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Formica

Formica is a genus of ants in the subfamily Formicinae of the family Formicidae, commonly known as wood ants, mound ants, thatching ants, or field ants. It includes around 283 described species, which are primarily distributed across the Holarctic realm, particularly in northern temperate regions such as forests, woodlands, grasslands, and open areas.^[1]^[2] These ants are characterized by polymorphic workers varying in size from 4 to 9 mm, typically with dark bodies that may have reddish or yellowish markings, and they are known for constructing large mound nests from organic debris. Formica species exhibit complex social behaviors, including foraging on insects, honeydew from aphids, and seeds, with some engaging in social parasitism. The genus is well-studied due to its ecological importance in forest ecosystems, where species like Formica rufa (the type species) play roles in seed dispersal and pest control. As of 2025, ongoing taxonomic revisions continue to refine species boundaries within the genus.^[1]^[3]

Taxonomy

Etymology

The genus name Formica originates from the Latin word formīca, which directly translates to "ant."^[4] This linguistic root reflects the straightforward descriptive intent in early taxonomy, drawing from classical Latin where formīca denoted the insect without additional metaphorical connotations.^[5] Carl Linnaeus first applied Formica as a genus name in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae (1758), marking a pivotal moment in the establishment of binomial nomenclature for classifying insects, including ants. In this foundational work, Linnaeus listed 18 ant species under Formica, with Formica rufa (the red wood ant) designated as the type species by subsequent monotypy, solidifying the genus's role in organizing hymenopteran taxonomy.^[6] The application of binomial names to ants in Systema Naturae represented Linnaeus's broader effort to impose a hierarchical, universal system on natural history, replacing earlier polynomial descriptions with concise, two-part identifiers based on genus and species. The genus Formica also serves as the type genus for the subfamily Formicinae within the family Formicidae.

Classification and Phylogeny

Formica belongs to the subfamily Formicinae within the family Formicidae and order Hymenoptera, specifically placed in the tribe Formicini; its type species is Formica rufa, fixed by subsequent monotypy.^[1]^[6] Phylogenetic analyses combining molecular data, such as ultraconserved elements (UCEs) from 959 loci, and morphological traits have established Formicini as a monophyletic tribe within Formicinae, with Formica forming a core genus alongside relatives like Polyergus and Proformica.^[7] These studies indicate that the Formicini crown group likely arose in the Paleocene, approximately 64–67 million years ago, following earlier divergences of sister lineages like Lasiini (containing Lasius) in the Late Cretaceous (~77–89 Ma) during a rapid diversification of Formicinae.^[7] Within Formica, molecular phylogenies based on mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences reveal deep divergences among subgeneric groups dating to the Miocene, around 5 million years ago, reflecting adaptations in social organization and ecology.^[8] The fossil record of Formica documents its origins in the early Eocene, approximately 46 million years ago, with the earliest known specimens from amber deposits in Europe, marking the rise of modern formicine ants.^[9] Key fossil species include Formica ribbeckei from late Eocene Rovno amber (about 35 million years ago) and other inclusions in Baltic amber, representing at least ten valid extinct species that exhibit morphological similarities to extant wood ants.^[10] The genus persisted through the Oligocene and Miocene, with fossils from North American formations like Green River, extending to the present day and comprising approximately 283 extant species and 69 extinct species as of 2025.^[1]^[11]

Subgenera

The genus Formica is traditionally subdivided into subgenera based on morphological criteria, with up to 17 recognized historically (e.g., in Emery's 1925 framework), though modern catalogs like Bolton's recognize fewer valid ones, such as Formica s.str., Raptiformica, Coptoformica, Serviformica, Neoformica, Proformica, and others including Iberoformica, Alloformica, Sericiformica, Tapinolepis, and Xenomyrmex, many of which are now considered synonyms or informal groups.^[6]^[12] This classification reflects early 20th-century revisions, particularly Emery's 1925 framework, which emphasized differences in body pilosity, antennal segmentation, and gaster shape to delineate groups.^[12] Key diagnostic traits distinguish major subgenera. For instance, Raptiformica is characterized by an elongate antennal scape and a three-segmented antennal club, often associated with slave-making (dulotic) behaviors where workers raid nests of other ant species to capture brood.^[8] In contrast, Formica s.str. features robust mound-building nests from organic debris and a two-segmented antennal club, with species typically exhibiting large colony sizes and territorial defense via formic acid sprays.^[8] Coptoformica subgenus ants display a distinct antennal structure with a more pronounced club and are known for temporary social parasitism during colony founding, usurping host nests in the Serviformica group.^[13] Serviformica, meanwhile, includes smaller, less pilose species with variable colony-founding strategies, often lacking mound architecture. These traits provide conceptual groupings for identification, though overlap exists across distributions.^[14] Recent molecular phylogenies from the 2020s have challenged the monophyly of these subgenera, prompting debates on their taxonomic validity. A 2021 global phylogeny based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequences shows that traditional subgenera like Raptiformica and Serviformica are nested within a paraphyletic Formica s.str., suggesting a single origin of key behaviors such as temporary parasitism rather than multiple subgeneric radiations.^[9] A 2018 phylogenomic study on European (Palaearctic) clades proposes synonymizing subgenera such as Iberoformica with Formica s.str. due to low genetic divergence and shared ancestry, advocating for informal species groups (e.g., rufa, fusca) over rigid subgeneric ranks to better reflect evolutionary history.^[14] This shift aligns with broader trends in ant taxonomy, prioritizing DNA evidence over morphology alone for resolving intra-genus relationships.^[9]

Description

Morphology

Formica ants exhibit the standard body plan of the subfamily Formicinae, comprising three primary tagmata: a distinct head, mesosoma (thorax), and gaster (abdomen), joined by a single petiole node that forms a narrow waist.^[15] This structure provides flexibility and segmentation typical of advanced ants, with the petiole often featuring a scale-like crest in workers.^[16] Many species display worker polymorphism, where individuals within the worker caste vary in size and proportions, ranging from minor workers with slender builds to larger majors with more robust heads, though not all species show pronounced dimorphism.^[17] Key anatomical features include a head equipped with large, triangular mandibles bearing 6–10 teeth for defense and foraging, and geniculate (elbowed) antennae with 12 segments in workers, facilitating sensory perception.^[16]^[18] The mesosoma is elongate with a rounded propodeum, and the gaster terminates in an acidopore—a specialized nozzle fringed with setae—lacking a true stinger but capable of ejecting formic acid.^[19] Subgeneric variations in morphology, such as differences in integument sculpture and pilosity, aid in taxonomic identification but do not alter the core body plan.^[16] Sexual dimorphism is evident in the reproductive castes, with alates (winged males and queens) possessing functional wings and larger bodies compared to wingless workers; queens can attain lengths up to 15 mm, supporting their role in colony founding.^[20]^[21] Males are typically smaller and more slender, with elongated genitalia, while queens have expanded abdomens for egg production.^[16]

Size, Coloration, and Variation

Workers in the genus Formica typically measure 4–8 mm in length, though sizes can extend up to 10 mm in certain species, reflecting continuous polymorphism with minor and major size castes that facilitate division of labor within colonies.^[2]^[22]^[23] Queens are larger, often reaching 12–15 mm, while males are generally smaller, ranging from 7–9 mm and comparable in size to smaller workers.^[24]^[21]^[25] This size variation is influenced by morphological structures such as allometric growth patterns, where larger body parts scale disproportionately with overall size.^[26] Coloration across Formica species ranges from black to reddish-brown, with many exhibiting bicolored patterns, particularly in the Formica rufa group where the head and thorax are red and the abdomen brownish-black.^[27] Intraspecific variation is pronounced, including worker polymorphism in size castes that can span a continuous range within a single colony, enhancing functional specialization.^[28] Color polymorphism also occurs, as seen in Formica rufa workers with discrete morphs in head and thorax pigmentation, where smaller individuals tend to have more extensive melanized areas.^[29] Geographic morphs contribute to variation, with size clines observed across latitudes; for instance, workers, queens, and males in North American Formica species increase in size with rising mean annual temperature, resulting in larger forms in southern populations.^[30] Similarly, color patterns show intraspecific diversity, such as independent variation in head and thorax pigmentation in Formica exsecta across European sites, potentially adapting to local microhabitats.^[31]

Distribution and Habitat

Geographic Range

The genus Formica exhibits a predominantly Holarctic distribution, spanning North America, Europe, and northern Asia, where it thrives in temperate and boreal environments. This range reflects the genus's evolutionary origins and adaptations to cooler climates, with approximately 180 extant species concentrated in these regions.^[10] In North America north of Mexico, over 97 species of Formica have been documented, occupying diverse landscapes from boreal forests to prairies. Europe supports around 50 species, primarily in central and northern areas, while Asia hosts the remaining diversity, particularly in Siberia and the Russian Far East. The genus is notably absent from southern continents such as Australia, South America, and Africa, with no native populations established there; rare human-mediated introductions exist but remain limited and localized.^[3]^[8]^[32] Altitudinal distribution extends from sea level to high elevations, with species recorded up to approximately 2,600 meters in the European Alps, where they adapt to montane conditions. Biogeographic patterns are shaped by historical events, including post-glacial recolonization in Europe from southern refugia following the Last Glacial Maximum, leading to current ranges that expanded northward from Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas. Dispersal beyond the native Holarctic realm has been minimal, primarily through accidental human transport, though such events are uncommon and do not form self-sustaining populations in tropical or southern temperate zones.^[33]^[34]

Habitat Preferences

Formica ants exhibit a strong preference for open habitats such as woodlands, grasslands, and meadows, where they can exploit abundant sunlight and moderate moisture levels. These ecosystems provide the structural openness necessary for effective thermoregulation and foraging, with species like those in the rufa group commonly occupying forest edges and clearings rather than closed-canopy interiors.^[35] They rely on well-drained soils, often sandy or loamy, which facilitate nest construction and prevent waterlogging that could disrupt colony stability.^[36] Such soil conditions are prevalent in temperate and boreal regions, supporting the genus's widespread presence across the Holarctic.^[37] At the microhabitat scale, Formica species seek sites in close proximity to vegetation hosting aphids, as these ants maintain mutualistic relationships with aphid colonies to harvest honeydew, a key carbohydrate source.^[38] This preference influences nest placement near herbaceous plants, shrubs, or trees with suitable aphid populations, enhancing resource accessibility.^[39] Conversely, they generally avoid dense forest understories, where heavy shade limits solar exposure, and arid environments, which lack the mesic conditions required for sustained activity and brood development.^[35] Formica ants demonstrate notable adaptations to environmental disturbances, thriving in fire-prone landscapes where post-burn openness creates favorable microclimates and reduces competition from shade-tolerant species.^[40] They also persist along edges of agricultural fields, benefiting from the mosaic of disturbed and vegetated patches that mimic natural ecotones.^[41] Climate change is altering these preferences, with observations indicating northward expansion of hybrid populations, such as Formica aquilonia × F. polyctena in Finland, driven by warmer winters and extended growing seasons in recent decades.^[42] This shift, spanning approximately 200 km over recent decades, underscores their plasticity in response to rising temperatures.^[42]

Biology and Behavior

Nest Construction and Architecture

Formica ants construct a variety of nest types adapted to their environments, including mound nests built from soil and plant debris, underground chambers, and arboreal nests in trees. Mound nests are characteristic of many species in the Formica rufa group, such as Formica rufa, where colonies form large, dome-shaped structures up to 2 meters in height and over 3 meters in diameter, often situated in forest clearings or near tree stumps.^[43] These mounds provide insulation and protection, with the above-ground portion mirroring or exceeding the subterranean extent.^[44] Underground nests, seen in species like Formica pallidefulva, consist of shallow systems (30–45 cm deep) featuring vertical shafts branching into chambers, with most volume concentrated in the upper 15 cm.^[45] Arboreal nests occur in some species, such as Formica rufa, where colonies utilize tree cavities or build extensions in branches for seasonal habitation.^[27] The construction process begins with workers excavating soil to form initial chambers and tunnels, often starting from a single queen's founding site. In mound-building species, workers then thatch the exterior with conifer needles, twigs, and other plant debris to enhance insulation and waterproofing, creating a layered structure that traps heat and repels excess moisture.^[46] This thatching is particularly evident in polygynous colonies of the Formica rufa group, where multiple queens lead to expansive mounds supporting populations of hundreds of thousands.^[44] Excavation in underground nests follows modular patterns, with new shafts added laterally or vertically to accommodate colony growth, influenced by soil moisture and temperature.^[47] Maintenance involves active behaviors to regulate internal conditions, including ventilation to control temperature and humidity. In mound nests, workers adjust airflow through openings and clustering to maintain brood chamber temperatures around 25–30°C, even in cold climates, by alternating ventilation rates based on external conditions.^[48] Seasonal expansion occurs primarily in spring, as rising temperatures prompt increased excavation and thatching to prepare for brood rearing.^[49] Nest site selection often favors well-drained forest soils, which facilitate stable construction.^[50]

Foraging and Diet

Formica ants exhibit an omnivorous diet, with the majority of their nutrition derived from carbohydrate-rich sources. Studies on wood ants in the Formica rufa group indicate that honeydew from tended aphids constitutes 78–92% of the dry mass in their diet, underscoring its primary role as a sustained energy source.^[51] The remaining portion, approximately 8–22%, comes from protein-rich invertebrate prey such as Diptera and Coleoptera, as well as occasional seeds and floral nectar, providing essential nutrients for colony maintenance and reproduction.^[51] Foraging in Formica species involves coordinated tactics to efficiently exploit resources, often within close proximity to the nest to minimize energy expenditure. Workers lay trail pheromones to facilitate mass recruitment, enabling rapid mobilization of nestmates to profitable food sources like aphid colonies or large prey items.^[52] Activity is predominantly diurnal, with peaks during warmer daylight hours that align with optimal foraging conditions in temperate habitats.^[53] During foraging expeditions, ants employ defensive behaviors, including biting intruders and squirting formic acid from their abdomens to deter predators and protect resource sites.^[54] A key aspect of their diet acquisition is trophobiosis, the mutualistic exchange with aphids where ants solicit and consume honeydew in return for protection. Formica workers actively herd aphids by transporting them to optimal host plants with abundant sap, ensuring a steady honeydew supply and preventing overcrowding or depletion of local resources.^[55] This relationship exhibits seasonal shifts, with greater emphasis on predatory foraging for invertebrates in spring when aphid populations are low, transitioning to honeydew dominance in summer as aphid colonies expand.^[51] Formica ants exhibit eusociality, characterized by a reproductive division of labor among castes consisting of queens, workers, and males. Queens are the primary reproductives, typically wingless after mating and focused on egg-laying, while workers are sterile females responsible for foraging, nest maintenance, and brood care. Males, produced seasonally, serve solely for mating and die shortly thereafter. Unlike some ant subfamilies with distinct soldier castes, Formica lacks a true soldier caste; instead, workers display continuous size polymorphism, with individuals ranging from minor workers (about 4 mm) to majors (up to 7.5 mm), enabling task specialization without discrete morphological castes.^[23]^[22] Colonies of Formica species vary in size from approximately 10,000 to over 500,000 individuals, depending on species and environmental conditions, with larger mound-building species like those in the rufa group reaching the upper end of this range. Polygyny, the presence of multiple queens per nest, is common across many Formica species, often resulting from the adoption of daughter queens or cooperative founding, which enhances colony longevity and resilience. For instance, in Formica obscuripes, colonies may contain up to 198 queens, contributing to polydomous structures where multiple nests are interconnected.^[56]^[22]^[57] Communication within Formica colonies relies heavily on chemical signals, particularly pheromones released from glands such as the Dufour's and poison glands, which mediate alarm responses and recruitment to food sources or threats. For example, in Formica oreas, a blend of formic acid and hydrocarbons elicits rapid alarm-recruitment behavior among nestmates. Some species, including Formica rufa, produce stridulation-like sounds through abdominal vibrations, potentially augmenting chemical signals during disturbances, though this is not universal across the genus. Larger colonies often form supercolonies through polydomy, where interconnected nests span extensive areas, facilitating resource sharing and defense via trail networks. Within this organization, larger workers predominantly handle foraging and prey capture, while smaller ones focus on nest-internal tasks.^[58]^[59]^[60]

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Formica ants reproduce through synchronized nuptial flights that typically occur in late spring to early summer, with males and virgin queens emerging from mature colonies to mate in aerial swarms.^[61] After mating, males die shortly thereafter, while fertilized queens shed their wings, seek suitable nesting sites, and initiate new colonies.^[62] In some species, such as Formica lugubris and Formica polyctena, a secondary flight may occur in late summer.^[61] Colony founding in Formica can proceed via haplometrosis, where a single queen establishes the nest independently, or pleometrosis, involving multiple cooperating queens that later compete or coexist in polygynous systems.^[62] Queens select sites with adequate moisture and protection, laying initial eggs that develop into the first worker brood to support colony growth.^[63] Queens can live up to 27 years, enabling long-term colony stability and expansion.^[64] The life cycle of Formica ants encompasses four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult, with complete metamorphosis occurring over approximately 40 days under optimal conditions.^[61] Eggs, laid by the queen, hatch into larvae after about 7–14 days; larvae, fed by workers or the founding queen, develop for 10–14 days through multiple molts.^[65] Pupae form next, encased in cocoons, and eclose as adults after 10–25 days, depending on temperature and species.^[65] Colonies produce 3–5 broods annually, with sexual forms (new queens and males) emerging primarily in summer flights.^[61] Overwintering occurs in late autumn, with colonies retreating to deeper nest chambers; larvae and adults enter diapause, resuming activity in spring as temperatures rise.^[61] This seasonal rhythm aligns reproductive efforts with favorable environmental conditions, ensuring brood survival through winter.^[61]

Interactions with Other Species

Formica ants engage in mutualistic relationships with various hemipteran insects, particularly aphids, where the ants provide protection from predators and parasitoids in exchange for honeydew, a sugary excretion that serves as a primary food source for the ants.^[66] This trophobiosis is well-documented in species like Formica rufa and Formica lugubris, which tend aphid colonies on plants, aggressively defending them against threats such as ladybird beetles and parasitic wasps, thereby increasing aphid densities by up to 8200% in some cases.^[66] Similarly, Formica ants interact with other honeydew-producing hemipterans, such as Cinara aphids on conifers, where ant attendance enhances aphid survival and reproduction while ensuring a steady supply of carbohydrates for the ants.^[67] In terms of predation, Formica ants are opportunistic predators that actively hunt small arthropods, including insects and spiders, contributing to the regulation of herbivore populations in their habitats.^[68] Species such as Formica cunicularia and Formica exsecta target lepidopteran eggs, larvae, and other soft-bodied invertebrates, reducing their abundance and mitigating damage to vegetation.^[68] In north temperate grasslands, Formica ants function as keystone predators by controlling herbivore outbreaks, which indirectly benefits plant communities; for instance, their predation on leaf beetles and caterpillars can decrease herbivory levels and enhance overall ecosystem stability.^[68] This predatory role extends to non-tended herbivores, where Formica spp. have been observed to lower caterpillar species richness by up to 69%, altering arthropod community structure.^[66] Formica ants also exhibit competitive interactions with other ant species through territorial defense, where they use chemical signals and physical aggression to exclude rivals from foraging areas and resources like aphid colonies.^[66] Additionally, certain beetles employ Batesian mimicry to resemble Formica ants, allowing these myrmecophilous species to infiltrate ant colonies without detection and access protected resources.^[69] For example, some ground beetles in the genus Myrmecopelta mimic the locomotion and coloration of Formica workers, reducing predation risk from the ants themselves and other predators that avoid ants. These mimetic interactions highlight the evolutionary pressures exerted by Formica ants on co-occurring arthropods. Social parasitism in the Formica genus encompasses several strategies where parasitic individuals or colonies exploit closely related host species within the same genus, primarily through temporary or permanent forms. Temporary social parasitism involves queens of parasitic species infiltrating established host colonies, typically of congeneric species, to usurp the workforce for rearing their own offspring. This process often begins with the mated queen entering a host nest, eliminating the resident queen, and relying on host workers until her own progeny replace them. Approximately 68 species of Formica engage in temporary parasitism, representing about 39.5% of the genus.^[9] Permanent social parasitism in Formica manifests as dulosis, or slave-making, where parasitic colonies conduct raids on host nests to capture brood that develops into enslaved workers performing essential labor such as foraging and nest maintenance. A prominent example is Formica sanguinea, which raids nests of host species like Formica fusca, using chemical secretions such as alkyl ketones and alkanes from workers to induce panic and disrupt host defenses during raids, facilitating brood capture. Enslaved workers from raided colonies integrate into the parasite nest, often adopting the parasite's recognition cues rather than the hosts mimicking the parasites chemically. Dulosis is observed in 14 Formica species, or 8.1% of the genus, and is particularly prevalent in the subgenus Raptiformica, where all species exhibit slave-raiding behaviors alongside temporary parasitism for colony founding.^[9]^[14]^[70]^[71] Evolutionarily, social parasitism in Formica originated around 30 million years ago in Eurasia from ancestors that lost the ability to found colonies independently, transitioning from facultative polygyny to obligatory dependence on hosts. Dulosis secondarily evolved from temporary parasitism, with Formica sanguinea diverging approximately 14 million years ago from a temporary parasitic lineage. These strategies impose significant costs on host populations, as raids by dulotic species like F. sanguinea can destroy host brood and lead to colony collapse, reducing host colony densities in affected areas while promoting parasite proliferation through allopatric speciation.^[9]^[9]

Species Diversity

Number and Diversity of Species

The genus Formica includes 283 extant species and 69 extinct species, making it one of the most species-rich genera within the subfamily Formicinae.^[1] This diversity is predominantly concentrated in temperate zones of the Holarctic region, where the genus thrives in forested and open habitats across North America, Europe, and Asia.^[1] Patterns of diversity within Formica reveal geographic and genetic complexities, including clinal variation across Eurasia, as observed in species like Formica clara, where morphological differences between northern and southern populations likely represent intraspecific clinal adaptations rather than distinct taxa.^[72] Recent genetic studies, particularly those employing DNA barcoding since 2020, have uncovered cryptic species complexes, such as in the Formica picea–F. candida group widespread across Eurasia, highlighting hidden diversity that challenges traditional taxonomy and underscores the role of molecular tools in resolving these assemblages.^[73] Conservation efforts for Formica diversity focus on vulnerable subgenera and species groups affected by habitat fragmentation, which disrupts colony networks and reduces population viability in fragmented forests; for instance, members of the Formica rufa group (within subgenus Formica) are listed as Near Threatened in parts of Europe due to such pressures.^[27]^[74] These threats emphasize the need for habitat connectivity to preserve the genus's ecological roles and biodiversity.^[75]

Notable Species

Formica rufa, commonly known as the red wood ant, is renowned for its mound-building behavior, constructing large, dome-shaped nests from conifer needles, soil, and organic debris that can reach heights of up to 2 meters and persist for decades. These structures serve as keystone features in boreal and temperate forest ecosystems across Eurasia, where the ants influence nutrient cycling, soil aeration, and predator-prey dynamics by preying on forest pests and supporting myrmecophilous organisms. As a conservation icon in Europe, F. rufa faces threats from habitat fragmentation and is classified as near threatened on the IUCN Red List, prompting protective measures in several countries including Estonia and Poland.^[76] Formica sanguinea, the blood-red ant or slave-maker ant, exemplifies dulotic behavior through facultative slave-raiding, where workers conduct organized raids on nests of host species such as Formica fusca and F. cunicularia to capture pupae that develop into enslaved workers performing colony labor. This predatory strategy, involving scouting, chemical trail-laying, and combat, enables F. sanguinea colonies to thrive without independent foraging in many cases. The species is widespread across the Palearctic realm, from Western Europe through Russia to East Asia, inhabiting open woodlands and grasslands.^[77]^[14] Formica exsecta, the narrow-headed ant, specializes in temporary social parasitism, infiltrating host colonies of related Formica species to raise its brood during colony founding before achieving independence, a strategy rooted in the loss of independent colony establishment around 18 million years ago. As an alpine and subalpine specialist, it thrives in open grasslands, forest edges, and treeline ecotones of the Central European Alps and Holarctic regions, where its mound nests modify vegetation patterns and seed banks. Recent phylogenetic analyses using ultraconserved elements have illuminated its evolutionary position within the exsecta group, highlighting multiple dispersals across continents. In the United Kingdom, F. exsecta represents a regional endemic facing critical endangerment due to heathland loss, with conservation efforts stabilizing its populations in Scotland and Devon.^[9]^[78]^[79] Regional endemics like Formica talbotae underscore the genus's vulnerability, with this workerless inquiline parasite restricted to open prairies in the central United States, classified as vulnerable due to habitat degradation.^[80]

Conservation and Human Interactions

Conservation Status and Threats

Populations of Formica ants, particularly those in the F. rufa group, face significant threats from habitat loss driven by agricultural expansion and urbanization. In agricultural landscapes in the eastern Netherlands, intensive farming practices, including nitrogen deposition and manure spraying near woodland edges, have led to drastic declines, with F. rufa nests dropping from 28 to 3 and F. polyctena from 102 to 9 between 1986 and 2014. Urban expansion and deforestation further fragment habitats, contributing to local extinctions, such as F. pratensis on mainland Britain. Across parts of Europe, including Belgium and the Netherlands, red wood ant populations have declined by over 50% in some regions over the past few decades due to these pressures.^[81]^[82]^[83] Climate change exacerbates these risks by altering temperature regimes and inducing habitat conversions, such as through increased clear-cutting, which fragments suitable forest areas for mound-building species. Ant communities, including Formica, are projected to shift ranges poleward and upslope in response to warming, potentially leading to declines in southern European populations while allowing expansion in northern areas. Additionally, extensive pesticide use in agriculture disrupts Formica colonies by contaminating foraging areas and indirectly affecting aphid mutualists, which provide essential honeydew; this is a key driver of colony loss in intensive farming regions.^[84]^[85]^[81] Several Formica species are assessed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List, including F. rufa, F. lugubris, F. polyctena, F. aquilonia, and F. pratensis, reflecting ongoing population declines and habitat vulnerabilities; the F. rufa group was previously classified as Vulnerable until 1994. In some regions, such as Thrace, F. pratensis is Vulnerable or Critically Endangered. These species are legally protected in multiple European countries, including under national laws in Germany, Switzerland, and Poland that align with broader EU conservation frameworks, though no unified EU-wide directive specifically lists them in Annexes.^[86]^[87]^[86] Conservation efforts focus on habitat restoration and active management to mitigate threats. In the UK, projects by the Surrey Wildlife Trust involve creating bare ground and controlling vegetation succession on heathlands to support F. rufibarbis and related species. Translocation initiatives, such as the ongoing reintroduction program by the Zoological Society of London since 2008, have released captive-reared nests at sites like Chobham Common, aiming for 40 annual releases to establish self-sustaining populations; similar efforts in boreal forests test nest survival post-transplant to counter fragmentation. Monitoring is enhanced through citizen science, with the EU-funded MonitAnt project coordinating Europe-wide surveys of mound-building Formica ants using public observations to track population trends and habitat conditions.^[82]^[82]^[88]^[89]

Relationships with Humans

Formica ants, particularly species in the rufa group such as Formica polyctena and Formica rufa, play significant beneficial roles in forest ecosystems that indirectly support human interests in sustainable forestry. As generalist predators, these ants consume vast numbers of forest pests, including bark beetles of the genus Ips, which can devastate coniferous trees; studies in Central European forests show that higher densities of F. polyctena nests correlate with reduced Ips infestations on trees, potentially aiding in biological pest management without chemical interventions.^[90] Additionally, red wood ants prey on ticks (Ixodes spp.), reducing their abundance near nests—tick numbers can drop from over 11 per 100 m² to under 4 in areas with larger ant colonies—thereby lowering the risk of Lyme disease transmission to humans in forested regions.^[91] Their mound-building activities enhance soil aeration, nutrient cycling, and organic matter decomposition, promoting tree growth and forest regeneration, with one colony potentially processing millions of insects annually to support these processes.^[92] In traditional medicine, Formica rufa has been utilized for centuries in Europe, especially in Sweden, where its formic acid content was believed to treat ailments like gout, rheumatism, and joint pain through "ant baths" or topical applications; historical records from the 17th-century Stockholm Pharmacopoeia document the sale of ant-derived oils and extracts in pharmacies for these purposes.^[93] This formic acid, used defensively by the ants, was thought to follow the principle of similia similibus curantur (likes cure likes) for inflammatory conditions, with practices persisting into the 18th century via the Swedish Pharmacopoeia.^[93] Culturally, F. rufa contributes to culinary traditions, notably in the production of "ant schnapps" (myrbrännvin), an aquavit flavored by infusing whole ants in vodka, a hobby dating to the 17th century and revived in modern New Nordic cuisine for its aromatic, formic notes.^[93] While generally harmless, Formica species can become nuisances around human habitats, particularly field ants (Formica spp.) that nest in lawns or under stones, displacing soil and creating unsightly mounds that damage turf.^[94] They may bite defensively when nests are disturbed, injecting formic acid that causes localized stinging and irritation, though serious reactions are rare and typically limited to allergic individuals.^[15] In forestry contexts, their aggressive territoriality occasionally leads to conflicts, but overall, Formica ants are more often viewed as allies than pests due to their ecological contributions.^[95]

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Oct 21, 2025 · A large holarctic genus that are common in many northern temperate areas. For many reasons this genus as a whole has many well studied species.
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a case study of formicine ants | BMC Ecology and Evolution
Dec 4, 2015 · Phylogenetic analyses show that UCEs are superior in resolving ancient and shallow relationships in formicine ants, demonstrated by increased node support and ...
[13]
Phylogeny, evolution, and classification of the ant genus Lasius, the ...
Jan 10, 2022 · Here, we integrate morphology and molecular data to holistically address the evolution, classification, and identification of the ant genus ...
[14]
Phylogenetic Relationships of Palaearctic Formica Species ...
The genetic distances between the subgenera were around 10%, implying approximate divergence time of 5 Myr if we used the conventional insect divergence rate of ...
[15]
The evolution of social parasitism in Formica ants revealed ... - PNAS
We demonstrate that social parasites evolved from an ancestor that lost the ability to establish new colonies independently.Missing: misinterpretations | Show results with:misinterpretations
[16]
Formica species (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Formicinae) in late ...
Apr 29, 2021 · Thus, ten valid Formica Linnaeus, 1758 species (including F. ribbeckei) are known now from late Eocene European ambers. The diversity of Formica ...
[17]
[PDF] Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) of Formation Green River and some
Three fossil ants from the Middle Eocene Klondike Mountain Formation of Republic in Washington, USA, studied courtesy Dr. Wesley C. Wehr (Burke Museum of ...
[18]
Emery, 1925d - References - AntCat
Formica picea piceoimplana · Emery, 1925d, 249 ; Formica rufibarbis clarissima · Emery, 1925d, 250 ; Formica rufibarbis sinae · Emery, 1925d, 250 ...
[19]
[PDF] A taxonomic revision of the Palaearctic ant subgenus Coptoformica ...
... subgenera of Formica. Only data sets with more than 37 workers available per species or morph were considered. Data are given as arithmetic mean ± standard ...
[20]
Phylogenomics of palearctic Formica species suggests a single ...
Mar 28, 2018 · The second and third subgenera, Coptoformica and Formica s. str, are often referred to as “wood ants” and have a similar ecology. They build ...Missing: 2020 | Show results with:2020
[21]
Formica Ant - Insect Identification
Jan 29, 2025 · Ants in the Formica genus have only one knob (bump) between the thorax and abdomen. They feed on honeydew, a term for the sweet liquid ...
[22]
[PDF] Species of Formica - AntWiki
Umphrey, 1996; Steiner et al., 2006), morphology is variable and partially overlapping, and species determinations will be more certain when based on nest ...
[23]
Featured Insect: Field Ants (Formica spp.) | NC Urban Pests
Jul 7, 2016 · Field ants have polymorphic (multiple-sized) workers ranging in size from ⅛ – ⅜ inches. Field ants are commonly mistaken for carpenter ( ...
[24]
Allegheny mound ant - Minnesota Seasons
The jaws (mandibles) have at least seven teeth. On the worker, the antennae have twelve segments, on the male they have thirteen. There is a hardened plate ( ...
[25]
Formicinae - AntWiki
Oct 3, 2024 · The subfamily includes such well-known taxa as wood ants and their relatives (Formica), carpenter ants (Camponotus), weaver ants (Oecophylla), ...
[26]
Formicidae (ants, fourmis) | INFORMATION - Animal Diversity Web
Sexual dimorphism exists among ants, and they also vary in appearance depending on their role in the colony. Males are born with wings. They typically have ...
[27]
https://buckeyemyrmecology.com/product/formica-subsericea-colonies-for-sale/
[28]
Genus Formica - Wood ants, mound ants, & field ants - BugGuide.Net
Formica is the Latin word for "ant", still found in various derivations in the modern languages derived from Latin, e.g., French fourmi, Spanish hormiga, ...
[29]
Formica obscuripes (western thatching ant) - Animal Diversity Web
Formica obscuripes is polydomous, with one colony typically living in several mounds. Colonies often switch primary nests. New colonies are formed by budding.<|control11|><|separator|>
[30]
Caste development and evolution in ants: it's all about size
Jan 1, 2017 · Summary: Morphological castes in ants vary as a function of size, which has far-reaching consequences for caste development and evolution.
[31]
Southern Wood Ant (Formica rufa) - Woodland Trust
The southern wood ant is the UK's largest ant species with workers reaching 10mm in length and queens 12mm in length. It is a reddish-brown colour, with a ...
[32]
https://www.antwiki.org/w/images/2/2d/Gregg_1969a.pdf
[33]
[PDF] Scaling relationships in Formica ants with continuous worker size ...
Sep 10, 2020 · Keywords Allometry · Body plan · Scaling · Morphology · Formica glacialis · Formica neoclara · Formica aserva ·. Formica obscuriventris.
[34]
Formica rufa - AntWiki
A common forest ant that makes large mound nests. Their conspicuous nests make this a well known and recognizable ant for anyone that has spent time in ...
[35]
The Developmental Basis of Worker Caste Polymorphism in Ants
Diverse worker caste systems can be generated through regulation of three aspects of larval growth: critical size, growth parameters, and reprogramming of these ...
[36]
[PDF] Colouration of red wood ant Formica rufa (Hymenoptera
Jun 19, 2017 · ... colour of red wood ants in particular is still poorly studied. Red wood ants belonging to the Formica rufa group are keystone species in the ...Missing: bicolored | Show results with:bicolored
[37]
Temperature drives caste‐specific morphological clines in ants
Aug 28, 2020 · We investigated how geographic variation in climate relates to the morphology of 32 closely related ant species in the genus Formica. Although ...Missing: coloration | Show results with:coloration
[38]
[PDF] Variation in the colour pattern of the narrow-headed ant Formica ...
Jan 18, 2022 · The study found 23 color variants in the head and thorax of Formica exsecta, with pale heads and thorax often co-occurring with paler body ...
[39]
wood, mound, and field ants - Minnesota Seasons
The genus Formica have been divided by taxonomists into seven to thirteen species groups based on distinctive features and behavior that can be easily seen in ...
[40]
[PDF] PROC. ENT. SOC. WASH,, VOL. 71, No. 1, March, 1969 ... - AntWiki
GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF THE ANT GENUS FORMICA. (HYMENOPTERA: FORMICIDAE). ROBERT E. GREGG, Department of Biology, University of Colorado,. Boulder, Colorado ...
[41]
Ant diversity along elevational gradients in the European Alps
Feb 5, 2024 · We detected 40 species from 700 to over 2600 m asl, with progressively less diversity corresponding to higher elevations and lower temperatures.
[42]
Limited phylogeographical structure across Eurasia in two red wood ...
This division (0.7% of nucleotide divergence) suggests postglacial colonization of western Europe and of a wide area ranging from Sweden on the west to Lake ...
[43]
[PDF] Biogeography and habitat preferences of red wood ants of the ...
Feb 1, 2022 · rufa group consists of eight species in Europe, of which five occur in Finland (Finnish species listed in Table 1). The black-backed meadow ant ...
[44]
Red wood ants in Bulgaria: distribution and density related to habitat ...
Aug 31, 2021 · This study presents data on their current distribution and nest density, and provides more details about the habitat requirements for ...
[45]
[PDF] Species of Formica - AntWiki
schaufussi/dolosa of well-drained, acid soils; nitidiventris/pallidefulva of mesic, neutral soils, ... These include a variety of droughty or well-drained ...
[46]
[PDF] Formica ant and Cinara aphid mutualisms on limber pines (Pinus ...
Ant-aphid mutualisms play important ecological roles in many ecosystems. While Formica ants are well studied model organisms, pine-specialist Cinara aphids ...Missing: sunny drained
[47]
Ecological consequences of interactions between ants and ... - NIH
On the trees from which aphids were removed, tending ants Formica propinqua abandoned the trees resulting in a 76% increase in herbivore abundance and a 76% ...
[48]
Examining functional responses of ant communities to fire in ...
Aug 1, 2024 · Ants adapted to open habitats were more abundant in burnt areas. •. Ants better adapted to denser vegetation were found in the unburned plots.
[49]
[PDF] Wood ants on the edge: how do the characteristics of linear ... - bioRxiv
Sep 4, 2025 · The northern hairy wood ant, Formica lugubris, requires adjacent forest and open habitats to access both aphid honeydew from trees, and direct ...Missing: prone | Show results with:prone
[50]
[PDF] Manuscript title 1 Evidence for climate-mediated range expansion of ...
Sep 27, 2025 · Overall, our data suggest that increasing temperatures due to. 131 climate change have facilitated a northward expansion of these hybrid wood ...
[51]
Forest-built nest mounds of red wood ant Formica aquilonia are no ...
Red wood ant Formica aquilonia nest mound surface layer was drier in clear fells. Moisture decreased with increasing relative nest height in clear fells.Missing: construction architecture paper
[52]
Wood Ants - AntWiki
Jan 11, 2019 · This is a group of Holarctic Formica species. They form large polydomous colonies and have conspicuous thatch nests.Missing: genus underground scientific
[53]
[PDF] Nest architecture of the ant Formica pallidefulva - FSU Biology
Summary. The architecture of underground ant nests was studied in the ant Formica pallidefulva. These ants build shallow (30–45 cm deep) nests, ...
[54]
September - Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust
The domed “thatch” that makes up the structure we see, is made of materials such as pine needles, small twigs, moss, heather, dried grass and even pieces of ...
[55]
Nest architecture of the ant Formica pallidefulva: structure, costs and ...
These ants build shallow (30–45 cm deep) nests, which consist of more or less vertical shafts that bear chambers. Shafts are modular units of nest growth.Missing: papers | Show results with:papers
[56]
Thermoregulation strategies in ants in comparison to other social ...
Dec 19, 2013 · Ants can regulate thermal loss by moving nest aggregation and alternating nest ventilation. Metabolic heat produced by ant workers or associated micro organisms
[57]
Phenology and causation of nest heating and thermoregulation in ...
Aug 9, 2025 · The temperature regulation in the nest starts by a great increase in temperature in March and April and a high temperature is maintained ...Missing: ventilation | Show results with:ventilation
[58]
Ant nest architecture is shaped by local adaptation and plastic ...
Nov 29, 2021 · Our results suggest that subterranean ant nest architecture is shaped by a combination of plastic and locally adapted building behaviors.
[59]
Foraging activity and dietary spectrum of wood ants (Formica rufa ...
Aug 6, 2025 · During all 3 years, honeydew played a major role in wood ant nutrition (78–92% of dry mass). Invertebrate prey was mainly Diptera (on average ...
[60]
Resource Assessment, Recruitment Behavior, and Organization of ...
Foragers of the ant Formica schaufussi recruit nestmates to large anthropod prey and cooperatively transport the prey to the nest. The size of the group of.Missing: tactics | Show results with:tactics<|control11|><|separator|>
[61]
Daily and seasonal activity in woodland ants | Oecologia
Two common dominant species, Prenolepis imparis and Formica subsericea, are active at different times of day and during different parts of the year.
[62]
Wood ants produce a potent antimicrobial agent by applying formic ...
Mar 6, 2017 · They also produce large quantities of formic acid in their venom gland, which they readily spray to defend or disinfect their nest. Mixing ...Missing: squirting | Show results with:squirting
[63]
Symbiotic Ants and Aphids Have a Strong Relationship - ThoughtCo
Jun 23, 2019 · The ants carry the aphid eggs to their nests for the winter months. They store the precious aphids where temperatures and humidity are optimal, ...
[64]
Populations of Ant Mounds - jstor
would contain from five to ten thousand ants but that very large mounds might harbor 400,000 to 5oo,ooo adult ants. These last suppositions were accepted by Sir ...
[65]
Supergene regulation of ant social organization: a P haplotype in ...
Jul 10, 2025 · We show experimentally that a supergene in Formica ant workers alters the social structure (single- or multi-queen) of developing colonies. We ...
[66]
Blacklegged ticks, Ixodes scapularis, reduce predation risk by ...
Jan 3, 2024 · F. oreas workers sprayed both formic acid and hydrocarbons when distressed. A synthetic blend of these compounds elicited alarm-recruitment ...
[67]
Stridulation-like behaviour in the Red Wood ant (Formica rufa)
In this exploratory study, we report that Red Wood ants generate stridulation-like sounds, being about 0.7 ± 0.2 seconds-long (mean ± standard deviation), ...
[68]
Inferring polydomy: a review of functional, spatial and genetic ...
For example, polydomous colonies of red wood ants (Formica rufa group) form strong trails between nests, often consisting of thousands of ants (Ellis and ...
[69]
Annual Life Cycle of the Anthill of Formica s. str. (Hymenoptera ...
Period 4 is the longest, wintering lasts about 5 months. Ants spend it in the underground part of their nest. Each period has a pronounced speciﬁ city (T ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[70]
[PDF] The evolution of social parasitism in Formica ants revealed ... - bioRxiv
Dec 20, 2020 · To test competing hypotheses regarding the origins and evolution of social parasitism, we reconstructed the first global phylogeny of Formica ...
[71]
Wood ant reproductive biology and social systems (Chapter 2)
Jun 5, 2016 · In eusocial insects such as the wood ants (Formica rufa group), reproduction is invested in a specialised reproductive caste, which produces ...
[72]
Life span of queens in the antFormica exsecta | Insectes Sociaux
This corresponds to an annual mortality of 3.7% and a mean life span of 27 years. A total of 57 colonies were mapped in the population over a period of ten ...
[73]
Ants / Floriculture and Ornamental Nurseries / Agriculture - UC IPM
Ants (Formicidae) develop through four life stages : egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Most ants outside the nest are wingless, sterile females (workers).
[74]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227277366_Survival_of_the_Black_bog_ant_Formica_transkaucasica_Nasanov_in_relation_to_the_fragmentation_of_its_habitat
[75]
[PDF] Formica ant and Cinara aphid mutualisms on limber pines (Pinus ...
Our study examined ant-aphid mutualisms among Formica ants and the relatively understudied Cinara aphids. Ant-aphid mutualisms are ubiquitous around the world, ...
[76]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10086985/
[77]
[PDF] EIGHT LEGS AND A BRAIN: LOCOMOTOR MIMICRY OF ANTS ...
formicaria are general mimics of ants in the genus Formica and that as juveniles they may also mimic smaller Lasius ants. However, these mimics show no positive ...
[78]
[PDF] Chemical strategies to deal with ants: a review of mimicry ...
Abstract. Chemical tactics by ant social parasites, including myrmecophiles, often relate to ant nestmate recognition and alarm communication.
[79]
Facultative slave-making ants Formica sanguinea label their slaves ...
Our study shows that F. sanguinea ants promote their own recognition cues in their slaves, rather than employing the strategy of chemical mimicry.
[80]
Formica clara - AntWiki
Oct 20, 2025 · The assumed differences between northern and southern populations most probably represent intraspecific clinal variation. Indeed there are ...
[81]
Formica picea and F. candida (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) - MDPI
Jul 29, 2022 · Ants of the «Formica picea—F. candida» complex are widespread across Eurasia. However, it is still a matter of debate if it constitutes one ...
[82]
(PDF) Survival of the Black bog ant (Formica transkaucasica ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Survival of the Black bog ant (Formica transkaucasica Nasanov) in relation to the fragmentation of its habitat. June 2005; Journal of Insect ...Missing: subgenera | Show results with:subgenera
[83]
Distribution and habitat requirements of red wood ants in Switzerland
Formica aquilonia was restricted to the Engadine region of the Alps. Wood ants mainly depended on slope aspect, climate, forest structure, and conifer abundance ...
[84]
Challenges and a call to action for protecting European red wood ants
... Formica rufa group) are ecologically dominant species (Stockan et al., 2016). These ants are considered keystone species in temperate and boreal forests of ...
[85]
Raiding and Foraging Behavior of the Blood-Red Ant, Formica ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The presence of the corpses of this species may signal the proximity of a potential host colony, triggering recruitment from a forager, and ...
[86]
Impact of Formica exsecta Nyl. on seed bank and vegetation ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Ants could also act as biotic defences, protecting plants against herbivores and parasites, thus modifying plant population and community ...Missing: specialist | Show results with:specialist
[87]
Narrow Escape from Extinction for Rare Ant - Buglife latest news
Jan 6, 2021 · The Narrow-headed Ant was declining due to heathland loss, but a conservation project halted its decline, and it now has a safer future.
[88]
Formica talbotae - AntWiki
Oct 18, 2025 · Formica talbotae is a workerless inquiline found in open prairie, with sandy, well-drained, sloping fields. It is classified as vulnerable.Missing: UK | Show results with:UK
[89]
(PDF) Long-term impact of agriculture on the survival of wood ants of ...
Aug 12, 2016 · The regional survival of wood ants in the east of the Netherlands is at risk in the agricultural landscapes we studied. This is due to the ...
[90]
Conservation - UK Wood Ants
In the UK, both Formica rufibarbis and F. exsecta are UKBAP Priority Species and are considered endangered, having extremely isolated and fragile colonies.Missing: talboti | Show results with:talboti
[91]
[PDF] Presence after three decades of red wood ants (Formica rufa group
Jan 31, 2022 · In 1990, 280 nest mounds of three species of red wood ants and a hybrid were found in the forests and along forest edges. The highest occupancy ...Missing: construction architecture
[92]
Consequences of Climate Change-Induced Habitat Conversions on ...
Clear-cutting makes the habitat for red wood ants unsuitable and also causes or results in habitat fragmentation. The cleared area is often impenetrable for ...
[93]
The response of ants to climate change - PMC - PubMed Central
Mar 11, 2022 · In this review, we synthesise available literature on how climate change drivers will affect ants from the individual to the community.
[94]
Challenges and a call to action for protecting European red wood ants
May 31, 2022 · Distribution and conservation status of the European Red Wood Ant Species Formica pratensis Retzius, 1783 (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) in (European) ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[95]
Distribution and Conservation Status of the European Red Wood Ant ...
Aug 10, 2025 · 2021) indicate that this species is in the Vulnerable (VU) category for the Thrace region and in the critically endangered (CR) category for ...
[96]
Survival of transplanted nests of the red wood ant Formica aquilonia ...
Aug 10, 2025 · We tested the effect of intraspecific competition and habitat degradation (forest clear-cutting) on colony survival by transplanting 26 nests ...
[97]
MonitAnt: Home
Home of MonitAnt Project developing a European-level Monitoring strategy for mound-building Formica Ants and symbiont communities residing in nest mounds.
[98]
Wood ants as biological control of the forest pest beetles Ips spp.
Sep 9, 2021 · Climate change is one of the major threats to biodiversity, but its impact varies among the species. Bark beetles (Ips spp.)<|separator|>
[99]
The negative effect of wood ant presence on tick abundance
Mar 15, 2018 · Ants have direct effects on tick abundance via predation and the repellent effect of formic acid, and they have indirect effects on tick ...Missing: pesticides | Show results with:pesticides<|separator|>
[100]
The Role of Red Wood Ants (Formica rufa Species Group) in Central ...
May 13, 2025 · Not simply red: Colouration of RWA Formica rufa (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) is polymorphic, modular and size-dependent. Eur. J. Entomol. 2017 ...5. Red Wood Ants As... · Table 1 · 6. Ant--Aphid RelationshipsMissing: coloration bicolored
[101]
Ant schnapps for health and pleasure: the use of Formica rufa L ...
Dec 19, 2019 · The interaction between ants and humans is a biocultural domain that has been studied very little so far. Our study will therefore ...
[102]
Field Ants – Formica Spp. - Quality Pest Solutions
Where carpenter ants nest in wood, field ants nest in dirt/soil in yards and fields. ... This is an ideal food source for ants, as well as several other pests.
[103]
Friend or Foe? - Pest Control Technology
Apr 20, 2017 · ... Formica ants are beneficial or at most may become nuisance ants around human dwellings. Formica, like carpenter ants, have a single node and ...