral to microbial metabolism, particularly in facultative anaerobes like Shewanella oneidensis, where formate dehydrogenase facilitates its oxidation to generate proton motive force during respiration.^[5] However, elevated formate levels pose toxicity risks, inducing severe metabolic acidosis and ocular injury in humans due to disruptions in pH balance and cellular function.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition and Structure

Formate, with the chemical formula HCOO⁻, is a monocarboxylic acid anion that serves as the conjugate base of formic acid (HCOOH).^[6] It forms through the dissociation of formic acid according to the equilibrium HCOOH ⇌ HCOO⁻ + H⁺, where the pKₐ of formic acid is approximately 3.75 at 25°C. The common name "formate" derives from formic acid, while its systematic IUPAC name is methanoate.^[7] The molar mass of the formate ion is 45.017 g/mol.^[6] The molecular structure of formate is planar, featuring a central carbon atom that is sp² hybridized, bonded to one hydrogen atom and two oxygen atoms. This arrangement results in a trigonal planar geometry around the carbon, with bond angles of approximately 120°. Due to resonance between the two oxygen atoms, the ion exhibits two equivalent C–O bonds rather than distinct single and double bonds as in the resonance contributors. In each resonance structure, one C–O bond is depicted as a double bond (approximately 1.20 Å) and the other as a single bond (approximately 1.36 Å); however, the actual experimental bond length for both C–O bonds is about 1.27 Å, reflecting the delocalization of the negative charge.^[8] Historically, formate salts were first prepared in the 19th century from formic acid, which itself was isolated earlier through the distillation of ants from the genus Formica. The name "formic acid" originates from the Latin word formica meaning ant, highlighting its natural derivation.^[9]

Physical and Chemical Properties

Formate salts and esters are typically colorless solids or liquids. Sodium formate, for example, appears as white, odorless, crystalline granules that are deliquescent.^[10] Methyl formate, an ester, is a clear, colorless liquid with an agreeable odor.^[11] These compounds exhibit high solubility in water, attributed to ion-dipole interactions between the polar formate ion and water molecules. Sodium formate dissolves at a rate of 97.2 g per 100 mL of water at 20°C, while its density is 1.92 g/cm³ at the same temperature.^[10] Melting points vary among formate compounds; sodium formate melts at 253°C.^[10] Chemically, the formate ion (HCOO⁻) behaves as a weak base in aqueous solution, with a base dissociation constant (Kb) of approximately 5.6 × 10⁻¹¹, derived from the acid dissociation constant (Ka) of formic acid (1.8 × 10⁻⁴) via Kb = Kw / Ka, where Kw is 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴ at 25°C.^[12] In coordination chemistry, the formate ion can act as a monodentate ligand, binding to metal centers through one oxygen atom, as observed in certain complexes.^[13] Formate salts demonstrate thermal stability up to around 300°C, beyond which decomposition begins, as observed in sodium formate solutions remaining intact at ≤300°C under in situ conditions.^[14] Spectroscopically, the formate ion shows characteristic infrared absorption for the asymmetric carboxylate (COO⁻) stretch at approximately 1600 cm⁻¹, a strong band indicative of its structure.^[15] In ¹H NMR spectroscopy, the formate proton in aqueous solution appears at a chemical shift of about 8.4 ppm, reflecting its deshielded environment due to the adjacent carbonyl-like group.^[16] Formate compounds generally exhibit low toxicity, with sodium formate having an oral LD50 greater than 5000 mg/kg in rats, indicating minimal acute risk upon ingestion.^[17] However, derivatives related to formic acid may cause skin and eye irritation upon direct contact.^[18]

Occurrence and Production

Natural Occurrence

Formate, primarily in the form of formic acid (HCOOH) or its dissociated anion (HCOO⁻), occurs naturally in trace amounts in Earth's atmosphere, typically at concentrations of 0.5–2 ppb in background air, with higher levels up to 10–40 ppb near sources.^[19]^[20] These trace levels arise mainly from biogenic processes, including the photochemical oxidation of volatile organic compounds such as isoprene from vegetation and, to a lesser extent, methane, as well as direct emissions from biomass burning.^[21]^[22] In the atmospheric carbon cycle, formate serves as a short-lived intermediate that is rapidly oxidized to CO₂ via photolysis or reactions with hydroxyl radicals, contributing to the recycling of carbon back to the primary atmospheric reservoir.^[22] Geologically, formate is generated abiotically in hydrothermal vent systems through equilibrium reactions involving H₂, CO₂, and CO in hot, alkaline fluids, with concentrations reaching 36–158 μmol/kg in unsedimented vent fluids.^[23]^[24] Formate has also been detected in the water-soluble organic fraction of carbonaceous chondrites, primitive meteorites that preserve early solar system materials, alongside other simple carboxylic acids.^[25] Biologically, formate appears as a minor byproduct in animal metabolism through the glycine cleavage system, which decarboxylates glycine to produce CO₂, NH₃, and a one-carbon unit that can yield formate in mitochondria.^[26] In plants, it emerges during photorespiration, where peroxisomal oxidation of glycolate generates formate as an intermediate in the pathway that recycles phosphoglycolate from Rubisco oxygenation.^[27] Environmentally, these biological sources contribute to formate deposition in rainwater, with typical concentrations of 1–2 μM in precipitation, reflecting atmospheric scavenging and influencing the acidity of wet deposition.^[28] Beyond Earth, formic acid (the protonated form of the formate ion) has been detected in the interstellar medium through radio astronomical observations of molecular clouds and star-forming regions, indicating gas-phase or ice-mantle formation pathways in cold cosmic environments.^[29]

Synthetic Methods

One common laboratory method for synthesizing formate salts involves the neutralization of formic acid with a suitable base. For instance, sodium formate is prepared by reacting formic acid with sodium hydroxide according to the equation:

\text{HCOOH} + \text{NaOH} \rightarrow \text{HCOONa} + \text{H}_2\text{O}

This acid-base reaction proceeds quantitatively in aqueous solution at room temperature, yielding the formate salt in high purity suitable for analytical or small-scale applications.^[30] In industrial settings, formate salts such as sodium formate are produced on a large scale via the carbonylation of hydroxide with carbon monoxide under elevated pressure and temperature. The reaction, typically conducted at 130–160 °C and 6–8 bar, follows:

\text{CO} + \text{NaOH} \rightarrow \text{HCOONa}

This process, which originated in the early 20th century, utilizes inexpensive feedstocks and achieves high yields, making it economically viable for bulk production; catalysts like palladium may enhance selectivity in some variants.^[31]^[32] Since the 1940s, another historical industrial route to formate has involved the hydrolysis of formamide, often derived from methyl formate carbonylation. Formamide is hydrolyzed under acidic conditions to formic acid, which is subsequently neutralized with a base to yield the formate salt:

\text{HCONH}_2 + \text{H}_2\text{O} \xrightarrow{\text{H}^+} \text{HCOOH} + \text{NH}_3

followed by neutralization (e.g., with NaOH). This method contributed significantly to wartime and postwar chemical manufacturing but has been largely supplanted by more efficient processes due to energy demands and byproduct handling.^[33] Contemporary synthetic methods emphasize sustainable approaches through the reduction of CO₂, positioning formate as a key intermediate for carbon capture and hydrogen storage. Electrochemical reduction of CO₂ to formate occurs at the cathode in an electrolyzer:

\text{CO}_2 + \text{H}_2\text{O} + 2\text{e}^- \rightarrow \text{HCOO}^- + \text{OH}^-

High Faradaic efficiencies (up to 98%) have been reported using catalysts such as Sn- or Cu-based electrodes under ambient conditions or elevated CO₂ pressure, enabling scalable production with renewable electricity. Complementing this, catalytic hydrogenation of CO₂ with H₂ employs ruthenium-based complexes, such as Ru pincer catalysts, to form formate in basic media:

\text{CO}_2 + \text{H}_2 \rightarrow \text{HCOO}^- + \text{H}^+

These Ru systems achieve turnover numbers exceeding 10,000, facilitating the storage of hydrogen in stable HCOOH/HCOO⁻ solutions for energy applications.^[34]^[35]^[36]^[37]

Chemical Reactions

Reactions in Organic Chemistry

Formate salts serve as effective formylating agents in organic synthesis, particularly for the preparation of aldehydes from organometallic reagents or activated aromatic compounds. In a classical approach, Grignard reagents react with lithium or sodium formate in boiling tetrahydrofuran (THF) to yield the corresponding aldehydes in good yields, providing a straightforward method to introduce the formyl group via decarboxylation of the intermediate acyl complex.^[38] This reaction proceeds through the formation of a dianion intermediate, followed by protonation and loss of CO₂, and is particularly useful for avoiding over-addition issues common with other formyl sources like DMF derivatives. A variant for direct formylation of electron-rich arenes employs sodium formate in combination with triphenylphosphine ditriflate in ethanol, generating aromatic aldehydes under mild conditions without the need for harsh reagents like POCl₃, as seen in the Vilsmeier-Haack process.^[39] This method achieves high regioselectivity for activated substrates such as phenols or anilines, with yields often exceeding 80% for simple cases like anisole to p-formylanisole.^[39] As a hydrogen donor, formate acts in transfer hydrogenation reactions, where it decomposes to hydride (H⁻) and CO₂, enabling selective reduction of unsaturated bonds. Ruthenium catalysts, such as [RuCl₂(p-cymene)]₂ with suitable ligands, facilitate the transfer hydrogenation of alkenes using formic acid or formate salts, providing a chemoselective route to alkanes under mild aqueous or alcoholic conditions.^[40] This approach tolerates functional groups like esters and ketones that are incompatible with traditional H₂ hydrogenation. The mechanism involves β-hydride elimination from a ruthenium-formate intermediate, delivering H⁻ to the alkene π-system while avoiding over-reduction. This approach has been extended to internal alkenes and is valued for its safety, as formate serves as both reductant and solvent in some protocols.^[40] Esterification of formate involves nucleophilic attack by the formate anion on alkyl halides, yielding alkyl formates that are valuable as solvents, fragrances, or intermediates. Sodium or potassium formate reacts with primary alkyl bromides or iodides (RX) in polar aprotic solvents like DMF, following an SN₂ mechanism to produce HCOOR with inversion at the carbon center.^[41] For example, benzyl bromide with NaHCO₂ affords benzyl formate in 90% yield at room temperature, useful for protecting alcohols after hydrolysis or as mild acylating agents in flavor chemistry.^[41] This route avoids acidic conditions of direct formic acid esterification, making it suitable for acid-sensitive substrates, though secondary halides react more slowly due to steric hindrance.^[41]

Oxidation and Decomposition

The oxidation of the formate ion proceeds via the half-reaction HCOO⁻ → CO₂ + H⁺ + 2e⁻, with a standard potential E° ≈ -0.42 V (at pH 7 vs. SHE for the corresponding reduction).^[42] This process can be mediated by metal oxides, such as ferrihydrite (an iron(III) oxide), where surface-bound formate decomposes in the presence of hydrogen peroxide, yielding CO₂ and reducing equivalents through a surface-initiated radical mechanism.^[43] Alternatively, photolysis of formate under UV irradiation, often sensitized by uranyl ions in acidic media, leads to its decomposition into CO₂, hydrogen, and reduced species via excited-state electron transfer.^[44] Thermal decomposition of formate salts represents a key destructive pathway, particularly for producing fine metal powders. For instance, nickel(II) formate dihydrate, Ni(HCOO)₂·2H₂O, undergoes dehydration followed by decomposition around 200–260°C, yielding metallic nickel, CO₂, and H₂ according to the overall reaction Ni(HCOO)₂ → Ni + 2CO₂ + H₂.^[45] This process is exploited in spray pyrolysis or hot-filament chemical vapor deposition to generate submicrometer nickel particles with high purity, as the formate ligand provides a clean carbon source that volatilizes completely.^[46] Similar thermal pathways occur with other transition metal formates, such as copper and cobalt, typically initiating above 150°C and completing by 350°C under inert atmospheres.^[47] Hydrolysis of formate esters, R'OCOH (where R' is an alkyl group), involves cleavage to formic acid and the corresponding alcohol, R'OH, catalyzed by acid or base. In acid-catalyzed hydrolysis, protonation of the carbonyl oxygen enhances electrophilicity, allowing water nucleophilic attack to form a tetrahedral intermediate, followed by elimination of R'OH and deprotonation to HCOOH; this mechanism is specific to alkyl formates like methyl or ethyl formate and proceeds faster than for higher carboxylates due to the small formate group.^[48] Base-catalyzed hydrolysis (saponification) employs hydroxide ion for direct nucleophilic acyl substitution, yielding formate ion and R'OH irreversibly, with rates influenced by the ester's solubility in aqueous media.^[49] In radiolytic environments, such as those in nuclear waste repositories, formate undergoes decomposition upon exposure to ionizing radiation (e.g., gamma rays from radionuclides), generating strongly reducing species like hydrated electrons (eₐq⁻) and CO₂⁻• radicals via HCOO⁻ + OH• → CO₂⁻• + H₂O or direct ionization.^[50] These radicals reduce higher-valence radionuclides, such as Tc(VII) to insoluble Tc(IV) or U(VI) to U(IV), thereby immobilizing them and mitigating leaching in aqueous waste forms; this process is particularly relevant in clay or concrete barriers where formate arises from organic additives or radiolysis of carbonates.^[51]

Biological Significance

Metabolic Roles

Formate serves as a key intermediate in one-carbon (C1) metabolism across various organisms, acting as a C1 donor for the biosynthesis of purines and pyrimidines. In this pathway, formate provides formyl groups through its integration with tetrahydrofolate (THF), enabling the formation of precursors essential for nucleotide synthesis, such as 10-formyl-THF for purine ring assembly and thymidylate for DNA replication. This role is particularly prominent in proliferating cells, where formate supports the high demand for de novo nucleotide production.^[2]^[52] Formate is generated endogenously from the catabolism of certain amino acids, notably serine and glycine. Serine is converted to glycine and a C1 unit via serine hydroxymethyltransferase, with the C1 moiety ultimately yielding formate in mitochondrial compartments. Similarly, the glycine cleavage system processes glycine to release a C1 unit that contributes to formate production, facilitating the transfer of one-carbon groups into broader metabolic networks. These processes link amino acid breakdown to C1 pool maintenance.^[53]^[54] In mammals, formate is primarily detoxified through oxidation to carbon dioxide, preventing toxic accumulation. This oxidation occurs via folate-dependent pathways, ensuring formate does not disrupt cellular respiration. However, in cases of methanol poisoning, methanol is metabolized to formaldehyde and then formate, leading to elevated formate levels that inhibit mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase, resulting in severe metabolic acidosis and optic nerve damage.^[55]^[56] In plants and microbes, formate functions as a central intermediate in methylotrophic pathways, where organisms assimilate C1 compounds like methanol through sequential oxidation to formate before further metabolism. In methylotrophic bacteria, such as Methylobacterium extorquens, formate represents the primary branch point, directing flux toward assimilation via the serine cycle or dissimilation to CO₂. Additionally, in certain microbes, formate participates in anaplerotic reactions that replenish tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle intermediates, such as through CO₂ fixation derived from formate oxidation, supporting central carbon flow during growth on C1 substrates. In plants, formate dehydrogenase aids in oxidizing photorespiration-derived formate, linking C1 metabolism to energy production.^[57]^[58]^[59]

Enzymatic Processes

Formate dehydrogenase (FDH) is a key enzyme that catalyzes the reversible oxidation of formate (HCOO⁻) to carbon dioxide (CO₂), transferring electrons to various acceptors.^[60] This reaction is essential in anaerobic respiration and carbon fixation processes. FDH enzymes are classified based on their cofactors and electron acceptors; many microbial FDHs contain molybdenum (Mo) or tungsten (W) in a molybdopterin cofactor, often with selenocysteine at the active site, facilitating the two-electron transfer from formate.^[61] For instance, in Escherichia coli, the NAD⁺-dependent FDH (FDH-N) operates under aerobic conditions, exhibiting a turnover number (k_cat) of approximately 10 s⁻¹ for formate oxidation, enabling efficient NADH production. The mechanism involves substrate binding at the active site, where formate is deprotonated and oxidized, releasing CO₂ and hydride to NAD⁺ via a sequential ordered bi-bi kinetic pathway.^[62] Formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase (FTHFS), also known as 10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase, catalyzes the ATP-dependent ligation of formate to tetrahydrofolate (THF), forming 10-formyltetrahydrofolate (10-formyl-THF), ADP, and inorganic phosphate (P_i). The reaction is:

\text{HCOO}^- + \text{THF} + \text{ATP} \rightarrow \text{10-formyl-THF} + \text{ADP} + \text{P}_\text{i}

This enzyme plays a crucial role in one-carbon metabolism by activating formate for transfer to folate carriers.^[63] The mechanism proceeds via a formyl phosphate intermediate formed from formate and ATP, which then reacts with THF; the enzyme requires Mg²⁺ or Mn²⁺ for activation and exhibits ping-pong kinetics, with formate binding first to form the phosphorylated intermediate.^[64] Found in bacteria, archaea, and some eukaryotes, FTHFS from Clostridium species has been extensively studied, showing high specificity for formate and THF.^[65] In the aromatase enzyme (CYP19A1), a cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, formate is produced as a byproduct during the stereospecific demethylation of the C19 methyl group in androgen precursors, such as the conversion of testosterone to estradiol.^[66] This three-step oxidative process involves successive hydroxylations of the methyl group to an alcohol, aldehyde, and finally [formic acid](/page/Formic Acid), which is released to facilitate aromatization of the A-ring in the steroid structure.^[67] The reaction requires NADPH and O₂, with CYP19A1's heme iron coordinating the oxygen activations; formate release is critical for the enzyme's catalytic cycle and is often measured in assays to quantify aromatase activity.^[66] This process is vital in estrogen biosynthesis, occurring primarily in ovarian granulosa cells and adipose tissue. In acetogenic bacteria, formate is assimilated through the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway (WLP), a CO₂-fixing route that converts formate and CO₂ into acetyl-CoA for autotrophic growth.^[68] Key enzymes include formate dehydrogenase, which interconverts formate and CO₂, and FTHFS, which channels formate into the eastern branch to form the formyl group of the methyl-tetrahydrofolate intermediate; the western branch reduces CO₂ to CO via CO dehydrogenase/acetyl-CoA synthase.^[69] In organisms like Acetobacterium woodii, formate serves as both an electron donor and carbon source, with the pathway yielding acetyl-CoA through condensation of the methyl and carbonyl units, supporting ATP generation via substrate-level phosphorylation.^[70] This anaerobic process highlights formate's role in microbial C1 assimilation, distinct from broader metabolic integration.

Derivatives

Formate Esters

Formate esters are organic compounds characterized by the general formula HCOOR, where R denotes an alkyl group. These covalent derivatives of formic acid exhibit properties typical of simple esters, including polarity and reactivity at the carbonyl group. They are distinguished from formate salts by their non-ionic nature and from other carboxylic acid esters by the hydrogen substituent on the carbonyl carbon, which influences their thermal stability and decomposition pathways.^[71] Preparation of formate esters commonly involves the acid-catalyzed esterification of formic acid with an alcohol, following the reaction HCOOH + ROH ⇌ HCOOR + H₂O, often using sulfuric acid as a catalyst to drive equilibrium toward the ester. For methyl formate specifically, an industrial route employs the catalytic carbonylation of methanol with carbon monoxide under basic conditions:

\text{CH}_3\text{OH} + \text{CO} \xrightarrow{\text{base catalyst}} \text{HCOOCH}_3

This process operates at moderate temperatures (around 80–100 °C) and pressures, leveraging inexpensive feedstocks.^[72]^[73] Formate esters are typically low-boiling, volatile liquids that are colorless and flammable, with many possessing fruity odors due to their structural simplicity. Methyl formate, for example, boils at 31.5 °C, has a density of 0.97 g/cm³, and is miscible with organic solvents but only moderately soluble in water. These physical traits make them suitable for applications requiring easy vaporization, such as fumigants in agriculture. Hydrolysis, either acid- or base-catalyzed, reverses esterification to regenerate formic acid and the alcohol:

\text{HCOOCH}_3 + \text{H}_2\text{O} \rightleftharpoons \text{HCOOH} + \text{CH}_3\text{OH}

This reaction proceeds slowly at ambient conditions but accelerates under heating or catalysis. Thermal decomposition, or pyrolysis, of formate esters at elevated temperatures (above 300 °C) primarily yields carbon monoxide and the parent alcohol, with minor byproducts like formaldehyde for lower homologs:

\text{HCOOR} \rightarrow \text{CO} + \text{ROH} \quad (+ \text{other products})

The global production volume of methyl formate was approximately 842 thousand metric tons in 2024, primarily for use as an intermediate in formic acid synthesis and other chemical processes.^[74] Representative examples illustrate their diversity. Ethyl formate (HCOOC₂H₅) is a clear liquid with a boiling point of 54 °C and a characteristic rum-like, fruity odor, contributing to flavorings in beverages, confectionery, and rum essences at low concentrations (up to 0.05% in baked goods). Butyl formate (HCOOC₄H₉), boiling at 107 °C with a density of 0.89 g/cm³, functions as an effective polar aprotic solvent in paints, adhesives, and cleaning formulations due to its low viscosity and compatibility with organic compounds. These esters' reactivity, including susceptibility to nucleophilic attack at the carbonyl, underpins their utility but also necessitates careful handling to avoid unintended hydrolysis or decomposition.^[75]^[76]^[77]

Formate Salts

Formate salts are ionic compounds consisting of the formate anion (HCOO⁻) paired with metal cations, following the general formula M(HCOO)_n, where M represents the cation and n corresponds to its valence. These salts are typically white, crystalline solids that vary in solubility and stability based on the cation involved. The formate ion in these compounds adopts a planar structure, enabling diverse coordination modes in both simple salts and more complex structures. A prominent example is sodium formate (HCOONa), a hygroscopic solid that readily absorbs moisture from the air, forming a deliquescent powder. It is widely employed in analytical chemistry to buffer strong mineral acids to higher pH values, facilitating reactions in dyeing, printing, and tanning processes. In contrast to molecular derivatives like esters, these ionic salts emphasize electrostatic interactions and ion-pairing behaviors. The formate ligand frequently coordinates in a bidentate fashion within metal complexes, bridging or chelating through its two oxygen atoms to form stable five-membered rings with the metal center. For instance, copper(II) formate dihydrate ([Cu(HCOO)₂(H₂O)₂]) crystallizes as blue, monoclinic structures where each formate acts as a bidentate ligand, contributing to the compound's layered architecture and distorted octahedral geometry around the copper ion. Thermal decomposition is a key reaction for many formate salts, often proceeding via decarboxylation pathways that release gases and leave behind metal carbonates or oxides. Calcium formate, for example, undergoes decomposition around 300°C, initially forming formaldehyde and calcium carbonate, followed by further breakdown of the organic product to yield hydrogen and carbon monoxide overall:

\ce{Ca(HCOO)2 ->[~300°C] CaCO3 + H2 + CO}

This process highlights the salts' utility in controlled gas generation but requires careful handling due to exothermic tendencies. Ammonium formate (NH₄HCOO) exemplifies a multifunctional salt, serving as a mild reducing agent in organic synthesis, particularly for catalytic hydrogenations in the presence of palladium. Upon heating, it decomposes stepwise—first to formamide and water, then to carbon monoxide and ammonia—resulting in the net reaction:

\ce{NH4HCO2 -> NH3 + CO + H2O}

This decomposition occurs above 180°C and is leveraged in applications requiring safe hydrogen sources without high-pressure storage. Silver formate (HCOOAg), while sharing the ionic character of other formate salts, exhibits hazardous instability, decomposing explosively when dry, even at room temperature, or upon heating to produce metallic silver, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. Its sensitivity underscores the need for wet storage and avoidance of friction or shock in handling.^[78]

Applications

Industrial Uses

Formates, particularly formic acid and its salts, play a significant role in hydrogen storage through the reversible formate/formic acid cycle. In this process, formate ions (HCOO⁻) are dehydrogenated to produce hydrogen gas (H₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) using catalysts such as iridium complexes, with reported efficiencies exceeding 90% for hydrogen evolution in optimized systems.^[79] The reverse reaction involves hydrogenation of CO₂ to regenerate formate, enabling a closed-loop system for safe, liquid-phase hydrogen transport and on-demand release.^[80] In the leather industry, sodium formate is used in processing, including as a tanning agent that stabilizes chromium and regulates pH, consuming approximately 25% of global sodium formate production.^[81]^[82] Methyl formate is utilized industrially for carbon monoxide (CO) production via thermal pyrolysis or catalytic decomposition, following the reaction:

$2 \mathrm{HCOOCH_3} \rightarrow 2 \mathrm{CO} + 2 \mathrm{CH_3OH}

This process yields high-purity CO with selectivities over 95% using palladium-based catalysts, providing an alternative route to syngas components for chemical synthesis.^[83] Emerging applications in the 2020s focus on CO₂ utilization, where electrocatalytic reduction of CO₂ to formate enables integration into fuel cells and green hydrogen production. Recent advancements, such as high-efficiency catalysts achieving >90% Faradaic efficiency for formate (as of 2024), support scalable carbon-neutral energy systems.^[84] Additionally, as of 2024, potassium formate/bicarbonate systems have demonstrated high stability (over 6 months) for reversible hydrogen storage and release.^[85]

Notable Examples

Nickel(II) formate dihydrate, Ni(HCOO)₂·2H₂O, undergoes thermal decomposition to yield pure nickel metal powder, which is widely used as a catalyst in hydrogenation processes due to its high surface area and purity. This decomposition reaction produces gaseous byproducts including approximately 62% carbon dioxide, 25% hydrogen, and 11% carbon monoxide, facilitating the in situ generation of active nickel catalysts.^[86] The resulting nickel has demonstrated high catalytic activity in transfer hydrogenation reactions, such as those derived from bio-based sources.^[87] Potassium formate serves as a critical component in drilling fluids within the oil industry, enabling the formulation of clear brines with densities typically ranging from 1.5 to 1.6 g/cm³ for saturated solutions, and up to higher values when blended in formate systems. It functions as a non-toxic, environmentally benign alternative to traditional chloride-based brines, reducing formation damage and enhancing shale stability in sensitive reservoirs.^[88]^[89] Its application in non-damaging drill-in and completion fluids has been validated in field operations, particularly for high-temperature and high-pressure conditions.^[90] Methyl formate is a versatile industrial chemical with global annual production of approximately 0.8 million tons (as of 2024), primarily serving as an intermediate in the synthesis of formic acid and other derivatives. It has been investigated for use in airbag systems, where thermal decomposition generates carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide gases to support rapid inflation.^[74]^[91] Cesium formate is a high-density clear brine utilized in oil well logging and completion operations, achieving a saturated density of 2.3 g/cm³ to provide precise pressure control in high-pressure, high-temperature reservoirs. This property minimizes formation damage compared to weighted muds, enabling efficient logging and evaluation of well integrity.^[92] Its solubility and stability have made it essential in over 20 HPHT workover operations, such as those in the North Sea.^[93]^[94]

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Formate is a monocarboxylic acid anion that is the conjugate base of formic acid. Induces severe metabolic acidosis and ocular injury in human subjects.Sodium FormateMethyl formateEugenyl formateHexyl FormateGeranyl formate
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[PDF] SAFETY DATA SHEET - Fisher Scientific
Sep 26, 2009 · Sodium formate. Cat No. : S648-500. CAS No. 141-53-7. Synonyms. Formic ... LD50 = 11200 mg/kg ( Rat ). LD50 > 2000 mg/kg ( Rat ). LC50 > 0.67 ...
[18]
https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/ID/id/sds/aldrich/279412
[19]
Atmospheric concentrations of formic and acetic acid and related ...
The daytime background concentration of formic acid averaged 1.4 ±0.2 ppb (63 ± 9 nmol m−3) in a semirural area in eastern Austria.
[20]
Seasonal and Spatial Characteristics of Formic and Acetic Acids ...
Formic and acetic acids concentrations measured in marine air upwind of the Los Angeles area over an 8-month period average 1.4 and 0.6 ppb, respectively ...
[21]
[PDF] A large and ubiquitous source of atmospheric formic acid - ACP
Formic acid is abundant in the atmosphere, with biogenic sources like isoprene oxidation being a dominant source. There are also large missing sources.
[22]
Oxidation of Volatile Organic Compounds as the Major Source of ...
Feb 19, 2019 · Formic acid (HCOOH) is one of the most abundant acids in the atmosphere and affects the acidity of precipitation. A number of recent studies ...
[23]
Formate and hydrogen in hydrothermal vents and their use by ...
Formate forms abiotically in hydrothermal fluids through chemical equilibrium with primarily H2, CO2, and CO and is strongly dependent upon H2 concentration, pH ...
[24]
Elevated concentrations of formate, acetate and dissolved organic ...
Formate (36–158 μmol/kg) and acetate (1–35 μmol/kg) concentrations are higher than in other fluids from unsedimented hydrothermal vents.
[25]
The Organic Composition of Carbonaceous Meteorites - NIH
Analyses of 40 years have shown the organic content of these meteorites to be materials as diverse as kerogen-like macromolecules and simpler soluble compounds ...<|separator|>
[26]
Formate metabolism in health and disease - ScienceDirect.com
Glycine is another potential source of mitochondrial formate production. The glycine cleavage system (GCS) catalyzes the catabolism of glycine to CO2 and 5,10- ...
[27]
A Study of Formate Production and Oxidation in Leaf Peroxisomes ...
When glycolate was metabolized in peroxisomes isolated from leaves of spinach beet (Beta vulgaris L., var. vulgaris) formate was produced.
[28]
Characteristics of formate and acetate concentrations in precipitation ...
▻ HCOO− concentrations in precipitation were 1.28-2.06 μmol/L at Jeju Island of Korea. ▻ CH3COO− concentrations in precipitation were 0.89-1.15 μmol/L at Jeju ...
[29]
[PDF] A Survey of Large Molecules of Biological Interest toward Selected ...
We have surveyed three high mass Galactic star forming regions for interstel- lar methanol (CH3OH), formic acid (HCOOH), acetic acid (CH3COOH), methyl.Missing: HCOO- | Show results with:HCOO-
[30]
https://www.chemicals.co.uk/blog/sodium-formate
[31]
The Versatile Compound: Sodium Formate in Modern Chemistry
Nov 1, 2024 · Synthesis of Sodium Formate. For commercial use, sodium formate is ... CO + NaOH → HCO2Na. Because of the low-cost and large-scale ...
[32]
Overview of Sodium Formate | LCY - 李長榮
Apr 16, 2024 · Preparation of sodium formate Common methods to prepare sodium formate include: Catalyzed reaction of sodium hydroxide with carbon monoxide. ...<|separator|>
[33]
Challenges in the Greener Production of Formates/Formic Acid ...
The current industrial methods of formic acid production include hydrolysis of methyl formate or formamide and oxidation of biomass. (34) Compared to these ...
[34]
Electroreduction of CO2 to Formate on a Copper-Based ...
Apr 6, 2020 · The cathode afforded up to 98% Faradaic efficiency for electroreduction of CO 2 to nearly pure formate under ≥45 atm CO 2 in bicarbonate catholytes.
[35]
Electrochemical reduction of CO2 into formate/formic acid: A review ...
Jul 1, 2023 · Therefore, this technology can effectively close the anthropogenic carbon cycle, reduce the CO2 level in the atmosphere, and reach CO2 neutral ...
[36]
Catalytic CO2 Hydrogenation to Formate by a Ruthenium Pincer ...
Sep 25, 2013 · This paper reports the hydrogenation of carbon dioxide to formate catalyzed by the Ru pincer complex Ru(PNN)CO(H)
[37]
Reversible hydrogenation of carbon dioxide to formic acid using a ...
May 19, 2022 · Herein we provide a sustainable hydrogen storage and release method integrating the reversible hydrogenation of CO2 to FA and carbon capture ...
[38]
Formylation of organometallic compounds with lithium (or sodium ...
Grignard reagent reacts with lithium (or sodium) formate in boiling THF giving the corresponding aldehydes in good yields. This reaction can be carried out ...Missing: salts | Show results with:salts
[39]
Simple Formylation of Aromatic Compounds Using a Sodium ...
A new procedure was developed for formylation of arenes to produce aromatic aldehydes using a sodium formate/triphenylphosphine ditriflate system in ethanol ...
[40]
A Selective and Functional Group-Tolerant Ruthenium-Catalyzed ...
A ruthenium-catalyzed transfer hydrogenation of olefins utilizing formic acid as a hydrogen donor is described.
[41]
Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn., 73, 453 - Oxford Academic
Silver formate (112.6 mg, 0.736 mmol) was added to the solution at -40 °C, and the mixture was stirred at -30 °C for 2 h in the dark. Styrene (563 µL, 4.91 mmol) ...
[42]
[PDF] Thesis - the University of Bath's research portal
the decomposition of silver carboxylates and these experiments show that such organometallic ... of silver formate 154and acetate 155(although only a preliminary ...
[43]
Homogeneous catalytic synthesis of alkyl formates from the reaction ...
Homogeneous catalytic synthesis of alkyl formates from the reaction of alkyl halides, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen in the presence of anionic Group 6 carbonyl ...
[44]
Electrocatalytic carbon dioxide reduction: from fundamental ...
Electrocatalytic CO2 reduction is a promising technology to mitigate CO2 buildup, converting it into fuels and chemicals using renewable energy.Electrocatalytic Carbon... · 4.1. Formate/formic Acid... · 4.2. Co Producing...
[45]
Mechanistic Insights from Ferrihydrite-Mediated Oxidation of ...
May 27, 2021 · Our results show that the decomposition of H2O2 and formate is controlled by surface-initiated reactions. Adsorbed formate occupies the surface ...
[46]
The photolysis of the uranyl formic acid/formate system in acidic ...
The photolysis proceeds via uranyl sensitized decomposition of formic acid and formate ion, and via direct decomposition of the mentioned complex. U(IV) and CO2 ...
[47]
Preparation of nickel and copper submicrometer particles by ...
Thermal decomposition of the nickel formate salt consists of two stages: the first stage, starting from ∼150 to 260 °C, is attributed to dehydration of ...
[48]
Preparation of Nickel Powders by Spray Pyrolysis of Nickel Formate
The preparation of nickel powders by the ultrasonic spray pyrolysis of Ni(HCOO)2 was studied. Phase-pure nickel powder was obtained at as low as 350°C.
[49]
Properties of fine metal powders produced by the formate pyrolysis ...
Optimum parameters have been determined for the processes of preparation of fine copper, nickel, and cobalt powders by the pyrolysis of formates in a prote.
[50]
[PDF] Alkyl Formate Esters Hydrolysis In Aqueous Medium. A comparative ...
Alkyl Formate Esters Hydrolysis In Aqueous Medium. A comparative study of Acid-catalyzed Hydrolysis. SHAKILA BEGUM. Pakistan Council of Scientific and ...
[51]
hydrolysis of esters - Chemguide
The reaction is catalysed by dilute acid, and so the ester is heated under reflux with a dilute acid like dilute hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid.Missing: formate | Show results with:formate
[52]
Gamma Radiolysis of Water Solutions Relevant to the Nuclear Fuel ...
May 13, 2017 · Abstract. The gamma radiolysis of water was investigated for conditions relevant to studies of the geological disposal of nuclear fuel waste ...
[53]
Carboxylate anion generation in aqueous solution from carbonate ...
Jun 15, 2021 · Carbonate radiolysis leads to successive formation of formate, acetate and oxalate. · H2 radiolytic production is significantly enhanced in the ...
[54]
One-Carbon Metabolism in Health and Disease - PMC - NIH
One-carbon (1C) metabolism, mediated by the folate cofactor, supports multiple physiological processes. These include biosynthesis (purines and thymidine), ...
[55]
Serine one-carbon catabolism with formate overflow - PMC - NIH
Oct 28, 2016 · Another potential function of the serine catabolism to glycine and formate could be energy generation. For every formate released from cells, ...
[56]
Formate: The Neglected Member of One-Carbon Metabolism
It appears that serine provides most of the one-carbon groups via. SHMT2 and that little of the glycine so produced is metabolized via the glycine cleavage ...
[57]
Detoxification of formate by formate dehydrogenase-loaded ...
Formic acid is a toxic metabolite responsible for the metabolic acidosis in methanol poisoning. Formate dehydrogenase (EC 1.2.1.2) converts formate into CO2 ...
[58]
Methanol Toxicity - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Feb 6, 2025 · Formate's inhibition of mitochondrial respiration may contribute to lactic acidosis, enhancing its capacity to cross the blood-brain barrier as ...
[59]
Formate as the Main Branch Point for Methylotrophic Metabolism in ...
These results suggested that the methylene H4F synthesis pathway through formate dominates assimilatory flux. A revised kinetic model was used to validate this ...Missing: anaplerotic TCA
[60]
Formate dehydrogenase in Arabidopsis thaliana - ScienceDirect.com
In methylotrophic microorganisms, this enzyme plays an essential catalytic role in the final step of one-carbon metabolic oxidation and the generation of ...
[61]
Exploring eukaryotic formate metabolisms to enhance microbial ...
Jan 26, 2017 · Aspartate labeling enrichment indicates that 13CO2 released from formate oxidation was re-incorporated into the TCA cycle via the anaplerotic ...
[62]
Mechanism of Action of Formate Dehydrogenases - PubMed - NIH
Oct 23, 2024 · The molybdenum- and tungsten-containing formate dehydrogenases from a variety of microorganisms catalyze the reversible interconversion of formate and CO 2.
[63]
Mechanism of Action of Formate Dehydrogenases - ACS Publications
Oct 9, 2024 · Formate dehydrogenase H, FDH(Se), from Escherichia coli contains a molybdopterin guanine dinucleotide cofactor and a selenocysteine residue ...
[64]
Fast growth and high-titer bioproduction from renewable formate via ...
Jul 1, 2025 · We implement a fast, metal-dependent formate dehydrogenase complex in a synthetic formatotrophic Escherichia coli utilizing the reductive glycine pathway.
[65]
Kinetic studies of formate dehydrogenase - PubMed
1. The kinetic mechanism of formate dehydrogenase is a sequential pathway. 2. The binding of the substrates proceeds in an obligatory order, NAD(+) binding ...
[66]
Mechanism of N10-formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase derived from ...
Abstract. N(10) -formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase (FTHFS) is a folate enzyme that catalyzes the formylation of tetrahydrofolate (THF) in an ATP dependent ...
[67]
Studies on the mechanism of formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase. The ...
Feb 25, 1978 · Two conflicting mechanisms have been proposed for formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase (EC 6.3.4.3). Detailed studies with a clostridial enzyme ...
[68]
Formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase-catalyzed formation of ATP from ...
Jul 10, 1976 · Formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase from Clostridium cylindrosporum catalyzes phosphoryl transfer from carbamyl phosphate in ADP to form ATP.
[69]
[19-14C]androstenedione: a new substrate for assaying aromatase ...
Enzyme activity is determined by measuring the rate at which [14C]formate is produced by aromatization of this 14C-labeled steroid.
[70]
Studies on estrogen biosynthesis using radioactive and stable ...
The conversion of androgens into estrogen involves three distinct generic reactions which are catalyzed by a single P450 enzyme (aromatase or P450(aromatase)).
[71]
A functional Wood-Ljungdahl pathway devoid of a formate ... - PubMed
Blautia schinkii was described as an acetogenic bacterium, characterized by a functional Wood-Ljungdahl pathway (WLP) of acetogenesis from H 2 + CO 2.
[72]
Formate Is Required for Growth of the Thermophilic Acetogenic ...
Jan 31, 2020 · HDCR provides formate which was essential for growth of the T. kivui mutant. Alternatively, extracellularly added formate served as terminal electron acceptor.
[73]
Redirecting electron flow in Acetobacterium woodii enables growth ...
Jun 26, 2024 · Acetogenesis from formate gives the same amount of ATP as acetogenesis from H2 and CO2 but is challenged by the escape of hydrogen into the ...
[74]
Methyl Formate - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
General information Esters of the general formula R1 COOR2 result from the reaction of an organic acid with an alcohol, or of an organic acid chloride with an ...
[75]
Methyl formate as a hydrogen energy carrier | Nature Catalysis
Jun 22, 2023 · At present, MF is produced industrially from MeOH carbonylation, and the global capacity of MF was >6 million metric tonnes per annum in 2016.<|separator|>
[76]
Enzymatic Synthesis of Formate Ester through Immobilized Lipase ...
Aug 11, 2020 · Formate esters are mostly obtained by the reaction of formic acid with alcohol, to which it is common to add a chemical catalyst [4].Missing: properties | Show results with:properties
[77]
METHYL FORMATE - CAMEO Chemicals - NOAA
Air & Water Reactions. Highly flammable. Water soluble. Reacts slowly with water to give formic acid, a corrosive material, and methanol, a flammable liquid.
[78]
Mechanistic Study of the Gas-Phase Decomposition of Methyl Formate
The major products of the thermal decomposition of methyl formate in the gas phase are CH3OH, CH2O, and CO. Experimental studies have proposed that the ...
[79]
Ethyl formate - American Chemical Society
Jan 9, 2018 · Ethyl formate fast facts ; Molar mass, 74.08 g/mol ; Formula, C3H6O ; Appearance, Colorless liquid ; Boiling point, 54 ºC ; Water solubility, 88 g/L ...Missing: general preparation
[80]
Ethyl formate - AERU - University of Hertfordshire
Ethyl formate is a volatile and flammable substance used as a fumigant to control insects in stored grain. It has a moderate solubility in water.
[81]
Butyl formate 97 592-84-7
### Summary of Butyl Formate as a Solvent and Properties
[82]
Manganese Promoted (Bi)carbonate Hydrogenation and Formate ...
Oct 19, 2022 · Towards Hydrogen Storage through an Efficient Ruthenium-Catalyzed Dehydrogenation of Formic Acid. ... 80% H2 evolution efficiency and >99.9 ...
[83]
Recent Developments in Reversible CO2 Hydrogenation and ...
Oct 13, 2023 · We extensively reviewed transition-metal-based molecular catalysts explored for reversible CO 2 hydrogenation and FA dehydrogenation.
[84]
Sodium Formate Market Growth & Trends - ReAnIn
The leather processing sector contributes another 25%, underscoring sodium formate's vital role in maintaining quality and efficiency. These applications ...
[85]
Enhanced catalytic decomposition of methyl formate to carbon ...
Feb 1, 2025 · The 5 wt% Pd/AC catalyst exhibited a conversion rate of 96.11 % for methyl formate, with high selectivity towards carbon monoxide (95.05 %) and methanol (99.81 ...
[86]
Innovative Catalyst Enhances CO2 Reduction to Formate - AZoM
Oct 30, 2024 · This impressive efficiency highlights the catalyst's potential for renewable energy applications, especially in electrochemical CO₂ reduction.
[87]
US2807532A - Method of preparing nickel catalyst - Google Patents
In the literature it is reported that the gaseous products of the decomposition of nickel formate comprises about 62% carbon dioxide, 25% hydrogen, 11% carbon ...
[88]
Bio-based and environmental input for transfer hydrogenation using ...
Aug 5, 2017 · ... decomposition of Ni(II) formate made from a Ni hyperaccumulating plant. The resulting catalyst, EcoNi(0), shows high catalytic activity and ...
[89]
A comparative study of brine solutions as completion fluids for oil ...
Jun 1, 2024 · Common formate fluid salts include sodium formate with a density of 1.33 g/cm3, potassium formate with a density of 1.59 g/cm3, and cesium ...
[90]
Development of a Weighted Barite-Free Formate Drilling Mud ... - NIH
Dec 19, 2021 · Potassium formate is more soluble, with a maximum brine density of about 1.57 g/cm3. In order to prepare a brine of potassium formate or sodium ...
[91]
[PDF] AADE-14-FTCE-44 Potassium Formate / Manganese Tetraoxide ...
Potassium formate (KFo) is widely used in non-damaging drill-in & completion fluids, particularly in sensitive formations such as shale, and others containing ...
[92]
Safety gas-bag aerogenesis medicine and preparation method thereof
The example of described organic carboxylic ester includes but not limited to methyl-formiate, ethyl formate, ethyl acetate and butylacetate. Described ...
[93]
A comparative study of brine solutions as completion fluids for oil ...
Jun 1, 2024 · Common formate fluid salts include sodium formate with a density of 1.33 g ... cesium formate with a density of 2.3 g/cm3. The first usage of ...
[94]
[PDF] Caesium formate brines used as workover, suspension fluids in ...
Jun 13, 2007 · Caesium formate brine has provided effective well control in more than 20 HPHT workover and suspension operations in Elgin/Franklin while ...
[95]
[PDF] RARE METAL DISCOVERY IN ARGENTINA POTENTIAL ... - Stanford
Nov 9, 2009 · Cesium Formate is a salt (pH = ~8) that is soluble in water and forms a stable compound. It has a density of 2.3 g/cm3. Data regarding ...