Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Fraticelli

The Fraticelli, meaning "Little Brothers" in Italian, were radical dissident Franciscans in 13th- and 14th-century Italy who insisted on absolute adherence to evangelical poverty as the core of St. Francis of Assisi's rule, rejecting any communal property ownership by the order or clergy as a betrayal of apostolic ideals.^[1] Emerging from the broader Spiritual Franciscan movement, they protested papal approvals of moderated poverty vows, such as those in Nicholas III's bull Exiit qui seminat (1279), which allowed the order indirect use of goods while prohibiting direct ownership.^[1] Tensions peaked under Pope John XXII, who revoked prior privileges and issued bulls like Ad conditorem canonum (1322) and Cum inter nonnullos (1323) asserting that Christ and the Apostles owned property, positions the Fraticelli deemed heretical and used to justify schism from the institutional Church.^[1]^[2] Key figures included Peter John Olivi's theological influencers, Angelo Clareno as organizer of clandestine communities, and Michael of Cesena, minister general who fled to Emperor Louis IV of Bavaria's court, allying with critics like William of Ockham to denounce the papacy.^[1] Condemned as heretics in John XXII's Gloriosam ecclesiam (1318) for invalidating sacraments by "unworthy" priests and claiming true Church authority resided only with the poor, the Fraticelli formed autonomous groups like the Michaelites and Tuscan Spirituals, enduring inquisitorial trials, burnings—such as four friars in Marseille in 1318—and suppression into the 15th century under popes like Martin V.^[1] Their defining legacy lies in elevating poverty as a doctrinal litmus test, sparking debates on ecclesiastical property that exposed fractures between Franciscan rigorism and papal governance.^[2]

Origins

Etymology

The term Fraticelli is the Italian diminutive form of frate (from Latin frater, "brother"), translating to "little friars" or "little brothers," a designation originally echoing the Franciscan Ordo Fratrum Minorum ("Order of Lesser Brothers").^[3] ^[4] This linguistic origin reflects the mendicant emphasis on humility and poverty central to Franciscan identity, with frati serving as a general Italian term for friars in the 13th century.^[5] Applied specifically to schismatic Franciscan factions from the late 13th century onward—such as those rejecting papal relaxations of strict poverty—the name carried a derogatory connotation, implying diminutive status or apostasy among critics who viewed these groups as rebellious offshoots rather than true adherents of Francis of Assisi's rule.^[3] ^[5]

Franciscan Background and Spiritual Movement

The Order of Friars Minor, founded by Francis of Assisi and receiving initial papal approval from Innocent III in 1209–1210, was predicated on evangelical poverty as its distinguishing charism, with the friars vowing to renounce all ownership of property and to subsist through manual labor and alms in imitation of Christ and the Apostles. This commitment, enshrined in the Rule of 1223 confirmed by Honorius III, prescribed that friars "possess nothing own as their own" and avoid handling money, fostering a life of radical simplicity and dependence on providence. Early tensions surfaced as the order expanded, with some friars advocating moderate communal use of goods while others insisted on absolute personal and collective indigence, setting the stage for interpretive disputes that would define the Spiritual movement.^[6] The Spiritual Franciscans, emerging principally in the 1270s–1290s in regions like Provence and the Marches of Ancona, represented a rigorist faction—often termed zelanti or spirituales—dedicated to uncompromised observance of Francis's testamentary ideals against perceived laxities among the Conventual majority.^[6] Influenced by theologian Peter John Olivi (c. 1248–1298), whose lectures on the Book of Revelation cast St. Francis as the angelic figure of the sixth seal and the Spirituals as heralds of apocalyptic renewal through poverty, the movement fused ascetic zeal with eschatological urgency, viewing strict usus pauper (poor use of goods without dominion) as essential to evangelical perfection.^[7] Pope Nicholas III's bull Exiit qui seminat (14 August 1279) endeavored to codify this by declaring the Rule binding under penalty of sin, affirming Franciscan non-ownership while permitting simple use of essentials under Church protection, though ambiguities fueled ongoing contention.^[8]^[9] These doctrinal frictions intensified after Olivi's death, as Spirituals faced inquisitorial scrutiny for associating poverty with prophetic critiques of ecclesiastical wealth, culminating in the early fourteenth century under Pope John XXII (r. 1316–1334), whose bulls such as Ad conditorem canonum (8 December 1322) and Cum inter nonnullos (12 November 1323) rejected the Spirituals' thesis of Christ's absolute poverty, revoking Exiit qui seminat and branding non-conformists as heretical.^[1] This papal stance, prioritizing juridical ownership over Franciscan renunciation, radicalized the Spirituals, propelling subsets into outright separation as Fraticelli—"Little Brethren"—who rejected post-Avignon popes' legitimacy and persisted in clandestine observance of poverty amid persecutions.^[6]^[1]

Core Beliefs and Theology

Apostolic Poverty and Evangelical Perfection

The Fraticelli maintained that evangelical perfection required absolute adherence to apostolic poverty, interpreting it as the complete renunciation of all property rights, both individual and communal, in imitation of Christ and the Apostles.^[10] They asserted that Christ possessed no dominium (legal ownership or lordship) over temporal goods, relying solely on simplex usus facti—a simple, non-proprietary use of necessities as permitted by divine providence—without any proprietary claim.^[11] This doctrine extended to the Apostles, who, per scriptural precepts such as Matthew 10:9–10 ("Provide neither gold, nor silver, nor brass in your purses") and Luke 9:2–3, forsook all possessions to preach without material encumbrance.^[10] For the Fraticelli, such poverty was not optional but a binding evangelical precept essential to spiritual integrity, distinguishing true followers of Francis from those who compromised through institutional accumulations.^[12] Rooted in the literal observance of Francis of Assisi's 1221 Rule, which mandated poverty without ownership or storage of goods (Rule, chapter 8), the Fraticelli rejected interpretations allowing communal funds or papal dispensations, such as Gregory IX's Quo elongati (1230), which permitted friars to use managed resources indirectly.^[12] They viewed evangelical perfection as achievable only through this radical usus pauper (poor use), encompassing moderation in consumption alongside total dispossession, thereby restoring the prelapsarian innocence of humanity untainted by proprietary dominion, which they deemed a post-Fall construct tied to sin and human law.^[10] Influenced by Peter John Olivi's writings, such as his Quaestio de usu paupere, they elevated poverty as the foundational exemplum of Christ, arguing that any deviation—such as accepting fixed incomes or buildings—corrupted the Franciscan charism and barred attainment of higher sanctity.^[11] This stance precipitated doctrinal conflict with papal authority, particularly under John XXII, whose bull Cum inter nonnullos (December 12, 1323) condemned the Fraticelli position as heretical by affirming that Christ and the Apostles held communal property rights, albeit unused.^[10] The Fraticelli countered in appeals, such as the 1322 Declaratio magistrorum and the 1324 Appellatio Ludovici de Sachsenhausen, charging the pope with heresy for contradicting prior approvals like Nicholas III's Exiit qui seminat (1279), which had enshrined Franciscan poverty as gospel-based orthodoxy.^[10] They maintained that true perfection demanded renunciation of all ius (rights) in property or use, deeming obedience to such papal revisions secondary to scriptural fidelity, thus framing poverty as the ultimate test of apostolic succession over hierarchical prelacy.^[11]

Views on Ecclesial Authority and Corruption

The Fraticelli regarded the accumulation of wealth and temporal power by the institutional Church as a fundamental corruption that severed it from the evangelical purity mandated by Christ and the Apostles. They contended that this materialism not only contradicted the Franciscan rule of absolute poverty—confirmed as binding by Pope Nicholas III's bull Exiit qui seminat in 1279—but also rendered the ecclesiastical hierarchy spiritually illegitimate, as true authority derived solely from adherence to apostolic perfection rather than coercive dominion. Influenced by Peter John Olivi's distinction between the "carnal Church," characterized by corruption and abuse of power, and the "spiritual Church" of the faithful elect, the Fraticelli prioritized individual conscience and scriptural fidelity over hierarchical obedience when the latter promoted avarice.^[7] Central to their ecclesiology was the rejection of papal authority postdating John XXII's interventions in the poverty dispute. The Fraticelli asserted that John XXII's bulls, including Ad conditorem canonum (1322) and Cum inter nonnullos (December 12, 1323), which deemed it heretical to claim Christ owned no property, directly contradicted prior infallible papal teachings and thus constituted formal heresy, automatically deposing him from office. Successor popes, by upholding these positions, were similarly invalid, transforming the Roman See into a seat of Antichrist rather than the apostolic succession. They anticipated a future "Angelic Pope" who would purge this corruption and restore the Church's primitive poverty, justifying their schism as fidelity to divine law over human error.^[7] This stance extended to sacramental validity: the Fraticelli denied the legitimacy of ordinations and masses performed under heretical popes, leading them to ordain their own deacons and laymen to administer sacraments, as the official clergy's ties to a corrupt regime nullified their ministry. Such views, rooted in Olivi's apocalyptic framework envisioning the carnal Church's eclipse by the spiritual, positioned the Fraticelli as guardians of true ecclesial authority against institutional apostasy.^[7]

Formation of Schismatic Groups

The Clareni under Angelo da Clareno

The Clareni emerged as a distinct community of Franciscan hermits in the Marche of Ancona during the late 1270s, under the initial joint leadership of Angelo da Clareno and Liberatus of Ancona, emphasizing an eremitical lifestyle of absolute poverty without communal ownership of property.^[13] Angelo, born around 1241 near Cingoli, had entered the Franciscan order circa 1274 and quickly advocated for rigorous observance of the Rule's prohibition on possessions, interpreting it as a literal mandate for evangelical imitation rather than mitigated interpretations permitted by papal bulls like Quia Elongati (1230) and Ordinem Vestrum (1240).^[14] This stance positioned the Clareni against the Franciscan leadership's concessions to property use in usum, which they deemed a corruption of Francis's original intentio.^[15] By 1279, the group encountered severe opposition from Franciscan superiors and local bishops, resulting in the imprisonment of Angelo, Liberatus, and several companions for defying orders to conform to conventual practices; they were reportedly subjected to harsh conditions, including torture, before release or flight.^[16] ^[14] Under Angelo's direction, the Clareni reorganized as autonomous hermits, adopting a rule blending Franciscan poverty with early monastic eremitism, drawing on patristic models from Greek and Egyptian fathers to justify separation from the institutionalized order.^[17] They rejected ecclesial authority perceived as complicit in worldly compromise, particularly after Pope John XXII's bulls Ad Conditorem Canonum (1322) and Cum Inter Nonnullos (1323), which denied the absolute poverty of Christ and the apostles—a doctrine central to Spiritual claims.^[18] Angelo framed these conflicts in apocalyptic terms, influenced by Joachim of Fiore via Peter John Olivi, portraying the Clareni as filii spiritus persecuted by filii carnis within the church. Angelo assumed sole leadership around 1307 following Liberatus's death during an appeal to Pope Clement V at Lyon, after which the Clareni expanded modestly, establishing hermitages in central Italy and venturing into Latin Romania (Byzantine territories under Latin control) amid ongoing inquisitorial pressures. ^[13] Despite temporary protections from cardinals like Napoleone Orsini, the group's refusal to submit led to excommunication and classification as Fraticelli schismatics by the 1320s. Angelo's major work, the Historia Septem Tribulationum Ordinis Minorum (composed circa 1317–1325), documented these struggles as seven prophetic tribulations afflicting true Franciscans, using historical narrative, visions, and dialogues to vindicate their orthodoxy while critiquing papal overreach.^[19] ^[15] He resided in Avignon until mid-1318, petitioning unsuccessfully before retreating to Italian seclusion. The Clareni under his guidance prioritized manual labor, mendicancy, and scriptural exegesis over preaching or scholarship, maintaining numerical smallness—likely dozens of members—to preserve purity amid suppression. Angelo da Clareno died in isolation on June 15, 1337, in a hermitage near Santa Maria d'Aspro in Lucania, where his followers reportedly venerated him posthumously through attributed miracles, though the group fragmented thereafter under intensified papal and inquisitorial actions.^[17]

Fraticelli de Paupere Vita

The Fraticelli de Paupere Vita, also known as the "Little Brothers of the Poor Life" or Fratres de paupere vita, emerged as a schismatic faction within the Franciscan movement in the early 14th century, adhering rigidly to the principle of absolute apostolic poverty as exemplified by Christ and the Apostles.^[1] This group represented the persistence of radical Spiritual Franciscan ideals after the official suppression of the Spirituals, rejecting the Franciscan Order's accommodations with papal authority on property use and emphasizing evangelical perfection through voluntary destitution.^[20] Their formation was catalyzed by Pope John XXII's bulls, particularly Exiit qui seminat (1317) and subsequent decrees, which they viewed as betraying Francis of Assisi's Rule by permitting limited ownership, prompting them to organize independently in central Italy around 1318.^[1] Under the influence of figures like Angelo da Clareno upon his return to Italy in 1318, the Fraticelli de Paupere Vita established semi-autonomous communities, primarily in Umbria, Marche, and other central Italian provinces, where they preached itinerantly, administered sacraments without ecclesiastical approval, and critiqued the institutional Church's wealth as corrupting.^[20] They distinguished themselves by adopting a distinct habit and lifestyle that mimicked the Apostles' poverty, refusing tithes, endowments, or fixed residences, and sustaining themselves through manual labor or alms while denouncing relaxed Franciscans as heretics.^[21] Papal condemnation intensified with John XXII's decree of 1 August 1322 explicitly targeting the "Fraticelli de paupere vita" as schismatics, followed by orders to secular rulers like King Robert of Naples in 1325 to suppress their activities.^[1] Despite persecution, the group maintained cohesion through underground networks, with estimates of several hundred adherents by the 1320s, propagating texts like the Rule of Angelo Clareno that justified their separation as fidelity to primitive Christianity. Their theology centered on the usus pauper—restricted use of goods without dominion—contrasting with the papal Expositio quatuor principalium of 1317, which they deemed erroneous, leading to accusations of heresy for usurping priestly functions and declaring the pope a heretic.^[22] By the mid-14th century, inquisitorial records document their dispersal into smaller cells, yet they influenced lay piety movements like the Beguines and Bizocchi, blending mendicancy with apocalyptic expectations tied to Joachim of Fiore's prophecies.^[23]

Michaelites and Followers of Peter John Olivi

The Michaelites originated as a schismatic faction within the Franciscan Order following the deposition of Michael of Cesena as Minister General in 1328. Cesena, elected to the position in 1316, initially sought compromise between the Conventuals and Spirituals amid debates over apostolic poverty but shifted to opposition after Pope John XXII's bull Cum inter nonnullos on 12 November 1323 declared that Christ and the Apostles had possessed property, contradicting the Franciscan interpretation of evangelical perfection affirmed by Nicholas III's Exiit qui seminat in 1279.^[24] Cesena appealed the papal decision to a future ecumenical council, fled Avignon for protection under Emperor Louis IV in Munich by April 1328, and collaborated with figures like William of Ockham to defend the traditional poverty doctrine through treatises such as Appellatio contra Martinum Polonum (1328).^[10] Excommunicated and deposed by John XXII later that year, Cesena's adherents rejected the legitimacy of post-Nicholas III popes, viewing them as heretical for undermining Christ's poverty, and organized independently with their own hierarchies, including bishops and priests, while propagating in Italy and beyond.^[25] Also known as Fraticelli de Opinione, the Michaelites emphasized adherence to the "opinion" that Christ observed absolute poverty without dominion over temporal goods, distinguishing them from earlier Fraticelli groups like the Clareni by their institutional structure and direct tie to Cesena's leadership until his death in Munich on 23 August 1342. They maintained liturgical practices akin to the mainstream order but condemned papal wealth and simony as signs of ecclesial apostasy, attracting converts through itinerant preaching and clandestine communities, particularly in central Italy, where they faced inquisitorial scrutiny by the 1330s.^[26] Followers of Peter John Olivi (c. 1248–1298) exerted significant theological influence on the Michaelites, integrating his radical Spiritual Franciscan ideas into their schismatic framework. Olivi, a Provençal theologian whose works like the Lectura super Apocalypsim prophesied an imminent era of Antichrist around 1297–1300, interpreted Franciscan poverty (usus pauper) as a divine mandate for evangelical simplicity, critiquing institutional church corruption as fulfillment of joachimite eschatology where a "spiritual church" of true friars would supplant a carnal hierarchy.^[7] Despite condemnations of select Olivi doctrines at the Council of Vienne (1311–1312), his emphasis on voluntary poverty without proprietary rights and the moral obligation to resist erroneous papal teachings resonated with Michaelite resistance to John XXII, fostering a shared view that obedience to such popes equated to heresy.^[27] Olivi's disciples, active in southern France and Italy, propagated manuscripts of his writings underground, blending them with Michaelite appeals to justify separation and portraying their communities as the remnant faithful amid end-times tribulation. This synthesis reinforced the group's dual commitment to doctrinal purity and apocalyptic urgency, sustaining their persistence despite papal bulls like Sancta Romana (1317) targeting Olivi's legacy.^[28]

Geographical Spread and Activities

Establishment in Central Italy and Naples

The Fraticelli, emerging from the Spiritual Franciscan movement's emphasis on absolute poverty, found refuge in the mountainous and rural areas of central Italy following the papal condemnations of 1317–1318 by Pope John XXII, which excommunicated advocates of usus pauper and Christ’s poverty. Umbria and the Marche (March of Ancona) served as primary strongholds, where dissident groups formed hermitages and small communities amid sympathetic local populations and terrain conducive to evasion of inquisitorial scrutiny. These regions hosted multiple strands of Fraticelli, including followers of Peter John Olivi's apocalyptic theology and Angelo da Clareno's Poor Hermits, who sustained evangelical preaching and ascetic practices into the mid-14th century despite intermittent raids.^[29]^[30] In the Marche, Fraticelli communities persisted as centers of Franciscan dissidence from the late 13th century through the 15th, often blending eremitical withdrawal with itinerant ministry, drawing on regional traditions of mendicant zeal that resisted the Conventual Franciscans' institutional wealth accumulation. Historical records indicate active propagation in areas like Perugia in Umbria by 1334, where papal instructions targeted their influence, underscoring their organizational resilience in these provinces.^[31]^[32] Further south in the Kingdom of Naples, Fraticelli gained a foothold through the Angevin rulers' early patronage of rigorous Franciscan observance, notably occupying the monastery of Santa Chiara—founded in 1310 by Queen Sancia of Majorca alongside King Robert as a double house for male and female Franciscans committed to poverty. This establishment reflected Sancia's personal devotion to Spiritual ideals, allowing "short-robed" Fraticelli (denoting their simple garb symbolizing evangelical poverty) to maintain presence until at least the 1330s, though subsequent inquisitorial pressures under Benedict XII eroded their hold.^[33]^[31]

Expansion to Other Regions Including Greece

The Fraticelli, driven by papal condemnations in Italy, disseminated their doctrines into southern France, where Provence and Languedoc provided receptive environments amid existing tensions over Franciscan poverty and clerical corruption. By the early 14th century, communities had formed in these regions, attracting followers who rejected the institutional Church's wealth accumulation. In Provence, the movement's visibility prompted swift inquisitorial response; on May 7, 1318, Pope John XXII ordered the execution by burning of four prominent Fraticelli friars—Jean Barrani, Deodat Michel, Guillem Sainton, and Pons Rocha—in Marseilles, marking one of the earliest documented suppressions outside Italy.^[34] This event underscored the sect's organizational capacity, as the condemned maintained hierarchical structures akin to their Italian counterparts, including self-appointed ministers and itinerant preachers.^[35] In Languedoc, adjacent to Provence, Fraticelli influence intertwined with broader Spiritual Franciscan dissent, fostering small cells that propagated anti-papal teachings on usury, simony, and apostolic poverty. Inquisitorial records from 1318 to 1330 document burnings and confiscations targeting these groups, reflecting their evasion tactics such as relocation to remote Alpine fringes or maritime escapes.^[36] Despite these pressures, the heresy persisted intermittently, leveraging trade routes and mendicant networks to sustain propagation before declining under sustained papal and royal enforcement.^[37] Expansion reached the Latin territories of Greece, particularly after the Fourth Crusade's establishment of Frankish lordships, offering refuge from Italian pogroms. Circa 1294–1304, Angelo Clareno, leader of the Clareni faction, directed Franciscan fugitives to settle on the Trizonia islands in the Gulf of Corinth, forming a self-sustaining community focused on evangelical poverty and scriptural literalism.^[38] This base facilitated emissaries, such as Friar Raynerius, who traveled eastward and returned to revive Italian cells, linking Western schismatics with Byzantine borderlands.^[38] Fraticelli presence endured into the 14th and 15th centuries across Greek Latin dominions, with documented activity in Crete—where a heretic was burned in Candia (Heraklion) around 1359–1360—and Attica's Syccaminon castle, a 15th-century dissident redoubt.^[38] Even under Ottoman advances, vestiges survived, as evidenced by a Fraticelli monastery at Satines. These outposts not only evaded immediate suppression but enabled bidirectional heresy transmission, with Greek communities dispatching missionaries to Italy and potentially influencing local Orthodox dissidents through shared apocalyptic and anti-hierarchical motifs.^[39] Persecutions remained sporadic, tied to Latin rulers' alliances with the Avignon papacy, yet the networks persisted until the mid-15th century.^[38]

Conflicts and Suppression

Papal Condemnations and Doctrinal Disputes

Pope John XXII formally excommunicated the Fraticelli in the bull Gloriosam ecclesiam issued on 23 January 1318, enumerating five principal errors attributed to them: designating the Roman Church as Babylon; asserting that only those observing evangelical poverty constituted the true Church; denying the pope's authority as head of the Church; claiming that prelates observing poverty alone held legitimate power; and maintaining that obedience was owed solely to such poverty-observing prelates rather than to the established hierarchy.^[40] This condemnation targeted their schismatic separation from the Franciscan order and broader rejection of papal directives on property use, framing their positions as disruptive to ecclesiastical unity. The bull followed earlier warnings and built on John XXII's prior interventions against Spiritual Franciscan dissenters, emphasizing the Fraticelli's refusal to submit to the Holy See's interpretations of the Franciscan Rule. The central doctrinal dispute revolved around the Fraticelli's rigid interpretation of apostolic poverty, which posited that Christ and the Apostles possessed no temporal goods whatsoever, neither individually nor in common—a view they extended to argue that the post-Nicholas III papacy had fallen into heresy by permitting the Franciscan order any form of property ownership or usufruct.^[34] John XXII countered this in Cum inter nonnullos on 12 November 1323, declaring it heretical to deny that Christ and the Apostles held property in common, thereby affirming the legitimacy of ecclesiastical and mendicant possessions under canon law.^[41] The Fraticelli's stance implied a de facto conciliarist challenge, as they invalidated papal authority diverging from their poverty ideal, leading to mutual accusations of heresy: the Fraticelli labeled post-1279 popes as Antichrist figures corrupting the Church, while the papacy viewed their poverty absolutism as a novel heresy undermining the Church's temporal prerogatives essential for its mission. Subsequent bulls reinforced these condemnations, including Sancta Romana et universalis ecclesia on 28 December 1318, which definitively excommunicated the group and censured their key texts like the Postil of Peter John Olivi, and a general decree on 1 August 1322 targeting their persistence.^[21] Later popes, such as Benedict XII, continued the doctrinal enforcement through inquisitorial mandates, but the core conflict remained rooted in the poverty debate, where the Fraticelli's first-principles appeal to scriptural imitation clashed with the papacy's causal reasoning that absolute dispossession would cripple institutional functions like almsgiving and juridical order. These disputes highlighted tensions between evangelical literalism and pragmatic ecclesiology, with the papacy prioritizing doctrinal continuity over radical reform.

Inquisition Proceedings and Punishments

The Inquisition, primarily through Dominican inquisitors appointed by papal authority, conducted proceedings against the Fraticelli by investigating reports of their preaching and gatherings, summoning suspects for interrogation, and extracting confessions often under threat of torture as authorized by papal bulls such as Ad extirpanda (1252), which permitted limited physical coercion for heresy cases.^[42] Convictions typically followed public abjuration failures or relapse, leading to degradation from clerical orders and relinquishment to secular arms for execution, with burning at the stake reserved for unrepentant heretics to deter propagation of their views on papal illegitimacy and evangelical poverty.^[43] Secular collaboration was common, as seen in Italian communes where inquisitorial verdicts prompted civic edicts enforcing expulsion or property confiscation. Early suppression efforts culminated in the 1318 Marseilles trials under Pope John XXII, where inquisitors convicted four Fraticelli leaders—Jean Barrani, Deodatus Michel, William Sancto, and Pons Rocha—of persisting in schism and heresy after prior warnings, resulting in their burning on May 7.^[34] This followed John XXII's 1322 bull Ad conditorem canonum, which reiterated condemnations of Fraticelli doctrines and mandated inquisitorial vigilance across Europe.^[43] Similar proceedings in Avignon around 1354 led to the execution of two Fraticelli friars, documented in fragmentary records as exemplifying papal enforcement against their anti-papal sacramental claims.^[44] In Italy, inquisitorial activity intensified in the late 14th century; Florence's priors issued anti-Fraticelli statutes on October 13, 1378, empowering inquisitors to seize goods and banish adherents, while the city council ordered their departure on July 8, 1381, after trials revealed organized cells.^[13] On an unspecified date in 1389, inquisitors in Florence condemned and burned Fra Michele Berti da Calci for promoting Fraticelli tenets, including denial of post-Frederic II papal validity.^[35] Persistence into the 15th century prompted Pope Martin V's directives in 1424 and 1426 for renewed inquisitorial proceedings, targeting remnant groups in central Italy with arrests and autos-da-fé, though records indicate varying success due to Fraticelli evasion tactics.^[43] Punishments emphasized exemplary severity, with over a dozen documented burnings by mid-century, underscoring the Inquisition's role in curbing sectarian challenges to ecclesiastical hierarchy.^[45]

Later History and Legacy

Persistence and Decline in the 15th Century

In the early 15th century, Fraticelli communities persisted in isolated pockets primarily within central and southern Italy, including areas around Jesi, Maiolati, and Assisi, often under the protection of sympathetic noble families such as the Colonna.^[1] These groups maintained their emphasis on apostolic poverty and rejection of papal authority over Franciscan property doctrines, organizing semi-autonomously with makeshift hierarchies of ministers and preachers.^[20] Their numbers had swelled during the Western Schism (1378–1417), as schismatic alignments provided temporary cover and attracted dissidents opposed to the Avignon papacy's wealth accumulation, allowing propaganda efforts that provoked orthodox rebuttals.^[20] Some Fraticelli fled persecution to Greek territories in the mid-century, establishing transient settlements amid Latin enclaves, though these remained marginal and disconnected from core Italian networks.^[1] The resolution of the Western Schism at the Council of Constance (1414–1418) marked the onset of intensified suppression, stripping Fraticelli of schism-related legitimacy and exposing them to unified papal enforcement. In 1415, authorities banished Fraticelli from Florence, destroying several of their hermitages.^[1] Pope Martin V escalated inquisitorial measures in 1426 by appointing dedicated investigators in Italy, leading to widespread arrests, property confiscations, and burnings of Fraticelli establishments in cities like Florence and Fabriano.^[1] From 1426 to 1449, relentless pursuits by the Inquisition resulted in numerous imprisonments and executions, with papal preachers such as John of Capistrano and James of the March conducting conversion campaigns that reclaimed many adherents for the Franciscan Observants through public disputations and coerced recantations.^[1]^[43] By mid-century, Fraticelli influence waned as Observant reforms within the Franciscan order absorbed spiritual rigorists, diluting radical dissent; certain Clareni subgroups formally integrated into the Observants around 1473, though retaining limited autonomy in hermitages until further centralization in 1563.^[20] Late inquisitorial actions underscored the sect's terminal decline: in 1466, Pope Paul II oversaw the torture and imprisonment of six Fraticelli in Rome for rejecting indulgences, while similar proceedings at Assisi represented one of the final documented interventions against them.^[1]^[43] Scattered burnings, including at Rome in 1467, eliminated remaining leaders, and without institutional patronage or doctrinal adaptability, the Fraticelli faded into obscurity by the century's close, their legacy confined to sporadic heretical echoes rather than organized resistance.^[20]

Historical Evaluations and Causal Impacts

Historians traditionally assessed the Fraticelli, or Spiritual Franciscans, as heretics whose rigid interpretation of evangelical poverty constituted defiance of papal authority, a view reinforced in ecclesiastical sources that emphasize their rejection of John XXII's legitimacy and the sacraments of priests deemed morally unfit.^[1] This perspective, rooted in contemporary papal bulls and inquisitorial records, portrays their doctrines—such as the absolute prohibition of property ownership and usus pauper (poor use of goods)—as schismatic innovations that undermined the institutional Church's adaptability.^[46] Modern evaluations, exemplified by David Burr's analysis, reframe them as a protest movement emerging in the 1270s against the Franciscan order's institutionalization, driven by sincere adherence to St. Francis's original rule amid apocalyptic expectations influenced by Joachim of Fiore and Peter Olivi's writings.^[46] Burr notes their evolution from internal dissent, as seen in Angelo Clareno's exiles and Ubertino da Casale's Arbor Vitae (1305), to outright heresy charges, attributing persecution not merely to doctrinal error but to their threat to hierarchical obedience.^[46] Causal impacts of the Fraticelli included exacerbating the Franciscan poverty controversy, which polarized the order into rigorist Spirituals and pragmatic Conventuals, culminating in events like the Council of Vienne (1311–1312) and John XXII's Exivi de Paradiso (1312) attempting mediation before escalating to condemnations.^[46] Their resistance prompted intensified inquisitorial actions, such as the 1317 bull Quorumdam exigit summoning 62 friars to Avignon and the 1318 execution of four leaders at Marseille, strengthening papal mechanisms for suppressing dissent and clarifying doctrines on Franciscan property rights via Cum inter nonnullos (1323).^[46] Broader effects manifested in lay offshoots like the beguins, whose apocalyptic networks in southern France faced parallel purges (e.g., 1325–1328 executions at Narbonne and Béziers), fostering anti-clerical critiques of wealth that echoed in later medieval debates but failed to catalyze systemic reform due to effective suppression.^[46]^[47] By the 15th century, their remnants influenced Observant Franciscan revitalization under figures like John Capistran, who aided in their eradication by 1466, underscoring a legacy of highlighting tensions between evangelical ideals and institutional pragmatism without altering core Church structures.^[1]^[46]

References

[1]
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Fraticelli - New Advent
In the processes of these trials and in numerous papal Bulls they are called, as a rule, Fraticelli seu fratres de paupere vitâ. As appears from the papal Bulls ...
[2]
The Spiritual Franciscans - Project MUSE
In this book, David Burr offers the first comprehensive history of the so-called Spiritual Franciscans, a protest movement within the Franciscan order.
[3]
Fratricelli, Fraticelli, or Fratelli - Biblical Cyclopedia
Fratricelli, Fraticelli, Or Fratelli a low Latin or Italians diminutive, denoting fratres minores, little brothers. The term has been applied to so many ...
[4]
Dictionary : FRATICELLI - Catholic Culture
But in Church history it means those sectarians who in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries separated themselves from the Franciscan Order, which they claimed ...Missing: origin | Show results with:origin
[5]
Fratricelli - Charles Buck Theological Dictionary - StudyLight.org
The word is an Italian diminutive, signifying fraterculi, or "little brothers, " and was here used as a term of derision, as they were most of them apostate ...
[6]
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Spirituals - New Advent
(On their history see FRATICELLI.) They were excommunicated by John XXII ... Spiritual Franciscans Montanist Heretics? (Chicago, 1908), reprinted from ...
[7]
Peter John Olivi - Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Nov 2, 1999 · Olivi's understanding of the Franciscan vow and poverty became influential among the spiritualists, and after his death he was venerated by ...
[8]
Exiit qui Seminat -- Pope Nicholas III - The Franciscan Archive
3, quotes this sentence to demonstrate that Nicholas III's Exiit qui seminat did not support the arguments of those who advocated the heresy of absolute poverty ...Missing: summary | Show results with:summary
[9]
Exiit qui seminat | EWTN
EXIIT QUI SEMINAT. Pope Nicholas III. Translated from the Latin text transcribed from the Registers of Nicholas III, p. 232-241, #564Missing: summary | Show results with:summary
[10]
[PDF] Pope John XXII and the Franciscan Ideal of Absolute Poverty
This thesis investigates Pope John XXII's view of Franciscan poverty and his rejection of the absolute poverty of Christ, within the context of his pontificate.
[11]
Jacques Fournier and the Poverty Controversy
Poverty thus appears as one of the few clear precepts of the Gospel and one of the most relevant for the attainment of evangelical perfection. . Against ...
[12]
None
Summary of each segment:
[13]
[PDF] A history of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages
... Angelo was chosen as their leader, and amid persecution and obloquy they formed a cbngregation in the Mark of Ancona, known as the Clareni, from the surname ...<|separator|>
[14]
Angelo Clareno On An Inquisitorial Torture Session - Cathar.info
Clareno joined the Franciscan order around 1274. He become involved in the first serious confrontation between Spiritual Franciscans and their leaders. In the ...
[15]
Chapter 17 Chronicle or History: The Uncertain Literary Genre of a Dissident Story
### Summary of Angelo Clareno's Literary Works and Relation to Clareni/Spiritual Franciscans
[16]
San Francesco in the 14th Century - Key to Umbria: Assisi
A group of zealous Franciscans (known as the zelanti) in the Marches, led by Brothers Liberato and Angelo da Clareno, had been imprisoned in ca. 1279, because ...
[17]
6. An institution made of individuals: Peter John Olivi and Angelo ...
Aug 14, 2025 · In expressing such views, Olivi was drawing the ultimate consequences of a strict identification of the Franciscan rule with the gospel. All ...
[18]
JOHN XXII AND THE SPIRITUALS: IS ANGELO CLARENO ... - jstor
Ubertino and Angelo from their positions as major spokesmen for. Franciscan reform. The Aftermath. Angelo's story of the sixth tribulation ends at this point.Missing: Clareni | Show results with:Clareni
[19]
https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047429746/Bej.9789004176300.i-256_009.pdf
[20]
Fraticelli | Encyclopedia.com
Philip preached against Pope john xxii, and a bull of 1340 describes him as "the promotor and ruler of a heretical sect." In 1362 a process was directed ...
[21]
1311 - Fraticelli - GlobalSecurity.org
May 8, 2011 · Thus the pope revoked the Bull " Exiit" of Nicholas III and did away with the poverty which formed the basis of the Franciscan Order. The ...<|separator|>
[22]
Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume VI
In his bull, Sancta romana, issued in 1317, John XXII. spoke of "men of the profane multitude, popularly called Fraticelli, or brethren of the poor life, ...
[23]
Beguines, Free Spirits, and the Inquisitorial Network Conundrum
Known as fraticelli, fratres de paupere vita, bizzochi and beghini, these groups were accused of adopting their own habit, gathering in conventicles ...<|separator|>
[24]
[PDF] Innocent IV, John XXII, and the Michaelists on Corporate Poverty
centred around Michael of Cesena (c. – ) covered a lot of ground in the course of their writings on the nature and extent of evangelical poverty.
[25]
Texts in Context: The Apostolic Poverty Movement - CLT Journal
Mar 31, 2025 · 1326—Pope John XXII issues bull Super Illius Specula, placing witchcraft cases under Inquisitorial jurisdiction. 1331-1334—Beatific Vision ...
[26]
[PDF] The Franciscan Invention of the New World
on Pope John XXII, Michael of Cesena and the Poverty of Christ with summaries in English: A source book. New York: Franciscan Institute. Gimenez Fernández ...
[27]
https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047411529/B9789047411529_s005.pdf
[28]
[PDF] 11 Some Late Franciscan Rewritings of the Twelve Abuses
Keywords: Fraticelli, spiritual Franciscans, Peter John Olivi, Bernardino da Siena, religious reform. The circulation of the De XII abusiuis saeculi among ...
[29]
Angel Pope and Papal Antichrist - jstor
Tuscany, and in Umbria and the Marches definite Spiritualist groups had formed ... Fraticelli (Manchester, 1934); and Liva- rius Oliger, "Spirituels ...
[30]
https://journals.openedition.org/oliviana/7
[31]
The nature and the effect of the heresy of the Fraticelli ...
... Fraticelli de paupere vita”? as they came to be called, and with the ... A similar schism had taken place in the Franciscan Order since the rival. Popes ...
[32]
The history as a pendulum: the "Actus" and the "Fioretti" - jstor
fraticelli: le molte anime della dissidenza francescana nelle Marche tra xiii e xv secolo," in / francescani nelle Marche : secoli 13-16, ed. L. Pellegrini.
[33]
(PDF) Queen Sancia of Mallorca and.... - Academia.edu
Queen Sancia of Mallorca and the Convent Church of Sta. Chiara in Naples Author(s): Caroline Bruzelius Reviewed work(s): Source: Memoirs of the American Academy ...
[34]
1318: Four Fraticelli friars | Executed Today
May 7, 2012 · ... Fraticelli were “Spiritual” Franciscans who rejected the more worldly accoutrement that even their humble order had taken on. “Hardly a ...
[35]
fraticelli | Executed Today
movements like the Apostolic Brethren, of Fra ...Missing: Michaelites | Show results with:Michaelites<|separator|>
[36]
Probing Christian History: Luther to Eriugena
The burning of Beguines occurred in Languedoc and Provence during the period 1318-1330. ... The friars of the Fraticelli fled to Greece when the pogrom started.<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
THE FRATICELLI (CHAPTER III) - A History of the Inquisition of the ...
We have seen how John XXII created and exterminated the heresy of the Spiritual Franciscans, and how Michele da Cesena enforced obedience within the Order ...Missing: declaration | Show results with:declaration
[38]
Heretical networks between East and West: the case of the Fraticelli
### Summary of Fraticelli Presence and Activities in Greece
[39]
Heretical Networks Between East and West: The Case of the Fraticelli
Oct 20, 2018 · This article explores the links between the Franciscan heresy of the Fraticelli and the Latin territories of Greece in the thirteenth to the fifteenth ...Missing: expansion regions outside
[40]
Franciscan Prophets and the Inquisition (1226–1326) - MDPI
In January of 1318, John XXII released the bull Gloriosam ecclesiam, which ... Fraticelli, Beguins and other fellow travelers.124 Three of the errors ...<|separator|>
[41]
Views During the Third Period (750-1517 A.D.) (35): The Supremacy ...
In the bull Cum inter nonnullos, 1323, and other bulls, John declared it heresy to hold that Christ and the Apostles held no possessions. Those who resisted ...
[42]
#OnThisDay in 1252, Pope Innocent IV issues the papal bull ad ...
May 15, 2019 · This date, May 15, in 1252, Pope Innocent IV issued the papal bull ad extirpanda, which authorized, but also limited,the torture of heretics in ...
[43]
chapter vii. - HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH*
The mediaeval horror of heresy appears in the practice of ascribing to heretics nefarious performances of all sorts. The terms Waldenses and Waldensianism were ...
[44]
[PDF] The heresy of the Fraticelli was one of the mystical off
Miss Douie's three writers on evangelical poverty7 seem to be concerned to temporise, and to interpret the bulls of John XXII in as near a way as possible ...
[45]
A History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages; volume III
IN a former chapter we considered the Mendicants as an active agency in the suppression of heresy. One of the Orders, however, by no means restricted itself to ...
[46]
The Spiritual Franciscans: From Protest to Persecution in the ...
In the thirteenth century the pope, the supreme authority, decided otherwise. He decreed that friars should maintain it toward him and selectively practice ...
[47]
(PDF) The Spiritual Franciscans - Academia.edu
nachman falbel the spiritual history franciscans the spiritual franciscans In the first decades of the Franciscan Order foundation, in the Middle Ages, an ...