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Functional endoscopic sinus surgery

Functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) is a minimally invasive surgical technique that utilizes rigid endoscopes inserted through the nostrils to enlarge the natural drainage pathways of the paranasal sinuses, restoring mucociliary clearance and treating inflammatory conditions such as chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) that are refractory to medical management.^[1]^[2] This mucosal-sparing approach avoids external incisions and focuses on preserving sinus physiology while removing obstructing tissue like polyps, bone fragments, or inflamed mucosa to improve ventilation, drainage, and access for topical therapies.^[3]^[1] The development of FESS traces back to early 20th-century attempts at nasal endoscopy, with Adolf Hirschmann credited for the first use of a modified cystoscope in 1901, though practical advancements came later with Harold Hopkins' rod-lens system in the 1960s, which improved visualization.^[4] In the 1970s, Austrian otolaryngologist Wolfgang Messerklinger pioneered functional endoscopic diagnostic techniques, emphasizing the ostiomeatal complex's role in sinus pathology and laying the groundwork for therapeutic applications.^[4] David Kennedy and others popularized FESS in the United States during the 1980s, with the first formal training course held at Johns Hopkins in 1985, shifting sinus surgery from open, ablative methods to targeted, physiology-preserving procedures.^[4] Over the subsequent decades, innovations like high-resolution computed tomography (CT) imaging in 1987, microdebriders, and balloon sinuplasty have refined the technique, expanding its use beyond CRS to include tumor resection, orbital decompression, and skull base access.^[4] The procedure is typically performed under general anesthesia as an outpatient operation lasting 1-3 hours, guided by preoperative CT scans to map anatomy and identify disease.^[2]^[3] Surgeons employ angled endoscopes (0°, 30°, or 45°) and specialized instruments to perform targeted interventions, such as anterior/posterior ethmoidectomy, maxillary antrostomy, sphenoidotomy, or frontal sinusotomy, while avoiding damage to surrounding structures like the orbit or skull base.^[1]^[5] Postoperative care involves nasal irrigations, debridement, and short-term antibiotics or steroids to promote healing, with most patients experiencing mild bleeding and fatigue for 1-2 weeks.^[2] Indications for FESS include medically refractory CRS (with or without nasal polyps), recurrent acute rhinosinusitis (≥4 episodes per year), fungal sinusitis, mucoceles, sinonasal tumors, and complications like orbital abscesses, confirmed by nasal endoscopy and CT evidence of ostial obstruction or mucosal thickening despite maximal medical therapy (e.g., 4-12 weeks of antibiotics, oral/intranasal steroids, and saline irrigations).^[1]^[3] Ophthalmic applications encompass orbital decompression for Graves' orbitopathy and dacryocystorhinostomy for lacrimal obstruction.^[5] Outcomes demonstrate significant improvements in quality of life, symptom scores, and endoscopic findings, with success rates of 76-97.5% and durable benefits up to 10 years post-surgery, though complications like cerebrospinal fluid leaks (0.5-2%) or orbital injury (0.5-3%) require vigilant intraoperative monitoring.^[4]^[6]^[5]

Overview

Definition and principles

Functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) is a minimally invasive surgical procedure that utilizes nasal endoscopes to directly visualize and access the paranasal sinuses, enabling the targeted removal of diseased tissue such as polyps or obstructive mucosa while preserving normal anatomical structures and healthy mucosa.^[7] This approach aims to restore normal sinus function by addressing pathology at its source, particularly in conditions like chronic rhinosinusitis, without the need for external incisions.^[8] Rigid endoscopes with viewing angles of 0°, 30°, and 45° are typically employed to provide optimal visualization of the nasal cavity and sinus ostia during the procedure.^[8] The core principles of FESS emphasize "functional" surgery, focusing on the restoration of sinus ventilation and mucociliary clearance rather than radical excision of sinus contents, thereby promoting natural drainage and reducing the risk of postoperative complications.^[7] This philosophy, which prioritizes preservation of the sinus mucosa and avoidance of excessive tissue removal, was pioneered through the foundational techniques developed by Walter Messerklinger and Wolfgang Wigand in the 1970s.^[9]^[7] The Messerklinger technique employs a conservative, uninarial approach to relieve obstructions in the ostiomeatal unit, targeting inflammation in the maxillary, frontal, and anterior ethmoid sinuses with minimal intervention.^[7] In contrast, the Wigand technique adopts a more extensive binostril method, involving complete ethmoidectomy and wider sinus ostia enlargement for severe disease, while still adhering to the functional goal of enhancing mucociliary transport.^[7] Anatomically, FESS relies on access to the paranasal sinuses—air-filled cavities including the maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid sinuses—through key drainage pathways centered on the ostiomeatal complex (OMC).^[10] The OMC, located in the middle meatus of the nasal cavity, comprises the uncinate process, ethmoid infundibulum, maxillary sinus ostium, and frontal recess, serving as the primary conduit for mucus drainage from the anterior ethmoid air cells, maxillary sinus, and frontal sinus.^[10] Obstruction at this complex is a common pathophysiological basis for sinus disease, and FESS targets these sites to reopen natural ostia and facilitate airflow.^[8] In comparison to traditional open sinus surgeries, such as the Caldwell-Luc procedure, FESS represents a significant advancement due to its endonasal, endoscopic nature, which minimizes tissue trauma, reduces postoperative morbidity, and avoids external scarring.^[7] The Caldwell-Luc approach, involving an external incision through the canine fossa to access the maxillary sinus, often requires mucosal stripping and carries higher risks of recurrence and complications like facial swelling or dental injury.^[7] By contrast, FESS preserves mucosal integrity and focuses on functional restoration, leading to improved long-term patency and patient outcomes with lower revision rates.^[7]

Indications and patient selection

Functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) is primarily indicated for chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS) that remains refractory to appropriate medical therapy, typically after at least 12 weeks of treatment including antibiotics, nasal corticosteroids, and saline irrigation, accompanied by persistent symptoms such as nasal obstruction, discharge, or facial pain.^[11] Other primary indications include nasal polyposis causing significant obstruction or impacting asthma control, allergic fungal rhinosinusitis, fungal sinusitis such as fungus balls, and conditions like sinus tumors or mucoceles that lead to obstruction or complications.^[11]^[12] Secondary indications for FESS encompass revision surgery for previously failed sinus procedures where residual disease persists despite initial intervention, as well as adjunctive roles in managing orbital or skull base pathologies, such as decompression in Graves' ophthalmopathy or repair of cerebrospinal fluid leaks.^[13]^[14] Patient selection for FESS requires objective evidence of disease, including coronal computed tomography (CT) findings demonstrating mucosal disease or obstruction, alongside endoscopic confirmation of pathology such as polyps or purulent discharge.^[11]^[15] Contraindications include uncontrolled coagulopathy or active untreated infection, which must be addressed prior to considering surgery.^[11] In pediatric patients, FESS is approached more cautiously due to the developing facial anatomy and potential impact on growth, with surgery limited to targeted procedures like anterior ethmoidectomy or maxillary antrostomy after failure of 4-6 weeks of medical therapy.^[16] It shows particular utility in children with cystic fibrosis-related CRS, where higher success rates are observed compared to other etiologies, though overall indications mirror adults but emphasize prior adenoidectomy and avoidance of extensive dissection.^[16]

Procedure

Preoperative evaluation and preparation

The preoperative evaluation for functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) begins with a comprehensive patient history, focusing on symptom duration exceeding 12 weeks for chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS), prior medical treatments, and associated factors such as allergies.^[12] Allergy testing, including skin prick or serum IgE assessments, is considered in patients with comorbid allergic rhinitis to identify potential contributors to CRS and guide perioperative management.^[17] Nasal endoscopy is performed to visualize mucosal inflammation, polyps, or anatomical obstructions, providing objective confirmation of disease severity.^[12] Imaging plays a central role in anatomical mapping, with computed tomography (CT) scans being essential for preoperative planning. Coronal CT views are preferred for evaluating the ostiomeatal complex, nasal septum variants, and critical structures like the cribriform plate and lamina papyracea, using a systematic multiplanar approach (coronal for drainage pathways, axial for basal lamella, sagittal for frontal recess) to identify variants that could predispose to complications.^[18] Key landmarks, such as the Keros classification for olfactory fossa depth and dehiscences in the optic nerve or carotid artery, are assessed to mitigate risks during surgery.^[19] Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is optionally employed when soft tissue details, such as fungal elements or tumors, require further delineation beyond CT capabilities.^[12] Patient optimization involves a trial of maximal medical therapy prior to surgery to reduce inflammation and confirm refractory disease. This typically includes a 12-week course of intranasal corticosteroids and saline irrigations for all CRS patients, with short courses of oral antibiotics added if bacterial infection is suspected based on purulent discharge or cultures (for CRS without nasal polyps) or systemic corticosteroids for polyp reduction (for CRS with nasal polyps).^[12]^[20]^[21] As part of enhanced recovery after surgery (ERAS) protocols, comprehensive patient education and counseling on expectations and care are provided, along with minimization of preoperative fasting to reduce dehydration and improve outcomes.^[22] Smoking cessation is advised at least 3-4 weeks preoperatively to enhance mucosal healing and reduce complication risks.^[23] Comorbidities, such as asthma or aspirin sensitivity, are controlled through multidisciplinary coordination, as uncontrolled conditions like eosinophilic inflammation can worsen outcomes.^[20] Discontinuation of anticoagulants, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and herbal supplements (e.g., vitamin E, ginkgo) is recommended 2 weeks prior to minimize bleeding risks.^[23] The informed consent process entails a detailed discussion of procedure-specific risks, including bleeding, cerebrospinal fluid leak, orbital injury, and anosmia, tailored to the patient's anatomy from imaging findings.^[12]^[24] Anesthesia planning is individualized, with general anesthesia preferred for most cases due to the need for airway control and controlled hypotension, though local anesthesia with sedation may suffice for limited procedures; positioning in reverse Trendelenburg is standard to reduce venous bleeding.^[12]^[25] Surgical planning incorporates advanced tools for complex cases, such as revision surgeries or distorted anatomy, where image-guided navigation systems are registered using preoperative CT to provide real-time anatomical localization and avoid critical structures like the optic nerve or internal carotid artery.^[12] Antibiotic prophylaxis, if administered, follows guidelines for clean-contaminated head and neck procedures, typically involving a single perioperative dose of cefazolin (2 g IV within 60 minutes of incision) or clindamycin (600-900 mg IV) for β-lactam-allergic patients, though evidence for routine use in uncomplicated FESS remains moderate.^[26]

Surgical techniques

Functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) is performed under general anesthesia, often incorporating hypotensive techniques to minimize intraoperative bleeding and enhance visualization.^[12] The patient is positioned supine on the operating table with the head elevated in reverse Trendelenburg at approximately 30 degrees to further reduce venous congestion in the surgical field.^[12] Access to the sinuses is achieved transnasally using rigid endoscopes, typically 4 mm in diameter with 0°, 30°, or 70° angled lenses, allowing magnified visualization without external incisions.^[27] Preoperative decongestion of the nasal mucosa is accomplished with topical agents such as oxymetazoline or cocaine-soaked pledgets, and the eyes are protected with corneal shields.^[12] The procedure begins with medialization of the middle turbinate using a Freer elevator to expose the uncinate process, followed by uncinectomy, where the uncinate is incised with a sickle knife or backbiter and removed using Blakesley forceps to reveal the natural maxillary ostium.^[27] Next, maxillary antrostomy enlarges the ostium posteriorly and inferiorly to approximately 1 cm in diameter, employing through-cutting instruments like Kerrison rongeurs or a powered microdebrider to remove bone while preserving surrounding mucosa and avoiding injury to the orbit or nasolacrimal duct.^[12] Anterior ethmoidectomy then involves penetrating the ethmoid bulla with a J-shaped curette, followed by systematic removal of ethmoid air cell septations using forceps or microdebriders, clearing the region up to the skull base while safeguarding the lamina papyracea.^[27] Posterior ethmoidectomy extends this dissection by perforating the basal lamella and exenterating posterior cells to the sphenoid face.^[12] If disease involves the sphenoid sinus, sphenoidotomy is performed by identifying the natural ostium medial to the superior turbinate and enlarging the opening with curettes or mushroom punches, ensuring wide patency for drainage.^[27] For frontal sinus involvement, dissection of the frontal recess targets the agger nasi cell and any obstructing structures using angled endoscopes and curved instruments, with advanced cases requiring a "drill-out" procedure to remove bone from the frontal beak using a high-speed drill.^[12] Throughout, the emphasis is on mucosal preservation to maintain ciliary function and prevent iatrogenic stenosis, with all steps guided by the goal of restoring sinus ventilation and mucociliary clearance.^[4] Key instruments include handheld tools such as backbiters, Blakesley and mushroom punches, and curettes for precise bone removal, alongside powered microdebriders that combine suction, irrigation, and cutting for efficient tissue resection with reduced blood loss.^[27] High-speed drills are employed for bony work in challenging areas like the frontal recess.^[12] Image-guided navigation systems, such as the Medtronic StealthStation, integrate preoperative CT imaging with real-time endoscopic views to correlate anatomy and enhance safety in distorted or revision cases.^[28] Variations in FESS extent depend on disease distribution, ranging from limited procedures addressing only the anterior ethmoid and maxillary sinus to extended approaches incorporating sphenoid and frontal sinuses.^[27] Hybrid techniques may augment traditional FESS with balloon sinuplasty, where inflatable catheters dilate ostia in the maxillary, sphenoid, or frontal sinuses to facilitate access and improve patency with minimal tissue trauma.^[29]

Postoperative management

Following functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS), immediate postoperative care focuses on monitoring for bleeding or epistaxis, managing pain, and minimizing nasal trauma to promote mucosal healing. Patients are typically observed in a recovery area for several hours to assess for significant hemorrhage, which occurs in approximately 2-5% of cases and is managed with nasal compression, topical vasoconstrictors like oxymetazoline, or, if severe, return to the operating room for control.^[22] Nasal packing is avoided when possible to prevent crusting and adhesions, but if used for hemostasis in cases of extensive surgical dissection, bioresorbable materials such as carboxymethylcellulose or gelatin foams are preferred over traditional gauze or nonabsorbable packs, as they reduce postoperative discomfort, bleeding upon removal, and synechia formation while dissolving within days.^[30] Pain is generally mild and controlled with multimodal analgesia, including scheduled acetaminophen (up to 3-4 g/day) and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen starting the day after surgery, with opioids reserved for breakthrough pain to limit side effects like nausea; early mobilization is encouraged as part of ERAS protocols to enhance recovery.^[22] Follow-up protocols emphasize wound care to facilitate sinus drainage and prevent infection. Saline nasal irrigations, using high-volume low-pressure devices (e.g., 240 mL per side twice daily), are initiated on postoperative day 1 to clear debris and reduce inflammation, continuing for at least 2-3 months.^[31] In-office debridement via nasal endoscopy removes crusts and promotes ostial patency, typically scheduled at 1 week, 3 weeks, and 6 weeks postoperatively, with frequency adjusted based on healing; weekly sessions in the first 2-3 weeks optimize outcomes by reducing adhesions and improving symptom scores.^[32] Systemic antibiotics are prescribed for 7-10 days only if indicated by intraoperative contamination, culture results, or patient risk factors like immunosuppression, as routine use does not reduce infection rates and may promote resistance.^[33] Patients receive detailed instructions to support recovery and identify complications early. Head elevation during sleep (using 2-3 pillows) and environmental humidification (via cool-mist humidifier) are advised for the first 1-2 weeks to minimize edema and crusting.^[34] Avoidance of nose blowing, straining (e.g., heavy lifting >10 lbs or Valsalva maneuvers), and irritants like smoke is recommended for 7-10 days to prevent bleeding or pressure changes; sneezing should occur with the mouth open.^[35] Patients are educated on warning signs, including persistent clear nasal discharge suggestive of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak, severe unilateral headache, or fever >101°F, prompting immediate contact with the surgeon.^[23] Long-term maintenance involves ongoing medical therapy to sustain surgical benefits and assess for revision needs. Intranasal corticosteroid sprays (e.g., mometasone or fluticasone, one spray per nostril daily) are restarted 1-2 weeks postoperatively and continued indefinitely for inflammation control, particularly in patients with polyps.^[31] Revision FESS is considered if persistent nasal obstruction or recurrent symptoms occur after 3 months despite maximal medical management, with preoperative CT confirming ostial closure or scarring.^[36]

Historical Development

Early history

The pre-endoscopic era of sinus surgery relied on open, external approaches that prioritized radical removal of diseased tissue but often resulted in substantial morbidity. The Caldwell-Luc procedure, first described by George W. Caldwell in 1893 and refined by Henri Luc in 1897, accessed the maxillary sinus via an incision through the canine fossa above the upper teeth, allowing removal of infected mucosa and creation of a drainage antrostomy into the nasal cavity.^[37] This method, while effective for severe chronic sinusitis, was notably invasive, frequently leading to complications such as facial swelling in up to 90% of cases, transient or permanent numbness of the cheek or teeth due to infraorbital nerve injury, oroantral fistulas, and chronic pain.^[38]^[39] For more extensive maxillary sinus pathology, the Denker operation, introduced by Alfred Denker in 1906, offered a radical alternative involving partial anterior maxillectomy to expose and excise diseased tissue from the sinus walls.^[40] This approach provided wide access but amplified risks, including significant facial scarring, bone defects, and higher rates of nerve damage and infection compared to less aggressive techniques.^[41] Such procedures underscored the era's emphasis on disease eradication over mucosal preservation, often sacrificing normal sinus physiology and contributing to long-term functional deficits. The introduction of endoscopy began to shift paradigms toward intranasal visualization in the early 20th century. In 1901, Alfred Hirschmann of Berlin performed the first recorded endoscopic nasal examination using a modified cystoscope originally designed for urology, successfully visualizing the maxillary sinus through the natural ostium without external incisions.^[42] This pioneering effort demonstrated the potential for direct internal access, though limited by poor illumination and rigid instrumentation that restricted maneuverability in curved nasal passages. Early extensions to the frontal sinus occurred in the 1920s, with experimental endoscopies attempting to navigate the complex frontal recess, but these remained rudimentary due to technological constraints.^[4] By the mid-20th century, otolaryngologists in the 1950s and 1960s increasingly incorporated headlights for enhanced illumination and suction devices to clear blood and debris during intranasal ethmoidectomies and polyp removals, reducing reliance on external approaches.^[43] However, widespread endoscopic adoption was hindered by the limitations of available tools, including the straight-line view of rigid endoscopes and the distorted, low-resolution images from emerging flexible fiberoptic scopes, which proved inadequate for precise sinus navigation. A breakthrough in the 1960s was the rod-lens telescope system invented by physicist Harold Hopkins, which provided superior brightness and clarity, facilitating more effective intranasal endoscopy.^[4] These advancements nonetheless facilitated a gradual transition from mutilating external incisions to mucosa-sparing intranasal techniques, setting the foundation for functional preservation in later developments.^[4]

Evolution and key milestones

The development of functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) began in the 1970s with pioneering work in Europe, where Walter Messerklinger introduced the concept of middle meatal antrostomy in 1978, emphasizing preservation of normal sinus mucosa to restore physiological drainage and ventilation.^[9] Concurrently, Manfred Wigand developed a posterior-to-anterior surgical approach using rigid endoscopes, which allowed for more extensive sinus access while minimizing external incisions.^[44] These innovations laid the groundwork for minimally invasive techniques, shifting away from traditional open procedures. In 1985, Heinz Stammberger in Europe and David Kennedy in the United States independently popularized the term "functional endoscopic sinus surgery," highlighting its focus on functional restoration rather than radical tissue removal.^[45] During the 1990s and 2000s, FESS gained widespread adoption through technological integrations that enhanced precision and safety. Image-guided navigation systems, introduced in the early 1990s, utilized preoperative computed tomography scans to provide real-time intraoperative localization, particularly beneficial in complex anatomies like revision surgeries.^[46] In the late 1990s, microdebriders were incorporated into FESS, enabling efficient removal of diseased tissue while sparing healthy mucosa, which improved operative efficiency and reduced bleeding.^[4] Procedure volumes surged during this period; for instance, in England, the annual number of endoscopic sinus surgeries increased from approximately 6,800 in 2010 to over 8,200 by 2019, reflecting broader clinical acceptance and refined indications for chronic rhinosinusitis.^[47] Advancements from the 2010s to 2025 further refined FESS with innovative tools and hybrid approaches. Robotic-assisted systems emerged around 2020, offering enhanced dexterity and tremor filtration for delicate sinus dissections, though primarily in investigational and early clinical use to improve precision in challenging cases.^[48] Navigation technologies integrated artificial intelligence by 2023–2024, enabling predictive modeling of surgical paths and augmented reality overlays to reduce errors in real-time.^[49] Bioresorbable packing materials, such as steroid-eluting implants, became standard in the 2010s, promoting faster healing and lower adhesion rates without requiring removal.^[50] Combined procedures, like FESS with vidian neurectomy, showed long-term efficacy in managing chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps and allergic rhinitis in 2025 studies, with sustained symptom relief observed up to five years post-surgery.^[51] Post-2020 trends included hybrid techniques incorporating balloon sinuplasty for ostial dilation alongside traditional FESS, expanding options for refractory cases.^[52] The global dissemination of FESS accelerated through standardized training and guidelines, such as the European Position Paper on Rhinosinusitis and Nasal Polyps (EPOS) 2020, which updated evidence-based recommendations for surgical indications and integrated care pathways to promote uniform adoption worldwide.^[21]

Clinical Outcomes

Efficacy and success rates

Functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) demonstrates high efficacy in treating chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS), with studies reporting 80-90% of adult patients experiencing significant symptom improvement, including reductions in nasal obstruction, discharge, and facial pain.^[53] A meta-analysis of 335 patients showed a mean SNOT-22 score reduction of 23.58 points (95% CI: 10.70-36.46, p < 0.001), exceeding the minimal clinically important difference of 8.9-9 points and indicating substantial quality-of-life gains.^[54] Success rates range from 76% to 97.5%, with notable improvements in SNOT-22 scores (e.g., from 34.87 to 22 post-primary surgery) and endoscopic findings like Lund-Kennedy scores.^[6] For CRS with nasal polyps (CRSwNP), FESS alone yields polyp recurrence rates of 15-22% over 2-5 years, but adjunctive biologics such as dupilumab significantly lower this to under 20% at 2 years by delaying regrowth and enhancing long-term control (p < 0.01).^[55] Outcomes are influenced by disease severity, with non-polypoid CRS showing better symptom resolution (up to 87% improvement) compared to polypoid forms, where recurrence risks increase with factors like asthma or high-grade polyps.^[54] Surgeon experience plays a key role, as high-volume practitioners (>63 cases/year) achieve 40% lower revision rates (HR: 0.63, 95% CI: 0.46-0.86) than low-volume ones (1-17 cases/year), correlating with 15-20% higher overall success through more complete procedures.^[56] Adherence to postoperative follow-up, including topical therapies, further boosts efficacy by reducing recurrence.^[21] Meta-analyses confirm FESS superiority over medical therapy alone for refractory CRS, with a 2024 review reporting 85-87% patient satisfaction and sustained SNOT-22 improvements (p < 0.001) versus ongoing medications.^[54] The EPOS 2020 guidelines endorse FESS for cases failing 6-12 weeks of adequate medical treatment, noting 70-100% subjective success in symptom relief and quality-of-life metrics like VAS and SF-36 scores, particularly when preoperative SNOT-22 exceeds 20.^[21] Long-term data indicate 70-80% sustained benefit at 5 years, with 65-75% achieving clinically meaningful SNOT-22 reductions (≥8.9 points) and acceptable disease control (19.5% fully controlled, 36.8% partly controlled), though 40% may require revisions in severe CRSwNP without adjuncts. The SNOT-22 tool validates these gains, highlighting FESS's role in enhancing olfaction and overall well-being in validated cohorts.^[57]

Complications and risks

Functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) carries a low overall risk of complications, with major adverse events occurring in approximately 0.36% of primary cases.^[58] Common minor complications include postoperative bleeding, crusting, and infections, which typically resolve with conservative measures. Minor bleeding, often manifesting as epistaxis, affects about 2-3% of patients and is usually managed with nasal packing or cauterization.^[59] Crusting and minor infections are common, primarily due to disrupted mucosal healing, and are prevented through regular postoperative debridement and antibiotic prophylaxis.^[60] Synechiae or adhesions form in 2-4% of patients, potentially obstructing sinus drainage, and are mitigated by meticulous surgical technique and postoperative stenting if needed.^[61] Major risks, though rare, can be severe and include cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak, orbital injury, and vascular damage. CSF leaks occur in 0.13-0.28% of procedures, with higher rates during sphenoid sinus interventions, and are often repaired intraoperatively using mucosal grafts or flaps.^[58]^[60] Orbital injuries, including hematoma or extraocular muscle damage leading to potential blindness, affect 0.23-0.44% of cases and are avoided by adhering to anatomical landmarks such as the lamina papyracea.^[58] Vascular injuries, particularly to the internal carotid artery, are exceedingly rare at less than 0.1% and require immediate hemostasis or embolization.^[58] Risk factors for complications include anatomical variants identifiable on preoperative computed tomography (CT), such as Haller cells, which protrude into the maxillary sinus roof and increase the risk of orbital or maxillary injury.^[62] Image-guided navigation systems may reduce the risk of major complications, enhancing precision in complex cases.^[63] Postoperative monitoring is essential for early detection of issues like meningitis, which occurs in about 0.24% of patients. Management of complications employs a multidisciplinary approach; for instance, persistent CSF leaks may necessitate neurosurgical consultation for layered closure with fat or fascia grafts.^[62] Incidence trends show a modest decline in certain complications, such as meningitis (annual percent change of -3.42% since the 2010s), attributable to technological advances like navigation and improved imaging, with overall major event rates decreasing by around 20% over the past decade.^[60]

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Jul 31, 2015 · Caldwell Luc surgery (CWS) is almost 120 years old now and it still enjoys an important place in ENT Surgeons armamentarium.
[38]
Endoscopic Denker Approach for Anterior Maxilla Tumors | Ento Key
The endoscopic Denker approach is a technique that involves creation of an endonasal anterior maxillotomy without the need for a separate sublabial incision.
[39]
A history of rhinology in North America - ScienceDirect
Neither of these surgeons made an opening into the nasal cavity. In 1893 George Caldwell, who was practicing in New York at the time, published a brief article ...
[40]
History of Endoscopic Examination of the Nasal Cavity - ENTtoday
Aug 11, 2015 · 1901 ⁃ Instrument maker Alfred Hirschmann of Berlin attempts to examine the sinonasal cavity using a modified cystoscope.
[41]
The early history and development of functional endoscopic sinus ...
Dec 13, 2019 · He used both headlight and suction endoscopy in a gun-like instrument with a handle arrangement, opening up the sphenoid first and then ...
[42]
Comparison of 2.9- vs. 3.7-mm flexible distal-chip nasal endoscopes ...
Feb 22, 2024 · The fibreoptic endoscope is also restrained by a number of artefacts that limit its diagnostic ability (3,5). The barrelling phenomenon, which ...
[43]
The early history and development of functional endoscopic sinus ...
The concept of endoscopic diagnosis and procedures on the nasal cavity had been investigated for several decades in Europe in the early part of the twentieth ...
[44]
Endoscopic sinus surgery: Evolution and technical innovations
Aug 6, 2025 · In the 1970s, endoscopic endonasal and intranasal surgical interventions were first introduced by Messerklinger, Stammberger, Draf, and Wigand ...
[45]
The evolution and advancements in radiological imaging of the ...
May 1, 2019 · The term ESS was then modified by Dr Kennedy to include the word 'functional', and thus, ESS became functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS).
[46]
Image‐Guided Surgical Device Failures in Functional Endoscopic ...
Jul 14, 2022 · Since their introduction in the 1990s, image-guidance devices have become a core component of sinus surgeries, with a majority of surveyed ...
[47]
The evolution of sinus surgery in England in the last decade
Oct 19, 2020 · The total number of sinus procedures performed in the England between 2010 and 2019 was 89,495. There was an increase over the decade of 6.94% ...
[48]
Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery Market Size, Share & Trends ...
Robotic-assisted technology has revolutionized functional endoscopic sinus surgery (FESS) by providing greater precision and control. Integrating robotic ...
[49]
Artificial intelligence optimizes the standardized diagnosis ... - Frontiers
The integration of AI with navigation systems has revolutionised the way surgeons conduct surgery. Traditional navigation relies on static pre-operative ...
[50]
Enhanced Evaluation of Bioresorbable Steroid-Releasing Stents ...
The objective of FESS is to restore sinonasal ventilation and mucociliary function by removing polyps and obstructions, and by widening sinus drainage pathways ...
[51]
Long-term outcomes of functional endoscopic sinus surgery with ...
Commentary on: "Long-term outcomes of functional endoscopic sinus surgery with selective vidian neurectomy for chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps ...
[52]
Efficacy and safety of sinus balloon catheter dilation versus ... - NIH
Jun 13, 2025 · This meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of sinus balloon catheter dilation (SBCD) versus functional endoscopic sinus ...
[53]
[PDF] European Position Paper on Rhinosinusitis and Nasal Polyps 2020
... EPOS 2020. VI. Summary. The European Position Paper on Rhinosinusitis and Nasal Polyps 2020 is the update of similar evidence based position papers published ...
[54]
Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery - AAFP
Sep 1, 1998 · The rationale behind FESS is that localized pathology in the osteomeatal complex blocks the ostia and leads to inflammation in the dependent ...Abstract · Candidates for Sinus Surgery · Nonendoscopic, 'Conventional...Missing: ostiomeatal | Show results with:ostiomeatal
[55]
Outcomes of Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery in Chronic ...
Feb 10, 2024 · Outcome: The statistical analysis revealed that endoscopic surgery led to a significant reduction in SNOT-22 questionnaire scores (P < 0.000). A ...
[56]
A Literature Review of the Management of Nasal Polyps: Biologics ...
Oct 1, 2025 · Findings showed that both FESS and biologics significantly improve SNOT-22 scores and symptom relief. FESS provided faster reduction in polyp ...
[57]
Surgeon Case Volume Impacts Revision Rate of Endoscopic Sinus ...
May 6, 2025 · Our study is the first to demonstrate a surgeon volume-outcome relationship in ESS. Being a high-volume surgeon is predictive of a lower revision rate in CRS ...
[58]
A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of SNOT-22 Outcomes After ...
Conclusion: Research utilizing the SNOT-22 instrument has demonstrated that endoscopic sinus surgery (ESS) leads to enhanced quality of life (QOL) outcomes. The ...Missing: rate | Show results with:rate
[59]
Complications of Primary and Revision Functional Endoscopic ... - NIH
Among 78,944 primary FESS cases, 288 major complications were identified representing a complication rate of 0.36% (95% CI 0.32%–0.40%). The major complication ...
[60]
Trends and complications in functional endoscopic sinus surgery ...
Dec 4, 2024 · Overall postoperative complications (Table 2) were similar between BSP (2.89%) and FESS (3.6%) (OR = 0.80, 95% CI = 0.58–1.09) with similar ...
[61]
Complications in Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A TriNetX Network ...
Aug 9, 2025 · Complication rates after ESS have remained largely stable over the last 20 years. Rates of meningitis demonstrated a slight decrease without an ...
[62]
Potential risk factors associated with the development of synechiae ...
Results: Two hundred cases of bilateral FESS were retrospectively reviewed. Thirty-eight (19.0%, 95% CI 13.6-24.4%) patients developed synechiae.
[63]
Functional Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: Key Points for Safer Surgery - Murat Kar, Nuray Bayar Muluk, Marwan Alqunaee, Felicia Manole, Cemal Cingi, 2024
### Summary of Complications, Rates, Prevention Strategies, and Anatomical Variants in FESS
[64]
A systematic review of common landmarks in navigated endoscopic ...
Oct 27, 2021 · A meta-analysis of 14 source studies demonstrated a statistically significant reduction in the relative risk (RR) of major (RR = 0.48, 95% ...