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Free fall

Free fall is the motion of an object under the sole influence of gravitational force, resulting in constant acceleration directed toward the center of the attracting body, with no other forces such as air resistance or friction acting upon it.^[1] In this state, all objects accelerate at the same rate regardless of their mass, size, or shape, a principle first proposed by Galileo Galilei around 400 years ago through observations and thought experiments.^[2] Near Earth's surface, this acceleration due to gravity, denoted as g, has a standard value of 9.80665 m/s², though it is often approximated as 9.8 m/s² for introductory purposes.^[3]^[4] The kinematics of free fall are described by Newton's second law of motion, where the net force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma), and here the force is solely mg, yielding a = g.^[1] For an object starting from rest, the velocity v at time t is v = gt, and the displacement s is s = (1/2)gt², assuming downward as positive.^[1] These equations highlight the uniform acceleration, distinguishing free fall from other motions like constant velocity travel. In real-world scenarios near Earth, air resistance modifies this ideal behavior for lighter or less streamlined objects, but in a vacuum, the equality of fall rates holds perfectly.^[5]^[6] Free fall plays a foundational role in classical mechanics and extends to broader physics concepts, such as the equivalence principle in general relativity, where the effects of gravity are locally indistinguishable from acceleration in a non-inertial frame.^[7] Historically, Galileo's insights challenged Aristotelian views of motion and paved the way for Newtonian gravity, influencing experiments like those confirming g's constancy through pendulum or drop tests.^[2] Applications span ballistics, orbital mechanics, and engineering, where understanding free fall ensures accurate predictions in scenarios from skydiving to satellite deployment.^[8]

Definition and Fundamentals

Core Definition

Free fall is the motion of an object subjected solely to the gravitational force, with no other forces such as air resistance or friction acting on it.^[9] In this idealized condition, the object accelerates uniformly toward the center of the Earth due to gravity, which is the attractive force exerted by the planet's mass on the object. This concept assumes a vacuum or negligible atmospheric effects, distinguishing free fall from scenarios like terminal velocity, where drag balances gravity to prevent further acceleration.^[10] While free fall typically describes vertical descent, it applies to any trajectory under gravity alone, such as the vertical component in projectile motion, where horizontal velocity does not alter the gravitational acceleration.^[11] The acceleration in free fall near Earth's surface is denoted as g and measured in meters per second squared (m/s²).^[12] The standard value of g is defined exactly as 9.80665 m/s², representing the acceleration at sea level under international conventions.^[3] This constant approximates 9.8 m/s² for most practical purposes but varies slightly by location due to factors like latitude, altitude, and local geology, ranging from about 9.78 m/s² at the equator to 9.83 m/s² at the poles.^[13]

Key Characteristics

In free fall, objects experience uniform acceleration due to gravity, where all bodies, regardless of their mass, accelerate at the same rate in a vacuum, approximately 9.8 m/s² downward near Earth's surface, provided air resistance is negligible.^[7] This equivalence in acceleration arises because the gravitational force is proportional to mass, while inertial mass resists acceleration equally, resulting in the same net effect for all objects.^[14] Demonstrations, such as dropping a feather and a heavy weight in an evacuated tube, confirm that without atmospheric interference, both reach the ground simultaneously.^[15] A defining characteristic of free fall is the sensation of weightlessness, where individuals perceive no gravitational force acting on them, as occurs in rapidly descending elevators or during parabolic aircraft flights simulating zero gravity.^[16] This occurs because the body and its surroundings accelerate together under gravity alone, eliminating any normal force from support surfaces that typically conveys weight.^[17] In orbital contexts, such as the International Space Station, continuous free fall around Earth produces a persistent weightless state, despite gravity's ongoing presence.^[18] In idealized conditions, free fall is often analyzed as straight-line vertical motion along a coordinate system aligned with the gravitational field—treating the trajectory as one-dimensional downward displacement when there is no initial velocity component perpendicular to the field—but it can also include curved paths, such as parabolas in projectile motion.^[19] The absence of perceptible forces in free fall creates microgravity environments, where effective gravity is near zero, enabling unique physical behaviors like fluid suspension or biological experiments unhindered by sedimentation.^[20] Such conditions mimic weightlessness, fostering research in fields from materials science to human physiology, as the only influence is inertial response to gravitational acceleration.^[21]

Historical Context

Pre-Galilean Views

In ancient Greek philosophy, Aristotle (384–322 BCE) articulated a foundational theory of motion in works such as Physics and On the Heavens, composed around 350 BCE, positing that the speed of a falling body is proportional to its weight, with heavier objects descending faster than lighter ones in the absence of external impediments.^[22] This view stemmed from his elemental cosmology, where the terrestrial realm—comprising earth, water, air, and fire—underwent natural rectilinear motions toward their respective natural places, with earthy bodies inherently seeking the center of the universe through downward fall as their telos, or purpose.^[23] In contrast, the celestial realm, made of immutable ether, exhibited eternal circular motion around the Earth, distinguishing sublunary corruptible changes from supralunary perfection and embedding falling motion within a hierarchical cosmos.^[24] Aristotle's framework dominated natural philosophy for over two millennia, influencing medieval scholasticism through Latin translations and commentaries that integrated it with Christian theology, persisting as the orthodox view of motion into the 16th century.^[25] Early challenges emerged in late antiquity, with the Byzantine philosopher John Philoponus (c. 490–570 CE) introducing the concept of impetus—an impressed force sustaining motion—in his critiques of Aristotle, extending it to free fall where he argued that the time difference in falling for bodies of different weights was smaller than Aristotle claimed.^[26] This idea was further developed by Islamic scholars, such as Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdadi (c. 1080–1154), who explained the acceleration of falling bodies as resulting from increasing impetus. In the 14th century, scholars like Jean Buridan (c. 1295–1363), a prominent figure at the University of Paris, refined these notions in his Questions on Aristotle's Physics, suggesting that falling objects gained increasing impetus from gravity, implying acceleration, yet these ideas coexisted with Aristotelian principles rather than displacing them, reflecting gradual questioning within the medieval tradition.^[27]^[28] This synthesis highlighted tensions in explaining observed phenomena, such as the fall of diverse bodies, while upholding the cosmological divide between earthly and heavenly domains.^[29] These pre-Galilean conceptions framed free fall as an elemental striving rather than uniform acceleration, setting the stage for later empirical scrutiny.

Galileo's Experiments and Insights

Galileo Galilei conducted what is perhaps his most famous demonstration of free fall around 1590 by reportedly dropping objects of different masses from the Leaning Tower of Pisa, observing that they struck the ground simultaneously regardless of weight, thus challenging the prevailing Aristotelian notion that heavier bodies fall faster.^[30] This anecdote, first recorded by Galileo's student Vincenzo Viviani decades after his death, remains unverified by contemporary accounts but illustrates Galileo's early empirical approach to refuting ancient theories.^[30] To rigorously measure the motion of falling bodies, Galileo devised experiments using an inclined plane, as detailed in his 1638 work Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences.^[31] He constructed a grooved wooden ramp approximately 12 cubits long, along which a bronze ball was rolled, with one end elevated by one or two cubits to slow the descent and allow precise timing.^[32] Time was measured using a water clock, where the flow from a large vessel into a small glass was weighed on a balance after each run; the experiment was repeated over a hundred times to ensure consistency.^[32] These trials revealed that the distances traversed by the ball were proportional to the squares of the elapsed times, a finding independent of the plane's inclination.^[32] Through these observations, Galileo rejected Aristotle's view that falling speed depends on mass and distance proportionally, instead concluding that all bodies accelerate uniformly under gravity, with the rate constant and unaffected by mass.^[33] This insight marked an early recognition of the quadratic relationship between distance and time in free fall, akin to the modern form s = \frac{1}{2} g t^2, though Galileo expressed it geometrically without full algebraic formalization.^[34] By extrapolating from inclined motion to vertical free fall, he established the foundational principle of constant gravitational acceleration.^[34]

Newtonian Mechanics of Free Fall

Uniform Field Without Air Resistance

In the context of Newtonian mechanics, free fall in a uniform gravitational field without air resistance is modeled as one-dimensional vertical motion under constant acceleration. The key assumptions are that the magnitude of gravitational acceleration g is constant (approximately $9.80 \, \mathrm{m/s^2} near Earth's surface), air drag and other resistive forces are negligible, and the motion occurs along a straight vertical line, approximating conditions where gravitational field variations are insignificant.^[35] The derivation starts with Newton's second law of motion, which states that the vector sum of forces \sum \mathbf{F} on an object equals its mass m times its acceleration \mathbf{a}, or \sum \mathbf{F} = m \mathbf{a}. In free fall under these conditions, the sole force is the gravitational force m \mathbf{g}, where \mathbf{g} is the downward-pointing acceleration vector due to gravity. Substituting yields m \mathbf{g} = m \mathbf{a}, so \mathbf{a} = \mathbf{g}. Thus, the acceleration is constant in both magnitude and direction, independent of the object's mass.^[35] To obtain velocity and position, integrate the constant acceleration. With downward as the positive direction, a = g = \frac{dv}{dt}. Integrating over time from initial conditions gives the velocity:

v(t) = v_0 + gt,

where v_0 is the initial velocity at t = 0. Velocity is also v = \frac{ds}{dt}, so integrating again yields the position:

s(t) = s_0 + v_0 t + \frac{1}{2} g t^2,

where s_0 is the initial position. These kinematic equations follow directly from the definitions of acceleration, velocity, and position under constant acceleration.^[35] For an object dropped from rest (common initial condition), v_0 = 0, simplifying to v(t) = gt for velocity and s(t) = s_0 + \frac{1}{2} g t^2 for position; if released from s_0 = 0, then s(t) = \frac{1}{2} g t^2. These describe how speed increases linearly with time and distance quadratically.^[35] Graphically, under these initial conditions, the velocity-time plot is a straight line through the origin with slope g, reflecting constant acceleration. The position-time plot is an upward-opening parabola starting at the origin (if s_0 = 0), illustrating the quadratic growth in displacement.^[35]

Uniform Field With Air Resistance

In a uniform gravitational field, air resistance introduces a drag force that opposes the motion of a falling object, causing the acceleration to deviate from the constant value of g observed in vacuum conditions. This drag force depends on the object's velocity and can be modeled in two primary regimes: linear drag at low speeds and quadratic drag at higher speeds. For low-speed scenarios, such as small objects or viscous fluids, the drag force is given by F_d = -b v, where b is a constant drag coefficient and v is the velocity.^[36] In contrast, for higher speeds typical of macroscopic objects like skydivers, the drag force follows a quadratic form: F_d = -\frac{1}{2} C_d \rho A v^2, where C_d is the drag coefficient, \rho is the air density, A is the cross-sectional area, and the negative sign indicates opposition to velocity./Book%3A_University_Physics_I_-Mechanics_Sound_Oscillations_and_Waves(OpenStax)/06%3A_Applications_of_Newtons_Laws/6.07%3A_Drag_Force_and_Terminal_Speed) The net force on the object is the difference between the gravitational force mg and the drag force, leading to a net acceleration a = g - \frac{F_d}{m}, where m is the mass. As velocity increases, the drag force grows, reducing the net acceleration until it approaches zero at terminal velocity v_t, where mg = |F_d|. For quadratic drag, this yields v_t = \sqrt{\frac{2mg}{C_d \rho A}}./Book%3A_University_Physics_I_-Mechanics_Sound_Oscillations_and_Waves(OpenStax)/06%3A_Applications_of_Newtons_Laws/6.07%3A_Drag_Force_and_Terminal_Speed) For linear drag, v_t = \frac{mg}{b}.^[36] The object asymptotically approaches v_t, with the velocity as a function of time for quadratic drag derived from Newton's second law: v(t) = v_t \tanh\left(\frac{gt}{v_t}\right), assuming initial velocity zero.^[37] The position s(t) can be obtained by integrating the velocity equation, resulting in s(t) = \frac{v_t^2}{g} \ln\left(\cosh\left(\frac{gt}{v_t}\right)\right).^[37] This hyperbolic form reflects the exponential approach to terminal velocity, contrasting with the linear v = gt and quadratic s = \frac{1}{2} gt^2 in the absence of drag. A notable demonstration of air resistance's effect occurred during the Apollo 15 mission in 1971, when astronaut David Scott dropped a feather and a hammer in the vacuum of the Moon; both fell at the same rate, confirming that without air, objects of different masses and shapes accelerate equally under gravity.^[38] On Earth, air resistance causes discrepancies, such as a feather falling much slower than a hammer due to its high drag relative to mass. Practical applications highlight these principles, as in parachuting, where deploying a parachute increases A and thus reduces v_t to a safe value of approximately 50 m/s for a skydiver in a spread-eagled position before deployment, though the open parachute further lowers it to around 5-6 m/s for landing./Book%3A_University_Physics_I_-Mechanics_Sound_Oscillations_and_Waves(OpenStax)/06%3A_Applications_of_Newtons_Laws/6.07%3A_Drag_Force_and_Terminal_Speed) This controlled approach to terminal velocity enables safe descent by balancing drag against gravity.

Variable Gravitational Fields

In variable gravitational fields, the acceleration due to gravity varies with distance from the center of the attracting body, following Newton's law of universal gravitation. For a spherically symmetric mass M, the gravitational acceleration at distance r from the center is

g(r) = \frac{GM}{r^2},

where G is the gravitational constant. This inverse-square dependence means that g(r) decreases as r increases, leading to deviations from the constant-g approximation used in uniform field analyses when distances are comparable to or exceed the radius of the central body./Book%3A_University_Physics_I_-Mechanics_Sound_Oscillations_and_Waves(OpenStax)/13%3A_Gravitation/13.03%3A_Newtons_Universal_Law_of_Gravitation) The uniform field approximation, treating g as constant, is accurate only for heights h \ll R, where R is the radius of the central body (e.g., Earth's mean radius R_\Earth \approx 6371 km). The relative variation in g over height h is approximately $2h/R; for instance, at h = 10 km, g decreases by about 0.3% compared to the surface value. At altitudes where h \gg R_\Earth, such as in space, this variation becomes substantial, requiring the full inverse-square form for accurate modeling of free fall.^[39] For purely radial free fall of a test particle (negligible mass) starting from rest at initial distance r_0 > R from the center, the equation of motion is

\frac{d^2 r}{dt^2} = -\frac{GM}{r^2}.

Using conservation of mechanical energy, the radial velocity during the fall is

v(r) = \frac{dr}{dt} = -\sqrt{2GM\left( \frac{1}{r} - \frac{1}{r_0} \right)},

with the negative sign indicating inward motion. The time t to fall from r_0 to some inner radius r < r_0 is found by integrating dt = dr / v(r), yielding a closed-form expression involving inverse trigonometric functions. This radial trajectory represents the zero-angular-momentum limit of the Kepler problem, equivalent to a degenerate elliptical orbit with eccentricity e = 1 and semi-major axis a = r_0 / 2; the total time to fall from r_0 to the center (r = 0) is half the orbital period of this ellipse,

t = \frac{\pi}{2} \sqrt{\frac{r_0^3}{2GM}}.

In the context of free fall toward Earth from space, where the initial height h = r_0 - R_\Earth \gg R_\Earth (e.g., from beyond low Earth orbit), the fall time to the surface exceeds the uniform-field prediction t \approx \sqrt{2h/g} because the weaker gravity at large r slows the initial acceleration. For example, falling from geostationary altitude (h \approx 35786 km) takes on the order of hours, computed via the integral or numerical solution of the equation of motion. Orbital parameters emerge as a limit when a small initial tangential velocity is added, transitioning radial infall to elliptical paths with period T = 2\pi \sqrt{a^3 / GM}, where a is the semi-major axis./13%3A_Gravitation/13.03%3A_Newtons_Universal_Law_of_Gravitation) A key quantity in variable fields is the escape velocity, the initial speed at radius r required to reach infinity with zero final kinetic energy, given by

v_\esc(r) = \sqrt{\frac{2GM}{r}}.

Objects dropped from rest with v < v_\esc(r_0) will fall inward, while those exceeding it escape. This underscores the role of variable gravity in determining bound versus unbound trajectories over astronomical scales./Book%3A_University_Physics_I_-Mechanics_Sound_Oscillations_and_Waves(OpenStax)/13%3A_Gravitation/13.06%3A_Escape_Velocity)

Advanced Perspectives

Orbital and Apparent Free Fall

In orbital mechanics, a circular orbit represents a state of continuous free fall where the gravitational attraction between two bodies provides the necessary centripetal force to maintain a curved trajectory. For a satellite orbiting a central body of mass M at a radial distance r, the orbital velocity v balances this force, given by v = \sqrt{\frac{GM}{r}}, where G is the gravitational constant./Book%3A_University_Physics_I_-Mechanics_Sound_Oscillations_and_Waves(OpenStax)/13%3A_Gravitation/13.05%3A_Satellite_Orbits_and_Energy) The orbital period T for such motion follows Kepler's third law in Newtonian form as T = 2\pi \sqrt{\frac{r^3}{GM}}, ensuring the satellite perpetually "falls" toward the central body while moving tangentially at sufficient speed to avoid collision./Book%3A_University_Physics_I_-Mechanics_Sound_Oscillations_and_Waves(OpenStax)/13%3A_Gravitation/13.05%3A_Satellite_Orbits_and_Energy) This differs from true radial free fall, which follows a straight-line path directly toward the center under gravity alone; orbits instead constitute perpetual tangential free fall, curving the path indefinitely.^[40] Astronauts aboard the International Space Station (ISS) experience apparent free fall as the station orbits Earth at approximately 7.66 km/s, completing a circuit every 93 minutes while "falling" continuously around the planet.^[41] This high tangential velocity, combined with Earth's gravitational pull, results in weightlessness, as both the station and its occupants accelerate equally toward Earth's center without relative motion that would produce a sensation of weight.^[40] In geostationary orbits, satellites maintain a fixed position relative to Earth's surface at an altitude of 35,786 km, where the orbital period matches Earth's rotation (24 hours), yet they too are in free fall, appearing stationary due to synchronized motion.^[42] The apparent weightlessness in such orbits induces microgravity effects on the human body, including upward fluid shifts that redistribute blood and other fluids toward the head, potentially leading to facial puffiness and vision alterations.^[43] These physiological changes highlight how orbital free fall simulates a zero-gravity environment, despite the persistent gravitational field, emphasizing the role of continuous acceleration in producing weightlessness.^[43]

Free Fall in General Relativity

In general relativity, the concept of free fall is fundamentally reinterpreted through the equivalence principle, which posits that the local effects of gravity are indistinguishable from those experienced in an accelerated reference frame. According to this principle, an observer in free fall perceives no gravitational force acting upon them, as their motion aligns with inertial paths in the local spacetime frame, effectively rendering gravity "absent" in their immediate vicinity. This insight, central to Einstein's formulation, implies that free fall represents the natural, unforced trajectory of objects, where all bodies regardless of composition accelerate identically under gravity alone.^[44] Free-falling objects thus follow geodesics, which are the "straightest" possible paths in the curved geometry of spacetime induced by mass and energy. These geodesics generalize the idea of straight lines from flat Euclidean space to the manifold of general relativity, ensuring that motion under gravity alone requires no external forces. In the context of a spherically symmetric, non-rotating mass, such as a black hole, the Schwarzschild metric describes the relevant spacetime curvature, where radial free fall traces a geodesic toward the central singularity. Along this path, the infalling observer experiences continuous inertial motion until reaching extreme curvatures.^[45]^[46] In the weak-field limit of general relativity, applicable to everyday gravitational scenarios like Earth's surface, the acceleration due to gravity approximates the Newtonian form:

g \approx \frac{GM}{r^2},

where G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the central body, and r is the radial distance, bridging classical and relativistic descriptions without significant deviation. However, free fall also involves gravitational time dilation, where the proper time \tau experienced by the falling observer relates to the coordinate time t of a distant stationary observer via the metric factor, slowing the infalling clock as it descends deeper into the potential well. This effect becomes pronounced near strong fields, altering the perceived duration of the fall.^[47] For a free-falling observer, light signals emitted upward exhibit gravitational redshift when received by a stationary observer, as the photon's frequency shifts due to the varying gravitational potential along its path, consistent with the equivalence principle's prediction of Doppler-like effects in accelerated frames. In extreme cases, such as radial infall toward a black hole, this geodesic motion culminates at the event horizon, beyond which the free-falling trajectory irrevocably enters the interior, marking the boundary where causal communication with external spacetime ceases for the infaller, though the crossing itself is unremarkable locally.^[48]^[49]

Practical Examples and Applications

Terrestrial Observations

On Earth, free fall is readily observable in everyday scenarios, such as dropping a coin and a piece of paper from the same height. The coin accelerates downward at approximately 9.8 m/s² due to gravity alone, reaching the ground quickly, while the paper flutters slowly because air resistance exerts a greater upward force relative to its mass and surface area.^[50] Simple measurements of free fall can be conducted by timing the descent of dropped objects using a stopwatch, allowing estimation of the local gravitational acceleration g. For instance, releasing a small ball from a known height and recording the fall time t enables calculation of g via the equation g = \frac{2h}{t^2}, where h is the height; such experiments typically yield values around 9.8 m/s² with basic equipment.^[51] The value of g varies slightly with latitude due to Earth's oblate shape and rotation: it is about 9.780 m/s² at the equator and 9.832 m/s² at the poles.^[52] Demonstrations in controlled environments highlight ideal free fall without air resistance. In a vacuum tube, a feather and a hammer dropped simultaneously hit the ground at the same time, as both accelerate at g unimpeded by atmosphere; a notable example is the 2014 BBC demonstration in NASA's largest vacuum chamber, where a bowling ball and feathers fell together after air was evacuated. Skydiving provides a real-world approximation until terminal velocity is reached, where air resistance balances gravity; a typical skydiver in a spread-eagle position attains about 53 m/s after roughly 12 seconds of free fall before the parachute deploys.^[53] Bungee jumping illustrates phases of free fall in a recreational context. During the initial descent, the jumper experiences pure free fall for 4-6 seconds until the elastic cord becomes taut, accelerating at g while converting gravitational potential energy to kinetic energy.^[54] Air resistance plays a minor role in these early moments but becomes more significant as speed increases, similar to effects described in uniform field analyses.^[54]

Astrophysical Contexts

In astrophysical environments, free fall governs the dynamics of gravitational collapse in dense gas clouds leading to star formation. During the protostellar phase, a molecular cloud fragment undergoes rapid collapse under its self-gravity, with the characteristic timescale known as the free-fall time, approximated by the formula

\tau \approx \sqrt{\frac{3\pi}{32 G \rho}},

where G is the gravitational constant and \rho is the mean density of the cloud.^[55] For typical protostellar densities around $10^{-18} g/cm³, this timescale is roughly 10⁵ years, marking the duration over which the cloud contracts to form a hydrostatic protostar before pressure support halts the free fall.^[56] Black hole accretion provides another key arena for free fall, where infalling matter from a companion star or interstellar medium forms a disk and spirals inward. Outside the innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO), located at 3 times the Schwarzschild radius R_s = 2GM/c^2 for a non-spinning black hole, gas follows near-Keplerian orbits; however, once crossing the ISCO, angular momentum conservation forces particles into plunging free-fall trajectories toward the event horizon.^[57] This transition releases significant gravitational energy, powering phenomena like quasars and X-ray binaries through viscous dissipation in the disk.^[57] Specific astrophysical events highlight free fall's role in extreme dynamics, such as the binary neutron star merger detected as GW170817 in 2017. The two neutron stars, each about 1.4 solar masses, inspiraled in mutual free fall under general relativistic gravity, accelerating to merger in the final seconds and producing gravitational waves, a short gamma-ray burst, and a kilonova from ejected r-process material. Similarly, planetary formation in protoplanetary disks involves gravitational collapse of pebble-rich clumps, where free fall drives the fragmentation and coalescence into planetesimals over dynamical timescales of order 100–1000 years.^[58] For context, even our Sun exemplifies this scale: the free-fall time from its surface to the center, assuming uniform density, is approximately 30 minutes.^[55]

Engineering and Technology Uses

Drop towers serve as key facilities for simulating short-duration microgravity environments on Earth, enabling engineers and scientists to test technologies and conduct experiments under free-fall conditions. NASA's Zero Gravity Research Facility at Glenn Research Center, for instance, utilizes a 132-meter (432-foot) vacuum chamber to achieve 5.18 seconds of microgravity by dropping experimental payloads in near-free fall, with residual accelerations below 0.00001 g, allowing studies in fluid dynamics, combustion, and materials science without the interference of atmospheric drag.^[59] Similarly, the facility's 2.2-Second Drop Tower provides 2.2 seconds of microgravity over a 24-meter (79-foot) drop, supporting rapid prototyping for space hardware like satellite components.^[60] Parachute design relies on free-fall principles to engineer safe descent rates by balancing gravitational acceleration with aerodynamic drag, ensuring terminal velocities remain within human tolerances. Engineers calculate the drag coefficient, typically around 1.75 for standard parachutes, to determine the canopy size and shape that produces a terminal velocity of approximately 5-6 m/s (11-13 mph) for safe landings, as derived from the equation where drag force equals weight at equilibrium: F_d = \frac{1}{2} C_d \rho A v^2 = mg, with C_d optimized through wind tunnel testing and computational models./Book%3A_University_Physics_I_-Mechanics_Sound_Oscillations_and_Waves(OpenStax)/06%3A_Applications_of_Newton%27s_Laws/6.07%3A_Drag_Force_and_Terminal_Speed)^[61] This approach has been critical in applications like spacecraft reentry systems and military personnel drops, where precise drag tuning prevents excessive speeds during free fall.^[62] Aircraft-based parabolic flights provide longer microgravity intervals for technology validation and biological research, mimicking free-fall trajectories to simulate weightlessness. NASA's KC-135, nicknamed the "Vomit Comet," flies parabolic arcs to generate about 25 seconds of microgravity per maneuver, with missions typically including 15-30 parabolas, enabling experiments such as protein crystal growth for pharmaceutical development and fluid behavior studies for life support systems.^[63] These flights have supported over 20,000 parabolas since the 1960s, facilitating advancements in areas like combustion efficiency for rocket engines and human physiology adaptations.^[64] Free-fall principles underpin inertial navigation systems (INS), which use accelerometers to measure specific force in non-gravitational frames, compensating for the zero output observed during true free fall. In INS, accelerometers detect motion relative to an inertial frame by integrating accelerations, but in free fall—such as orbital conditions—they register zero due to the equivalence of gravitational and inertial mass, requiring gravity models to correct for Earth's field during integration for position and velocity.^[65] This calibration ensures accurate guidance in aircraft, submarines, and missiles, where free-fall equivalence helps isolate proper accelerations from gravitational effects.^[66] Bungee cord design incorporates free-fall dynamics to limit deceleration forces to safe multiples of gravitational acceleration (g), preventing injury during the rebound phase. Cords are engineered using Hooke's law, where the spring constant k is selected so that the maximum stretch yields peak accelerations below 4-5 g, calculated from energy conservation: the jumper's gravitational potential energy mgh converts to elastic potential \frac{1}{2} k x^2, with safety margins ensuring the cord's strain does not exceed material limits.^[67] This tuning, validated through dynamic simulations, has standardized commercial bungee operations to minimize risks like whiplash or equipment failure.^[68]

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WHAT IS MICROGRAVITY? Microgravity is the term used to refer to an environment in free-fall. The term is a bit of a misnomer because it doesn't refer to a low ...
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[PDF] microgravity and its bearing with space flight - CUNY Academic Works
It is this constant free fall that creates the illusion of a gravity-less environment on the ISS. Microgravity's unusual effects on the human body force the ...
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[PDF] Aristotle's Physics: a Physicist's Look - PhilSci-Archive
(f) Heavier objects fall faster: their natural motion downwards happens faster [Ph 215a25, He 311a19-21];. (g) the same object falls faster in a less dense ...Missing: primary | Show results with:primary
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Aristotle's Physics
ARISTOTLE: Aristotle held that the universe was divided into two parts, the terrestrial region and the celestial region. In the realm of Earth, all bodies ...Missing: cosmology | Show results with:cosmology
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Ancient Greek Astronomy and Cosmology | Modeling the Cosmos
For Aristotle the terrestrial is a place of birth and death, based in these elements. The heavens are a separate realm governed by their own rules.
[25]
Aristotelianism and the Longevity of the Medieval World View
In truth, the longevity of the Aristotelian world view is not exactly a medieval problem. Since it continued as the dominant conception of the cosmos well ...
[26]
Laws of Motion in Medieval Physics - jstor
This second fundamental contribution to the development of modern mechanics was largely made by Jean Buridan, who taught on the Parisian. Faculty of Arts from ...
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[PDF] John Buridan's 14th century concept of momentum - arXiv
In the 14th century the French thinker John Buridan developed a theory of motion that bears a strong resemblance to Newtonian momentum.
[28]
[PDF] Aristotelian Physics - Joachim Schummer
One of Aristotle's most persistent contributions to science, and indeed the core of his physics, was his theory of the elements. That theory was ultimately ...
[29]
The legend of the leaning tower - Physics World
Feb 4, 2003 · We owe many of the Galilean legends to Viviani's warm biography of the Italian scholar. One is the story of how Galileo climbed the Leaning ...
[30]
Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences | Online Library of Liberty
A treatise on physics in the form of a dialogue. It deals with how solid bodies resist fracturing, the behavior of bodies in motion, the nature of acceleration, ...
[31]
[PDF] Reconstruction of Galileo Galilei's experiment: the inclined plane
The Two New Sciences is a dialogue, divided into four days, in which three characters defend different points of view, but all converge to the author's ideas at ...
[32]
[PDF] GALILEO VS. ARISTOTLE ON FREE FALLING BODIES
3 The quote continues: "provided they are of the same specific gravity" where Galileo ... Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences. New York: Dover. 1954 ...
[33]
Galileo's Acceleration Experiment
Galileo set out his ideas about falling bodies, and about projectiles in general, in a book called “Two New Sciences”. The two were the science of motion, which ...
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3.5 Free Fall - University Physics Volume 1 - OpenStax
Sep 19, 2016 · Free fall, which describes the motion of an object falling in a gravitational field, such as near the surface of Earth or other celestial objects of planetary ...
[35]
Motion with linear drag - HyperPhysics
A falling object will to approach a terminal velocity when the net force approaches zero. For motion with initial velocity v0, the expression for velocity ...
[36]
Freefall Velocity with Quadratic Drag - HyperPhysics
Freefall Velocity with Quadratic Drag. A freely falling object will be presumed to experience an air resistance force proportional to the square of its speed.Missing: linear | Show results with:linear
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The Apollo 15 Hammer-Feather Drop - NASA Science
Jul 20, 2015 · A live demonstration for the television cameras. He held out a geologic hammer and a feather and dropped them at the same time.
[38]
[PDF] Gravity - CalTech GPS
the inverse-square law and assuming that the earth is a perfect sphere, we find that gravity at elevation his g(h) = 90. R. R+h. 2. (5.36) where R is the radius ...
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Chapter 3: Gravity & Mechanics - NASA Science
Jan 16, 2025 · If you ride along with an orbiting spacecraft, you feel as if you are falling, as in fact you are. The condition is properly called free fall.
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ESA - ISS: International Space Station
On orbit. Orbital altitude, 370-460 km. Orbital inclination, 51.6°. Orbital velocity, 7.6-7.7 km/s (around 27 500 km/h). Launch vehicles. European Ariane-5.
[41]
ESA - Types of orbits - European Space Agency
To keep pace with Earth's spin, they travel at about 3 km per second at an altitude of 35 786 km, much farther than most satellites.Geostationary orbit (GEO) · Low Earth orbit (LEO) · Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
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The Human Body in Space - NASA
Feb 2, 2021 · Moreover, the fluids in the body shift upward to the head in microgravity, which may put pressure on the eyes and cause vision problems.
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10.1: Einstein's Equivalence Principle - Physics LibreTexts
Aug 21, 2021 · The weak equivalence principle has to do with motions of objects under the influence of gravity alone, whereas the strong equivalence principle includes the ...
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1 Geodesics in Spacetime‣ General Relativity by David Tong
In particular, there is a choice of inertial frame (i.e. free-fall) in which the effect of the gravitational field vanishes. But what if the gravitational ...
[45]
7. The Schwarzschild Solution and Black Holes
THE SCHWARZSCHILD SOLUTION AND BLACK HOLES. We now move from the domain of the weak-field limit to solutions of the full nonlinear Einstein's equations.
[46]
6. Weak Fields and Gravitational Radiation
In this section we will consider a less restrictive situation, in which the field is still weak but it can vary with time, and there are no restrictions on the ...
[47]
Gravitational redshift in a local freely falling frame: A proposed new ...
Feb 15, 1996 · We consider the gravitational redshift effect measured by an observer in a local freely falling frame (LFFF) in the gravitational field of a ...
[48]
Falling in to a black hole - The Theoretical Minimum |
He begins with the Schwarzschild metric and then applies coordinate transformations to demonstrate that spacetime is nearly flat in the vicinity of the event ...<|separator|>
[49]
Falling Feather: Physics & Mechanics Science Activity | Exploratorium
Put the coin and the feather (or piece of paper) in the tube. Push the copper tube through the one-hole stopper and firmly insert the stopper into the open ...
[50]
Measuring g via Free Fall - NUSTEM
The film shows four different methods of measuring g using a falling object: Drop a ball and time its fall with a stopwatch. Drop a 'g-ball', which times ...
[51]
[PDF] Value of "g" Acceleration due to gravity at different locations
All other things being equal, an increase in altitude from sea level to the top of Mount Everest (8,850 metres) causes a weight decrease of about 0.28%.
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Speed of a Skydiver (Terminal Velocity) - The Physics Factbook
The terminal velocity for a skydiver was found to be in a range from 53 m/s to 76 m/s. Four out of five sources stated a value between 53 m/s and 56 m/s.
[53]
Understanding the physics of bungee jumping - IOPscience
In instructional material this phase is often considered a free fall, but when the mass of the bungee rope is taken into account, the bungee jumper reaches ...
[54]
Freefall Time and Star Formation Time - HyperPhysics Concepts
Freefall Time and Star Formation Time. One of the classic problems ... This follows from Gauss's law for the central, inverse square law force of gravity.
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The First Stars - Simon C. O. Glover
The timescale on which the gas cloud will undergo gravitational collapse and be accreted by the protostar is simply the free-fall collapse time, tff = (3 pi ...
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Foundations of Black Hole Accretion Disk Theory - PMC
Destination 5: Marginally stable orbit (also called the “innermost stable circular orbit” or ISCO). This is the smallest circle (r = rms) along which free ...Missing: R_s | Show results with:R_s
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High-resolution Study of Planetesimal Formation by Gravitational ...
Feb 1, 2023 · We study cloud collapse effectively at the resolution of the forming planetesimals, allowing us to derive an initial mass function for planetesimals.Missing: free | Show results with:free
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Zero Gravity Research Facility - NASA
Experimental Payload Height, up to 66 in. (1.6 m) tall. Capabilities. Operational Parameters. Microgravity duration: 5.18 seconds. Free fall distance: 432 feet ...
[59]
2.2 Second Drop Tower - NASA
Mar 28, 2025 · Microgravity Duration, 2.2 seconds ; Free Fall Distance, 79 feet, 1 inch (24 m) ; Gravitational Acceleration, 0.001 g ; Mean Deceleration, 15 g.
[60]
Number of Parachutes and Terminal Velocity | Science Project
Vt is the terminal velocity in meters per second (m/s); m is the object's mass in kilograms (kg); g is the acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 meters per second ...
[61]
[PDF] Drag Coefficient of a Model Rocket Recovery Parachute
Oct 7, 2025 · Since the purpose of this report is to determine a drag coeffi- cient from terminal velocity under parachute, it is helpful to align flight ...
[62]
Parabolic Flight - NASA
Duration: The reduced-gravity phase of each parabola lasts for around 20 seconds, with typical flight missions including 15-30 parabolas. Description ...Missing: 135 Vomiting
[63]
[PDF] Microgravity - NASA Technical Reports Server
Perhaps the greatest advantage of orbiting spacecraft for microgravity research is the amount of time during which microgravity conditions can be achieved.
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[PDF] Basic Principles of Inertial Navigation - Aerostudents
That is, an accelerometer in free fall (or in orbit) has no detectable input. • The input axis of an inertial sensor defines which vector component it measures.
[65]
[PDF] Inertial Navigation Systems
• If the accelerometer is in “free fall,” then there is no force on the scale, such that the output = 0 (m/s2). Proof mass. Scale gravity. Inertial Navigation ...
[66]
Bungee jumping cord design using a simple model - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · A simple energy model of a bungee jump is used to generate strain guidelines and practical design equations for the sizing of an all-rubber ...Missing: tuned gravity
[67]
[PDF] Understanding the physics of bungee jumping
when the bungee jumper falls, but the bungee rope is still slack. In instructional material this phase is often considered a free fall, but when the mass of ...