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Frontiers Media

Frontiers Media SA is a Swiss-based open-access academic publisher founded in 2007 by Henry and Kamila Markram and headquartered in , with additional offices in the , , and other locations. The company operates a platform hosting over 220 community-led journals across scientific, medical, and social disciplines, emphasizing rapid interactive augmented by to accelerate dissemination under a fully open-access model funded primarily through processing charges. Frontiers has expanded significantly, reporting over 3 million researchers involved as authors, editors, or reviewers, with its publications garnering billions of views and downloads alongside high citation volumes that position it among the most-cited publishers globally. Despite these metrics, the publisher has faced substantial controversies, including repeated large-scale retractions—such as 122 articles in 2025 linked to organized peer-review manipulation networks—and historical critiques regarding publication rigor amid high-volume output incentivized by fees, prompting debates over in scaled open-access systems.

History

Founding and Initial Focus

Frontiers Media was founded in 2007 by neuroscientists and Kamila Markram at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL) in , . The couple, who had collaborated on research, established the company to address perceived inefficiencies in traditional , leveraging their expertise to create a technology-driven platform. Initially headquartered in , the venture aimed to prioritize researchers' needs over legacy publishing models. The initial focus centered on neuroscience, reflecting the founders' academic backgrounds. The first journal, Frontiers in Neuroscience, opened for submissions in beta version in 2007 and formally launched in 2008, marking the start of Frontiers' journal portfolio. This publication emphasized open-access dissemination of peer-reviewed research in areas such as neural circuits, , and , with an interactive review process designed to enhance and between authors and reviewers. Early efforts targeted accelerating the publication timeline while maintaining scientific rigor, using digital tools to streamline workflows. From inception, Frontiers pursued a mission to transition scientific toward as the default, making research freely available to advance global knowledge sharing. The model incorporated community-driven , where reviewers' comments became part of the published record, aiming for greater accountability and efficiency compared to opaque traditional systems. This approach was rooted in the founders' vision of technology-enabled reform, though it later drew scrutiny for potential scalability issues in . By , the scope began expanding beyond , but the foundational emphasis remained on neuroscience-driven in publishing practices.

Expansion and Growth Phase

Following its establishment in 2007 with a single journal focused on , Frontiers Media experienced accelerated expansion beginning around 2012, driven by technological efficiencies in its interactive peer-review platform and strategic investments. In November 2012, the publisher launched 13 new open-access journals across emerging fields such as , , and plant science, extending beyond its neuroscience origins to leverage its model for handling high submission volumes. By the end of that year, Frontiers had published 5,000 articles cumulatively and introduced two additional journals, marking the onset of broader disciplinary coverage. A pivotal boost came in 2013 with investment from the Holtzbrinck Publishing Group, a established academic publisher, which provided capital to scale editorial operations, hire staff, and develop infrastructure without diluting founder control. This funding enabled entry into physical sciences, engineering, and medical fields by the mid-2010s, transforming Frontiers from a niche neuroscience outlet into a multi-disciplinary platform spanning over a dozen research areas. Annual article output grew exponentially thereafter; for instance, the publisher committed significant resources to open-access expansion by 2015, correlating with increased institutional partnerships and submission rates fueled by its rapid review process. By 2020, Frontiers had published 200,000 across an expanding journal portfolio, launching 27 new titles that year alone, while views and downloads surpassed 1 billion. This phase solidified its position as one of the largest open-access publishers, with journal numbers reaching 139 by 2021 amid sustained launches of 20-30 titles annually, though growth relied heavily on processing charges amid debates over review rigor in high-volume environments.

Recent Developments and Adaptations

In response to ongoing challenges with integrity, Frontiers Media's Research Integrity Auditing team identified and addressed a network involving undisclosed conflicts among authors and editors in July 2025, leading to the retraction of over 100 articles across multiple journals. This followed a similar incident in September 2023, where 38 papers were retracted due to unethical practices such as buying or selling s, prompting enhanced auditing protocols and stricter disclosure requirements for reviewers. To adapt to criticisms of publication quality and accelerate scientific dissemination, Frontiers launched an AI-powered data-sharing service in October 2025, aimed at transforming how supplementary research data is preserved and accessed, addressing the issue that up to 90% of scientific data is reportedly lost post-. This initiative integrates to automate data validation and , building on the publisher's interactive model to reduce silos in ecosystems. Frontiers has deepened partnerships with global organizations, including a June 2025 collaboration with the to co-publish the Top 10 Emerging Technologies report, emphasizing technologies for climate and planetary health solutions. These efforts reflect adaptations toward interdisciplinary impact, with 2023 metrics showing 687 million article views and downloads worldwide, signaling sustained growth amid scrutiny over allegations.

Organizational and Operational Framework

Leadership and Governance

Frontiers Media was co-founded in 2007 by neuroscientists , PhD, and Kamila Markram, PhD, with the aim of accelerating scientific discovery through open-access publishing. Kamila Markram has served as CEO since inception, overseeing the company's strategic direction and operational expansion from its base in , . , a professor at the (EPFL) known for leading the and , maintains involvement as co-founder and board chairperson. The board of directors holds responsibility for financial oversight and corporate governance as a Swiss société anonyme (S.A.). In addition to the Markrams, the board includes Steve Koltes, a private investor and founder of CVC Capital Partners with expertise in private equity, and Stefan von Holtzbrinck, CEO of Holtzbrinck Publishing Group, which co-owns Springer Nature and focuses on media and scientific investments. This composition reflects a blend of scientific, entrepreneurial, and investment perspectives guiding long-term policy and risk management. Day-to-day leadership is managed by an executive team reporting to the CEO. Key members include Julian Oei as President and , responsible for business strategy since joining in 2023; Giovanni Lippi as , handling financial operations since 2009; Frederick Fenter, , as Chief Executive Editor, overseeing the journal portfolio; Chantelle Rijs as Chief Marketing and Communications Officer; and Mehmet Toral as Chief Corporate Officer and , managing legal and compliance matters. The structure emphasizes operational efficiency in a for-profit model, with the board ensuring alignment with governance standards under Swiss law.

Business Model Essentials

Frontiers Media operates a gold open access model, making all peer-reviewed articles immediately and permanently available online free of charge under a Attribution (CC-BY) , without reliance on subscription fees or paywalls. is generated exclusively through article processing charges (APCs), which authors, their institutions, or funding bodies pay upon manuscript acceptance to cover the full costs of publication, including editorial management, facilitation, copyediting, formatting, hosting, archiving, indexing, and promotional dissemination. APCs are not charged for submissions or rejections, ensuring no upfront financial risk to authors. APCs vary by journal discipline, article type (e.g., original , reviews), length, and journal maturity, with no uniform rate across the portfolio; specific amounts are detailed per journal, historically averaging $1,685 in and structured into tiers from free (for select community-driven initiatives) to a maximum of $2,950. These charges fund a professional operation with over 370 staff across six countries, technological platforms for interactive and AI-assisted tools (e.g., AIRA for ), and scalability to publish around 19,000 articles annually as of . As a for-profit (Frontiers Media SA), the company reinvests APC proceeds into innovation, growth, and infrastructure, while offering institutional partnerships—such as flat-fee agreements with universities like the and —to streamline APC coverage for affiliated researchers and reduce administrative burdens. Limited waivers or partial supports are available for authors from low- or middle-income countries or those facing financial hardship, with over 2,500 such interventions provided in 2017, totaling approximately $5 million in forgone revenue. This author-pays framework supports high-volume, technology-driven publishing but has drawn scrutiny for potentially incentivizing acceptance rates to maximize income, though Frontiers maintains that rigorous, community-led upholds quality standards.

Peer Review and Editorial Processes

Frontiers Media employs an interactive peer review model designed to facilitate among authors, reviewers, and editors through an online platform. The process begins with pre-review integrity checks, including AI-assisted screening (via the AIRA tool) for , ethical compliance, and other issues across over 40 parameters, rejecting approximately 33% of submissions at this initial validation stage. Manuscripts that pass proceed to independent reviews by at least two subject-matter experts, who evaluate scientific validity, rigor, and methodology using a standardized VALID framework (assessing valid research questions, appropriate methods, language clarity, guideline adherence, and ). In the subsequent interactive review phase, authors, reviewers, and handling editors (often or Editors) engage in real-time discussions via a dedicated to address concerns, revise content, and refine the collaboratively. This phase emphasizes constructive over outright rejection, with reviewers providing detailed reports on strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations; handling editors oversee the process and endorse or reject based on reviewer validations, while Chief Editors make final decisions. Reviewers are selected for expertise and absence of conflicts, with self-assignment tools aiding matches, and their names—along with those of editors—are disclosed on published articles to promote and . The system operates under a single-anonymized model initially, transitioning to open upon , and rejects papers for insufficient quality, ethical violations, or methodological flaws at any stage without predetermined quotas. Editorial processes involve layered oversight: handling editors manage reviewer interactions and initial endorsements, Chief Editors arbitrate disputes or final approvals, and a dedicated research integrity team enforces standards throughout. No artificial acceptance thresholds are imposed, prioritizing validity over novelty or impact; overall rejection rates averaged 40% in 2021 (ranging up to 79% in select journals), with full publication timelines averaging under 90 days from submission to acceptance. Critics have questioned the rigor of this model, arguing that the interactive forum and emphasis on collaboration can bias toward revisions and acceptance rather than rejection, potentially undermining independence—evidenced by instances where undisclosed reviewer-author conflicts compromised reviews, leading to retractions. Some academics contend the process facilitates lower standards compared to traditional single-blind systems, contributing to perceptions of lax gatekeeping despite official safeguards. Frontiers maintains that these features enhance efficiency and quality without compromising standards, supported by rejection metrics and post-publication metrics.

Publications and Metrics

Journal Portfolio

Frontiers Media publishes 228 peer-reviewed, open-access journals, organized as community-led platforms that emphasize collaborative editorial structures. These journals span more than 1,700 academic subfields, with primary focus on , , and , including disciplines such as , , , and , alongside expansions into areas like aging, agronomy, and animal science. Each journal typically comprises 4 to 13 specialized sections, enabling granular coverage of research topics; for instance, Frontiers in Immunology includes sections on viral immunology, tumor immunology, and mucosal immunity. The portfolio's growth reflects strategic additions, reaching 222 journals by 2024, with 31 new launches in 2023 alone, such as Frontiers in Energy Efficiency and Frontiers in Environmental Health. As of the 2025 (based on 2024 data), 121 journals hold Journal Impact Factors, ranging from 1.9 in Frontiers in Acoustics to higher values in established titles like Frontiers in (4.8), while 133 possess CiteScores. All journals operate under a gold open-access model, with articles immediately accessible upon publication, supported by article processing charges. Key journals include Frontiers in Neuroscience (launched 2007), which pioneered the publisher's interactive review process and has amassed over 57 million article views, and Frontiers in Microbiology, noted for high citation rates in its field. The portfolio also incorporates society-partnered titles, such as Experimental Biology and Medicine (with the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine) and British Journal of Biomedical Science (with the Institute of Biomedical Science), integrating established editorial boards. This structure prioritizes field-specific metrics, with article views exceeding 950 million globally in 2024 across the portfolio.

Indexing and Abstracting

Frontiers Media journals are indexed in several prominent academic databases, facilitating discoverability and citation tracking for their open-access publications. As of the 2024 (released in 2025), 121 Frontiers journals are covered in , receiving Journal Impact Factors based on citations to articles published in 2022–2023. Similarly, 133 journals are indexed in , with metrics derived from citations in 2021–2024 across articles, reviews, and other document types. These inclusions reflect selective evaluation by the database providers, though coverage varies by journal scope and is not universal across Frontiers' portfolio of over 200 titles. Biomedical, life sciences, and medicine-focused journals, such as Frontiers in Immunology and Frontiers in Medicine, are additionally indexed in / and , enabling archival and searchability in health-related literature. For instance, articles in these journals receive DOIs and are deposited in upon acceptance, supporting compliance with funder mandates for public access. Social sciences and interdisciplinary titles, like Frontiers in Psychology, often appear in , , and the (DOAJ), the latter cataloging over 100 Frontiers journals as compliant with open-access standards. Abstracting services integrated with these indexes extract metadata, including abstracts, keywords, and author details, from Frontiers articles to populate search results and bibliometric tools. covers relevant chemistry and journals, such as Frontiers in Materials, alongside and . Upon publication, Frontiers proactively submits content for indexing to ensure timely inclusion, though final decisions rest with the services' curators, potentially excluding newer or niche journals initially. This process underscores the publisher's emphasis on integration into established scholarly infrastructure, despite occasional debates over the rigor of such evaluations for high-volume open-access outlets.

Impact and Performance Indicators

Frontiers Media maintains a portfolio of 222 active open-access journals, of which 121 are indexed with Journal Impact Factors (JIF) in Clarivate's 2024 and 133 with in . The publisher has produced over 600,000 articles cumulatively, amassing more than 11 million citations and 4 billion views and downloads globally. In 2024 alone, it published 72,593 articles, which received 950 million views and downloads. Among the 20 largest publishers by publication volume, Frontiers ranked third in average citations per article in 2022, with an average of 5 citations for recent articles. This positions it competitively in citation metrics, though averages mask variability across journals; for instance, 90 journals saw JIF increases or new entries in JCR 2024, and 97 improved in . Fifteen Frontiers journals rank first in their respective JCR categories, such as in and . Journal-level indicators reflect disciplinary differences. Frontiers in Immunology holds a 2023 JIF of 4.6 and CiteScore of 9.7, with over 1.2 million citations accumulated. Frontiers in Psychology has a 2023 JIF of approximately 2.9 and CiteScore of 6.3, supported by 922,053 citations. Lower-tier journals, such as Frontiers in Medicine (JIF 3.0, CiteScore 6.0), demonstrate broader but less concentrated impact. These metrics, derived from Clarivate and Scopus data, underscore Frontiers' emphasis on high-volume dissemination, though critics note that rapid publication scales can dilute per-article citation rates compared to selective traditional publishers.

Evaluations and Impact

Achievements in Open Access and Dissemination

Frontiers Media, established in 2007, operates as a gold publisher, ensuring that all articles are immediately and permanently available online without subscription barriers, thereby facilitating unrestricted global access to peer-reviewed research across diverse scientific fields. This model aligns with the broader movement by eliminating paywalls at the point of publication, funded primarily through article processing charges, which supports the dissemination of knowledge without traditional journal subscription dependencies. The publisher's portfolio includes 222 community-led journals spanning approximately 1,700 academic disciplines, with over 250,000 articles published to date, contributing to widespread research availability. These outputs have achieved significant visibility, with articles collectively viewed and downloaded more than 4 billion times, underscoring effective digital dissemination through an interactive online platform. Citation metrics further reflect impact, as Frontiers articles have garnered 12 million citations, indicating substantial integration into subsequent scholarly work. Innovations in the publishing process enhance dissemination, such as collaborative peer review conducted via online forums that increase transparency and engagement, alongside AI-assisted tools for efficient manuscript handling. The platform engages a community of 3 million researchers as authors, editors, and reviewers, fostering rapid publication cycles—averaging 77 days from submission to acceptance—that accelerate knowledge sharing compared to conventional models. Specialized initiatives, including Research Topics for themed collections and platforms like Frontiers for Young Minds aimed at educational outreach, extend reach beyond academia to policymakers, educators, and the public. Indexing in major databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science amplifies discoverability, with 121 journals holding Journal Impact Factors and 133 possessing CiteScores, metrics that correlate with broader citation influence in open access contexts. Partnerships with institutions and organizations further promote dissemination, as evidenced by collaborations that integrate Frontiers content into global research ecosystems, prioritizing empirical reach over legacy prestige indicators.

Criticisms of Publishing Practices

Critics of Frontiers Media have questioned the rigor and integrity of its processes, arguing that the publisher's emphasis on high-volume output compromises scholarly standards. Instances of peer review manipulation have been documented, including a July 2025 case where Frontiers retracted 122 articles from five journals after uncovering a coordinated that submitted low-quality manuscripts and suggested unethical reviewers, highlighting vulnerabilities in the system's . This incident linked thousands of additional papers across other publishers to the same , raising broader concerns about undetected in open-access environments reliant on author-suggested reviewers. The publisher's interactive review model, which involves associate editors and public reviewer comments, has been faulted for inconsistent quality, with some fields reporting superficial assessments driven by production pressures. Reports from former editors indicate dismissals for upholding high rejection rates, suggesting internal incentives to prioritize acceptance over selectivity to sustain revenue from article processing charges (APCs), which exceed $2,000 per article and form the sole income stream. Such practices align with criticisms that Frontiers' rapid publication timelines—often under 100 days—facilitate higher acceptance rates, potentially at the expense of thorough vetting. Frontiers' reliance on single-blind peer review has also drawn scrutiny for enabling biases and inadequate scrutiny, as reviewers know authors' identities but not , differing from double-blind standards in many traditional journals. Aggressive solicitation emails and broad journal portfolios have fueled perceptions of commercialization over academic merit, with historical classifications as a "possible predatory publisher" by in 2015 citing spam-like recruitment and profit motives. These elements, combined with APC waivers and institutional deals that reduce financial barriers to submission, are argued to encourage volume over quality, though Frontiers maintains that its processes meet industry benchmarks and reject substandard work.

Debates on Predatory Status and Responses

In 2015, librarian Jeffrey Beall added Frontiers Media to his list of potential predatory publishers, arguing that its business practices—such as aggressive solicitation of manuscripts, high article processing charges (APCs) averaging $1,900–$3,000 per paper, and instances of editorial interference—exhibited hallmarks of prioritizing revenue over scholarly rigor. Beall specifically highlighted controversies, including the 2014 publication and retraction of a Frontiers in Psychology paper falsely linking the MMR vaccine to autism, which he claimed reflected lax oversight. This inclusion fueled broader debates, as Beall's subjective criteria drew criticism for conflating innovative open-access models with exploitation, though his list influenced institutional policies against such publishers. Frontiers Media rejected Beall's assessment as baseless and biased against , threatening legal complaints and emphasizing its interactive peer-review system, real editorial boards composed of academics, and absence of deceptive metrics like fabricated impact factors. The publisher maintained that its model, while profit-oriented, adhered to standards, with manuscripts undergoing associate editor-led reviews and rejection rates exceeding 50% in many journals. Similar responses followed other accusations, including threats of libel suits against outlets like the and Norwegian research council for labeling it predatory, though Frontiers often framed these as defenses of its reputation rather than suppression of critique. The debate persisted into the , with sites like Predatoryreports.org listing all Frontiers journals as predatory in March 2023, citing high acceptance volumes (over 100,000 articles annually by 2022) and perceived commodification of . Frontiers' Chief Executive Editor Fenter countered in a June 2023 , denouncing the site as unethical and anonymous, lacking mechanisms or with bodies like COPE, and relying on outdated or erroneous to malign legitimate publishers. Fenter highlighted empirical metrics, such as Frontiers ranking third in citations among major publishers per Clarivate , and pursued legal action against the site while aligning with COPE's April 2023 guidance to approach unverified "predatory" lists skeptically. Critics, including some academics, argue Frontiers operates in a gray zone— not fitting classic predatory traits like guaranteed acceptance or hijacked titles, but enabling lower barriers via rapid turnaround (median 77 days to ) and issues that incentivize , potentially diluting amid open-access pressures. Proponents counter that its indexing in , , and DOAJ, plus voluntary retractions, distinguish it from fraudsters, attributing skepticism to traditionalist resistance to disruptive models. In July 2025, Frontiers addressed integrity concerns by retracting 122 articles across five journals (primarily Frontiers in Psychology and Environmental Science) after detecting a coordinated network of ~35 authors manipulating peer reviews and citations, affecting papers mostly from 2022. The publisher shared findings via the Integrity Hub, linking the scheme to over 4,000 suspect papers elsewhere, framing the response as evidence-based vigilance rather than systemic predation. This action underscores ongoing institutional assessments, where Frontiers' scale amplifies risks but also enables proactive detection unavailable to smaller predators.

Key Controversies and Resolutions

Encounters with Predatory Lists

In October 2015, librarian included Media on his of "potential, possible, or probable" predatory open-access publishers, citing concerns over the publisher's business practices, including high article processing charges and rapid publication timelines. This addition sparked significant backlash within the academic community, with critics arguing that maintained rigorous and legitimate scholarly output, distinguishing it from unambiguously predatory operations characterized by minimal oversight or fabricated credentials. , which relied on subjective criteria such as complaints and solicitation emails, was discontinued in January 2017 amid legal pressures and debates over its methodology, leaving ' status unresolved in that context. Subsequent informal lists, such as those maintained by predatoryjournals.org, have classified all Frontiers journals as predatory, drawing on archived Beall-era concerns and allegations of prioritizing volume over quality in open-access dissemination. In June 2023, Frontiers' chief executive editor, Henry Markram, issued an open letter denouncing predatoryreports.org—a site mimicking Cabell's Predatory Reports—for lacking transparency, verifiable criteria, and credible authorship, positioning it as an unreliable resource that undermines legitimate open-access efforts rather than a substantive evaluation. Cabell's International, a commercial provider of predatory journal analytics, has itself critiqued predatoryreports.org as a fraudulent entity exploiting the predatory label for unclear motives, without including Frontiers in its own verified blacklist. These encounters highlight ongoing tensions in distinguishing predatory publishing from high-volume legitimate models, where lists vary in rigor: Beall's was influential but criticized for overreach, while newer sites often lack institutional backing or empirical validation beyond anecdotal flags. Frontiers has consistently rejected predatory characterizations, emphasizing its indexed journals, retraction policies, and contributions to open science, though skeptics point to metrics like elevated special issue outputs as enabling lower barriers than traditional publishers. No major institutional bodies, such as the Directory of Open Access Journals or Clarivate's Web of Science, have endorsed predatory status for Frontiers, underscoring the subjective nature of such designations absent standardized, data-driven benchmarks.

Notable Editorial and Retraction Cases

In April 2014, Frontiers in Psychology retracted the article "Recursive Fury: Conspiracist Ideation in the Blogosphere in Response to Research on Conspiracist Ideation," which analyzed blog responses to a study on climate change skepticism, following complaints from individuals profiled in the paper who alleged ethical violations and harassment concerns. The retraction prompted resignations from multiple editors, including the chief specialty editor, who protested that the decision undermined scientific independence and appeared influenced by external pressures rather than peer review flaws. Frontiers defended the retraction as necessary to protect research integrity but faced criticism for perceived capitulation to non-scientific objections, highlighting tensions in its interactive peer-review model where public comments can influence editorial outcomes. In May 2015, Frontiers terminated the appointments of several specialty chief editors and the field chief editor for Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine amid disputes over editorial control, with the publisher citing attempts by these editors to centralize decision-making and undermine its distributed peer-review system involving associate and review editors. This action was framed by Frontiers as a defense of editorial independence for lower-level editors but drew accusations of overriding academic autonomy, exacerbating concerns about centralized oversight in high-volume open-access publishing. The incident underscored ongoing debates about the balance between publisher efficiency and scholarly self-governance in megajournal operations. More recently, in September 2023, Frontiers retracted 38 articles across multiple journals after its research integrity unit identified links to an "authorship-for-sale" scheme, where authors purchased credits for unearned co-authorship, violating ethical standards on contribution . In July 2025, the publisher initiated retractions of 122 articles in five journals, including Frontiers in Psychology and Frontiers in Public Health, tied to a peer-review network involving undisclosed conflicts of interest and coordinated fake reviews, detected through editorial office tips and cross-publisher . These cases reflect proactive investigations but also expose vulnerabilities in scalable open-access systems to organized misconduct, particularly from regions with high submission volumes like . Frontiers' retraction policy emphasizes evidence of misconduct, errors, or ethical breaches, with notices published promptly upon verification.

Ongoing Regulatory and Institutional Assessments

In December 2024, Finland's Publication Forum, a national panel responsible for classifying journals to inform research funding allocations, downgraded 271 journals published by Frontiers Media, citing concerns over publication volume, processes, and overall scholarly quality. This decision reflects broader institutional scrutiny of high-output open-access publishers, where rapid expansion has prompted evaluations of sustainability and rigor in academic output assessment systems. Frontiers journals remain subject to annual re-evaluations for inclusion in major indexing databases, including () and (), which assess factors such as editorial standards, citation integrity, and adherence to international norms. As of 2025, a subset of Frontiers titles continues to be covered in these platforms, though selective inclusion underscores ongoing monitoring for compliance with evolving criteria like reduced self-citation rates and enhanced . The publisher holds membership in the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), requiring adherence to its core practices for managing conflicts of interest, retractions, and ethical breaches, with Frontiers designating representatives to contribute to COPE's development of guidelines. Institutional funders and universities periodically review partnerships with Frontiers through open-access agreements, evaluating cost-effectiveness and alignment with national policies on research dissemination, amid debates over whether high article processing charges justify indexed visibility.

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