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Frontal sinus

The frontal sinus consists of paired, mucosa-lined air cavities embedded within the frontal bone of the skull, positioned superior to the orbits and posterior to the forehead skin.^[1]^[2] These sinuses form one of the four paranasal sinus groups, alongside the ethmoid, maxillary, and sphenoid sinuses, and exhibit significant inter-individual variation in size, shape, and degree of pneumatization.^[3] Development originates from anterior ethmoidal air cells that migrate into the frontal bone during late fetal stages, with postnatal pneumatization commencing around age 2-3 years, radiographic visibility emerging by 5-6 years, and full expansion typically achieved by late adolescence or early adulthood.^[4]^[5] While their precise physiological roles remain incompletely elucidated, the frontal sinuses contribute to air humidification, warming of inhaled air via mucus production, skull weight reduction, and vocal resonance enhancement.^[4]^[6] Clinically, they are prone to acute and chronic sinusitis due to their narrow drainage pathways into the middle meatus, as well as fractures from trauma that may necessitate surgical intervention to prevent complications like cerebrospinal fluid leakage or infection spread to the intracranial space.^[3]^[7]

Anatomy

Location and gross structure

The frontal sinuses are paired, air-filled cavities situated within the frontal bone of the skull, forming one of the four paranasal sinus groups.^[3] They occupy the region superior to the orbits and posterior to the superciliary arches, extending posteriorly to indent the floor of the anterior cranial fossa.^[7] Each sinus is typically asymmetrical in size and shape relative to its counterpart, separated by a thin, often incomplete bony septum.^[1] ^[8] In gross structure, the frontal sinuses exhibit a variable, generally pyramidal or triangular configuration, with their apex directed inferiorly toward the nasofrontal duct.^[9] The ostia, representing the narrowest drainage points, are positioned in the most dependent portion of the sinus cavities, facilitating mucociliary clearance into the middle meatus via the frontal recess.^[9] ^[3] The mucosal lining consists of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium overlying a lamina propria, continuous with that of the nasal cavity.^[2] The sinuses' external projection contributes to the contour of the forehead, with their development leading to visible supraorbital ridges in adults.^[10]

Vasculature

The arterial supply to the frontal sinus mucosa arises from branches of the ophthalmic artery, primarily the supraorbital artery, supratrochlear artery, and anterior ethmoidal artery.^[1]^[9]^[11] These vessels enter the sinus through foramina in the orbital plate of the frontal bone, providing end-arterial perfusion that can contribute to ischemic risks in surgical interventions.^[12] Venous drainage of the frontal sinus occurs via diploic veins and the supraorbital and supratrochlear veins, which converge into the superior ophthalmic vein and ultimately the cavernous sinus.^[1]^[9] This valveless network facilitates potential retrograde spread of infections from the sinus to the orbit or intracranial spaces, as diploic channels connect directly to dural sinuses without valvular barriers.^[12] Lymphatic drainage parallels venous pathways, directing to submandibular and anterior cervical nodes via ethmoidal and nasal connections.^[7]

Innervation

The mucous membrane lining the frontal sinus receives sensory innervation primarily from the supraorbital nerve, a terminal branch of the frontal nerve arising from the ophthalmic division (V1) of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V).^[3] This nerve provides general somatic afferent fibers that convey sensations such as pain from the sinus mucosa, which is clinically relevant in conditions like frontal sinusitis where irritation can refer pain to the forehead.^[13] Small filaments of the supraorbital nerve penetrate the frontal bone near the supraorbital notch or foramen to reach the sinus cavity directly.^[14] The supratrochlear nerve, the smaller medial terminal branch of the frontal nerve, also contributes sensory supply to the medial aspect of the frontal sinus mucosa and adjacent structures.^[3] Together with the supraorbital nerve, these branches ensure comprehensive coverage of the sinus's superior and anterior regions, reflecting the topographic distribution of ophthalmic trigeminal afferents.^[1] In some anatomical descriptions, the anterior ethmoidal nerve (another branch of the nasociliary nerve from V1) may provide supplementary innervation to the anterior ethmoidal air cells that border or extend into the frontal recess, indirectly influencing frontal sinus sensation.^[1] Autonomic innervation to the frontal sinus mucosa occurs via perivascular plexuses accompanying the arterial supply, rather than discrete named nerves. Parasympathetic fibers originate from the superior salivatory nucleus, travel via the greater petrosal nerve to the pterygopalatine ganglion, and then distribute through branches of the maxillary nerve (V2) that anastomose with ophthalmic divisions; these regulate glandular secretion in the mucosa.^[3] Sympathetic fibers derive from the superior cervical ganglion, ascending along the internal carotid artery and distributing via the ethmoidal and frontal nerves to control vasoconstriction.^[3] This dual autonomic input supports mucosal homeostasis, including mucus production and vascular tone, though disruptions can exacerbate inflammatory responses in sinus pathology.^[9]

Anatomical variations

The frontal sinus exhibits considerable anatomical variability in size, shape, pneumatization extent, and symmetry, influencing surgical approaches and disease susceptibility. Volumetric variants are classified as aplasia (complete absence), hypoplasia (underdeveloped), medium-sized (typical pneumatization), and hyperplasia (overdeveloped).^[15] Aplasia occurs bilaterally in 3.3% of Saudi individuals and unilaterally more frequently on the right side (5.12%) than left (1.33%).^[16] In Jordanian populations, bilateral aplasia prevalence is 4.2%, with unilateral aplasia at 6.6%.^[17] Unilateral agenesis predominates over bilateral, with right-sided absence exceeding left in multiple cohorts.^[18] Pneumatization patterns vary by extent: type 1 (aplasia or hypoplasia), type 2 (medium), and type 3 (hyperplasia), with medium-sized sinuses most prevalent at 65.84%, followed by small (22.89%) and large (11.26%).^[19] ^[20] Asymmetry between left and right sinuses affects 85.7% of individuals in radiographic analyses, often linked to cranial asymmetry rather than isolated sinus factors.^[21] Bilateral asymmetry occurs in approximately 30% of cases, with unilateral presence rare at 5%.^[22] ^[23] Additional variations include septation and chamber multiplicity; over two chambers per sinus show high prevalence, potentially complicating drainage.^[24] Racial and sex differences exist, with supraorbital ethmoid cells more common in certain groups, affecting sinus volume and disease patterns.^[25] Frontal recess pneumatization types, such as agger nasi or supraorbital cells, further diversify drainage pathways and are population-specific in prevalence.^[26] These variations arise from differential pneumatization during development, with incomplete septa or accessory cells in up to 20-30% of cases across studies.^[27]

Development

Embryology

The frontal sinus originates embryologically from evaginations of the ethmoid infundibulum and frontal recess mucosa into the vertical plate of the frontal bone, forming pneumatic extensions during the fetal period.^[28] In the majority of cases, these rudiments arise within the frontal recess of the middle meatus, though alternative pathways involve anterior ethmoidal air cells migrating superiorly or diverticula from the frontonasal recess.^[29] The dual-origin hypothesis reflects variability in mucosal outgrowth patterns, with the frontal recess pathway predominating.^[28] Pneumatization commences in the third to fourth fetal month (approximately 12–16 weeks gestation), coinciding with the initial appearance of the frontal recess in the lateral nasal wall.^[30] By the fourth to fifth fetal month (16–20 weeks), mucosal pits deepen into the frontal bone's squama, establishing the sinus anlage, though substantive expansion remains limited until postnatal life.^[31] This prenatal phase depends on coordinated ossification of the frontal bone from neural crest-derived mesenchyme and mucosal differentiation, with incomplete fusion of the fronticulus frontalis potentially influencing later anatomical variants.^[32] Variants like the frontal intersinus septal cell may trace to persistent embryonic septations between bilateral recesses.^[30]

Postnatal ontogeny

The frontal sinuses undergo pneumatization postnatally, beginning as small evaginations from the anterior ethmoid air cells within the frontal bone's diploë, with no radiographic visibility at birth.^[29] Initial pneumatization typically commences between 1 and 2 years of age, advancing superiorly toward the nasion by age 3, though radiographic detection often occurs later, between 3 and 6 years, when dimensions measure approximately 3.5 mm vertically, 5.2 mm anteroposteriorly, and 4.8 mm transversely.^[29] ^[33] Development proceeds in distinct phases correlated with cranial growth spurts following the early postnatal brain expansion period. Phase 0, characterized by absence of pneumatization, persists from birth to approximately 5 years. Phase 1 involves initial formation of a small, kidney bean-shaped radiolucency, emerging between 6 and 7 years. Phase 2 features medial and lateral expansion, occurring from 8 to 10 years pre-puberty. Phase 3 marks full cavernous formation during puberty, spanning 11 to 18 years, with accelerated growth between 13 and 16 years driven by hormonal influences on midfacial skeleton maturation.^[33] ^[29] Growth metrics show progressive enlargement, with adult dimensions of about 16.6 mm vertically, 36.9 mm anteroposteriorly, and 38.3 mm transversely reached by 15 to 18 years, and volume expanding from roughly 0.5 cm³ at 1 to 3 years to 4.5 cm³ by 22 to 25 years.^[29] Morphologically, early sinuses are shorter and flatter, evolving through superior and lateral expansions that increase vertical complexity, such as additional arcades, with final shape stabilization by 20 years overall—earlier in females (14 to 16 years) than males (18 to 20 years), reflecting sexually dimorphic trajectories where males exhibit larger volumes.^[28] ^[33] Asymmetry is common, with the left sinus often larger, and pneumatization variability can delay full maturity to 25 years in some individuals.^[29]

Function and evolutionary aspects

Physiological roles

The frontal sinus is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium that secretes mucus, contributing to the humidification and warming of inhaled air via mucociliary clearance mechanisms that connect it to the nasal cavity.^[2]^[9] This mucosal activity filters particulates and pathogens, supporting local immune defense by trapping debris and facilitating its expulsion through ciliary action toward the nasopharynx.^[4]^[34] Although direct airflow through the frontal sinus is limited due to its narrow ostium, the cavity's volume aids in overall paranasal sinus contributions to conditioning inspired air, maintaining nasal mucosa integrity against desiccation.^[8] The air-filled space also enhances vocal resonance by amplifying sound waves during phonation, a function shared with other paranasal sinuses.^[7] These roles are modulated by autonomic innervation, with parasympathetic stimulation increasing glandular secretion for enhanced humidification during respiratory demands.^[12]

Evolutionary hypotheses

The frontal sinus, a pneumatized extension of the paranasal sinus system into the frontal bone, exhibits significant variation across hominins, prompting hypotheses regarding its adaptive significance. Proposed functions include thermoregulation, whereby enlarged sinuses in Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) were suggested to facilitate heat exchange in cold climates, and biomechanical stress dispersion, positing that sinuses reduce masticatory forces on the cranium by occupying low-strain regions.^[35] These ideas draw from observations in other mammals, such as carnivorans, where frontal sinuses correlate with skull size (r² = 0.82, P < 0.01) and may enhance structural integrity during feeding in durophagous species like hyaenids.^[36] Empirical assessments, however, undermine these adaptive claims. Finite element analysis of the Kabwe 1 cranium (Homo heidelbergensis) reveals that hollowing or infilling the exceptionally large frontal sinus alters strain magnitudes and directions negligibly during simulated bites on incisors, premolars, or molars, with frontal bone strains remaining low regardless.^[37] Similarly, spatial analyses of Homo sapiens populations show no autocorrelation between sinus dimensions and climate (Mantel test, P = 0.1662), leading to rejection of thermoregulatory adaptation in Neanderthals.^[35] Masticatory stress dispersion is deemed unlikely in hominins, as sinus expansion appears decoupled from dietary mechanics post-Australopithecus.^[35] Phylogenetic patterning emerges as a stronger explanatory framework. Frontal sinuses covary with frontal lobe expansion and cranial vault elongation since Homo erectus, displaying isometric scaling in early hominins (e.g., Sahelanthropus, Paranthropus) but reduced anteroposterior extension in later Homo species like H. sapiens and H. neanderthalensis.^[35] This suggests sinuses track neutral evolutionary drift or opportunistic pneumatization in mechanically expendable spaces amid facial retraction and neurocranial reorganization, rather than selection for specific functions.^[35]^[36] Comparative morphology across primates reinforces this, with sinuses absent or rudimentary in many non-hominin taxa, implying multiple independent origins tied to skull allometry rather than universal adaptation.^[35] Ongoing debates highlight the need for integrative models incorporating developmental constraints and genetic factors.

Clinical significance

Inflammatory and infectious conditions

Frontal sinusitis refers to inflammation of the frontal sinus, often arising as a complication of upper respiratory tract infections and classified as acute (lasting less than 4 weeks), subacute (4-12 weeks), or chronic (beyond 12 weeks).^[38] Acute frontal sinusitis typically follows a viral upper respiratory infection, with bacterial superinfection occurring in approximately 0.5-2% of cases, while chronic forms involve persistent mucosal inflammation potentially driven by anatomical obstruction or underlying conditions like nasal polyposis.^[38]^[39] Infectious etiologies predominate, with viruses (e.g., rhinovirus, influenza) initiating most acute episodes, progressing to bacterial involvement in 2-10% of adults and up to 20% in children via pathogens such as Streptococcus pneumoniae (30-50% of cases), nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (20-30%), and Moraxella catarrhalis (10-20%).^[40] Fungal infections, though rarer, occur in immunocompromised patients, involving species like Aspergillus or Mucor, often leading to invasive disease with mortality rates exceeding 50% if untreated.^[40] Non-infectious inflammatory triggers include allergens or irritants exacerbating mucosal edema, but these seldom isolate to the frontal sinus without ethmoidal involvement.^[38] Symptoms of frontal sinusitis include severe frontal headache exacerbated by Valsalva maneuver, purulent nasal discharge, facial tenderness over the forehead, and fever in acute bacterial cases; chronic presentations feature persistent low-grade headache, hyposmia, and postnasal drip without systemic signs.^[41] Diagnosis relies on clinical criteria—such as persistent symptoms beyond 10 days or worsening after initial improvement—supplemented by nasal endoscopy revealing mucopurulence and CT imaging showing sinus opacification or air-fluid levels, with MRI reserved for suspected complications.^[42]^[38] Treatment for acute uncomplicated cases emphasizes supportive care with analgesics, nasal saline irrigation, and decongestants; antibiotics like amoxicillin-clavulanate are indicated for bacterial suspicion, reducing symptoms in 70-80% of confirmed cases per IDSA guidelines.^[42] Chronic or refractory sinusitis may require extended antibiotics, oral corticosteroids for inflammation, or endoscopic sinus surgery to restore drainage, with success rates of 80-90% in restoring patency.^[40] Fungal infections demand antifungal therapy (e.g., amphotericin B) and debridement.^[40] Complications arise in 0.5-2% of acute frontal sinusitis cases, disproportionately affecting the frontal sinus due to its drainage via the narrow frontonasal duct; these include orbital cellulitis (most common, via thin lamina papyracea), Pott's puffy tumor (subperiosteal abscess with forehead swelling), and intracranial extensions like epidural abscess, subdural empyema, or meningitis, with mortality up to 20% in severe intracranial involvement.^[43]^[40] Early surgical intervention via external or endoscopic approaches combined with intravenous antibiotics is critical for complications, preventing progression in over 85% of managed cases.^[43]

Trauma and fractures

Frontal sinus fractures typically result from high-velocity blunt trauma to the forehead, such as motor vehicle accidents, assaults, falls from height, or penetrating injuries from projectiles, accounting for 5-15% of all facial fractures.^[44] These injuries often occur in the context of multisystem trauma, with associated craniofacial, orbital, or intracranial damage in up to 80% of cases, necessitating comprehensive evaluation beyond the sinus itself.^[45] The dome-shaped architecture of the frontal bone provides some protection, but fractures propagate along lines of least resistance, frequently involving both anterior and posterior tables due to the thin bone separating the sinus from the anterior cranial fossa.^[46] Diagnosis relies on high-resolution computed tomography (CT) imaging with thin axial and coronal slices (1-3 mm), which delineates fracture extent, displacement, posterior table involvement, and nasofrontal outflow tract (NFOT) patency—critical for assessing dural violation or sinus drainage obstruction.^[45] Clinical signs include forehead lacerations, periorbital ecchymosis, subconjunctival hemorrhage, or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) rhinorrhea, but these are nonspecific and must prompt CT to rule out associated injuries like dural tears or brain contusions.^[47] Plain radiographs are inadequate due to poor sensitivity for posterior wall or NFOT details.^[48] Management is guided by fracture characteristics: anterior table displacement (>2 mm cosmetic deformity or >1 cm functional), posterior table involvement (especially displaced >1 mm risking dural exposure), NFOT disruption, or active CSF leak.^[45] Nondisplaced anterior table fractures without NFOT compromise may be observed with serial imaging and antibiotics if contaminated, achieving union rates over 90% conservatively.^[49] Surgical intervention, required in 60-70% of cases, favors open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) via coronal or existing laceration approaches for anterior table reconstruction using titanium plates; posterior table fractures often necessitate dural repair, mucosal stripping, and either sinus obliteration (fat, bone, or pericranial flap) or cranialization (posterior wall removal and duraplasty) to prevent mucocele formation from obstructed drainage.^[50] Endoscopic-assisted techniques reduce morbidity for select anterior fractures, preserving sinus function.^[51] Complications arise from untreated dural defects, persistent mucostasis, or surgical factors, with early risks including CSF leak (up to 20% preoperatively, 4% postoperatively), meningitis, or abscess, and late sequelae like mucopyocele (2-10% incidence, manifesting 1-20 years post-injury) due to epithelial entrapment.^[52] ^[53] NFOT injury correlates with higher complication rates (e.g., chronic sinusitis or osteomyelitis), underscoring the need for lifelong surveillance via annual CT in obliterated cases.^[48] Outcomes improve with multidisciplinary care, but untreated fractures carry 10-20% risk of intracranial infection.^[47]

Neoplastic and other pathologies

Neoplasms of the frontal sinus are exceedingly rare, constituting less than 1% of all paranasal sinus malignancies, with primary tumors originating directly in the frontal sinus accounting for only 0.3-1% of paranasal sinus carcinomas.^[54]^[55] Benign neoplasms predominate among reported cases, with osteomas representing the most common type, often arising from the frontal sinus walls and potentially leading to obstruction or secondary complications if they impinge on adjacent structures.^[56] Malignant tumors, when they occur, are typically squamous cell carcinomas or adenocarcinomas, though the frontal sinus exhibits relative resistance to primary carcinogenesis compared to other paranasal sinuses, possibly due to differences in epithelial turnover or exposure to carcinogens.^[57]^[58] Secondary involvement from adjacent sinonasal malignancies, such as mucosal melanoma or undifferentiated carcinoma, is more frequent than isolated primary frontal lesions, often presenting at advanced stages with local invasion into the orbit or skull base.^[59]^[60] Rarer entities include schwannomas, lymphomas, and esthesioneuroblastomas, which may mimic inflammatory processes on initial imaging.^[61]^[62] Non-neoplastic pathologies of the frontal sinus primarily include mucoceles, which are benign, epithelium-lined cystic expansions resulting from ostial obstruction, most commonly affecting the frontal sinus due to its drainage pathway vulnerability.^[63] These lesions arise from chronic inflammation, prior trauma, surgical intervention, or idiopathic causes, leading to mucus accumulation, bony remodeling, and potential erosion of surrounding bone, with frontal mucoceles comprising the majority of paranasal cases.^[64]^[65] Symptoms often involve proptosis, diplopia, or headache from orbital or intracranial extension, though many remain asymptomatic until significant expansion occurs.^[66] Other non-neoplastic conditions encompass pyoceles (infected mucoceles) and dermoid cysts, which can similarly obstruct drainage and provoke expansive growth, occasionally mimicking neoplasms radiologically.^[67] Management typically requires surgical drainage and marsupialization via endoscopic approaches, with recurrence rates influenced by complete ostial patency restoration.^[68]

Surgical and reconstructive procedures

Surgical interventions for frontal sinus pathology primarily aim to restore drainage, eradicate disease, or reconstruct anatomy following trauma or resection, with endoscopic techniques increasingly favored over traditional open approaches due to reduced morbidity.^[69] Endoscopic frontal sinus surgery targets the frontal recess and ostium to widen the outflow tract, applicable in chronic rhinosinusitis refractory to medical therapy.^[70] Success rates for endoscopic procedures in frontal sinusitis exceed 80% in symptom resolution at long-term follow-up, though revision rates can reach 10-20% in complex cases.^[71] ^[72] The Draf classification delineates endoscopic drainage types by invasiveness: Draf I involves middle turbinate resection and anterior ethmoidectomy to access the frontal recess; Draf II enlarges the ostium by removing the floor of the frontal sinus and agger nasi cells, subdivided into IIa (limited ostial widening) and IIb (extended unilateral access); Draf III, or endoscopic modified Lothrop procedure, creates a large common cavity by resecting the intersinus septum, superior nasal septum, and bilateral frontal walls, indicated for recalcitrant bilateral disease.^[73] ^[74] This maximal procedure achieves patency in 85-95% of cases for chronic frontal sinusitis, with complications like frontal stenosis occurring in under 5%.^[75] Preoperative computed tomography review is essential to assess anatomy and select the appropriate Draf type, minimizing risks such as cerebrospinal fluid leak or orbital injury.^[76] Open procedures, including the osteoplastic flap (OPF), provide direct access for obliteration or tumor resection when endoscopic methods fail or anatomy precludes endonasal approaches.^[77] In OPF, a coronal incision exposes the frontal bone, followed by outline-guided osteotomy to reflect the anterior wall as a flap, allowing mucomucosal stripping, drilling of diseased mucosa, and obliteration with abdominal fat if preservation is not feasible; the flap is then secured with plates or wires.^[78] This technique yields disease-free outcomes in over 90% of chronic cases at 1-3 year follow-up, though reserved for revision surgery due to risks of mucocele formation (2-5%) if incomplete mucosa removal occurs.^[79] ^[80] Reconstructive procedures address frontal sinus fractures or post-resection defects, prioritizing sinus preservation in anterior table injuries without posterior wall involvement or dural violation to avoid unnecessary obliteration.^[81] For displaced fractures, open reduction and internal fixation with titanium plates restores contour and function, with endoscopic assistance for associated sinusitis.^[82] In severe trauma or malignancy requiring cranialization—removal of posterior table and sinus mucosa—reconstruction employs pericranial flaps or vascularized free tissue transfers to separate intracranial contents from nasal cavity, reducing infection risk to below 10%.^[83] Outcomes emphasize multidisciplinary input, with imaging-guided navigation enhancing precision in revisions.^[84]

Forensic applications

Identification methods

The frontal sinus is utilized in forensic identification through comparative analysis of its morphological features, which exhibit individual variability in shape, size, asymmetry, and internal septation patterns. Identification typically requires antemortem (AM) radiographic records, such as paranasal sinus X-rays or computed tomography (CT) scans obtained for medical purposes, to be matched against postmortem (PM) images of unidentified remains. This method leverages the sinuses' postnatal development and stability after full pneumatization, generally by early adulthood, rendering them resistant to post-mortem alterations beyond severe trauma or disease.^[85]^[31] Standard procedures begin with image acquisition using posteroanterior (PA) or Waters' view radiographs to visualize the frontal sinuses bilaterally, though multiplanar CT scans provide superior three-dimensional detail for complex cases. Forensic anthropologists or odontologists outline key traits including sinus height, maximum width, area, supraorbital angle, and metopic groove presence, often employing Schüller's classification system (dividing sinuses into types based on extension: I-limited to frontal bone, II-reaching lacrimal bone, III-extending to orbital roof). Qualitative assessment involves visual pattern matching and digital superimposition software to align AM and PM outlines, confirming concordance in contour irregularities and septa configurations. Quantitative metrics, such as linear dimensions or fractal analysis of borders, supplement visual methods to quantify similarity, with discrepancies in orientation or magnification corrected via landmark scaling.^[86]^[87]^[88] In cases lacking traditional AM records, frontal sinus patterns may integrate with other cranial features for exclusionary purposes, though positive identification demands exclusion of all alternatives through exhaustive comparison. Advanced protocols incorporate cone-beam CT for enhanced resolution in fragmented skulls, ensuring minimal distortion from decomposition or taphonomic effects. These methods have been validated in retrospective case studies, where successful matches occurred in over 90% of instances with comparable image quality.^[85]^[89]

Reliability and recent advancements

The reliability of frontal sinus morphology for forensic identification stems from its high degree of individual uniqueness, attributed to asymmetric patterns of septa, cells, and overall topography that develop postnatally and remain stable after age 20.^[90] Studies using radiographic comparisons have demonstrated that frontal sinus patterns are sufficiently distinct to enable positive identifications, with one analysis of Indian populations concluding that the asymmetry and configuration are unique to individuals, supporting medico-legal applications.^[91] However, reliability is not absolute; early forensic claims of uniqueness relied on subjective visual matches, potentially introducing bias, and factors such as cranial orientation during imaging can alter perceived morphology, necessitating standardized protocols.^[92] ^[93] Visual assessment by diverse practitioners yields an overall accuracy of 89.9% across 3,625 comparisons, with a median of 92%, though inter-observer variability persists among less experienced examiners.^[94] Comparative morphometric studies report 100% predictive accuracy for sex and identity using frontal sinus dimensions, outperforming maxillary sinuses, but population-specific absence rates (e.g., higher in certain Asian groups) limit utility in those cases.^[95] ^[96] Recent advancements have enhanced reliability through advanced imaging and quantitative methods. Two-dimensional computed tomography (CT) of frontal sinuses has been validated as a reproducible tool for feature-based matching, with a 2025 study confirming its efficacy for personal identification via standardized morphological landmarks.^[97] Three-dimensional superimposition techniques exploit the sinuses' topographic uniqueness for precise overlays, applicable even in fragmented remains.^[98] Machine learning applications, including deep learning models for paranasal sinus analysis, automate pattern recognition and improve objectivity over traditional visual methods.^[99] A 2024 geometric morphometric algorithm integrates elliptical Fourier analysis for probability-based matching, achieving high specificity in victim identification scenarios.^[100] Non-contrast CT pattern analysis further refines sex differentiation and identification in medico-legal contexts, with studies from 2022 onward emphasizing its utility in diverse populations.^[101] These developments, grounded in empirical validation, mitigate historical limitations like subjectivity while expanding applicability to mass disasters and decomposed remains.^[85]

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May 19, 2017 · Frontal sinus development and growth is strongly associated with specific age related periods of skull growth. These periods of growth are ...Missing: postnatal | Show results with:postnatal
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Nose and sinuses - Knowledge @ AMBOSS
Jan 27, 2022 · Help provide resonance to the voice; Warm and humidify air that is inhaled; Are part of the mucosal immune system. Paranasal sinuses ...
[35]
Frontal sinuses and human evolution - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Oct 21, 2022 · Two hypotheses of enduring popularity are that sinuses are a thermoregulatory adaptation [e.g., (17)] or that they serve to disperse masticatory ...
[36]
Beyond the Sniffer: Frontal Sinuses in Carnivora
Oct 14, 2014 · We explore frontal sinus morphology in Carnivora to further investigate various hypotheses for the function and structure of paranasal sinuses.Abstract · Sinus Size And Skull Size · Sinus Size Versus Skull...
[37]
The biomechanical significance of the frontal sinus in Kabwe 1 ...
This spatial hypothesis predicts that if the eyes are positioned substantially anteriorly relative to the brain, then big browridges develop to fill the 'gap' ...
[38]
Acute Frontal Sinusitis - PMC - NIH
Intracranial complications should be suspected when symptoms are protracted or more severe than would be expected for a typical case of acute sinusitis. The ...
[39]
The diagnosis and management of sinusitis: A practice parameter ...
Sinusitis, defined as inflammation of one or more of the paranasal sinuses, is characterized as acute when lasting less than 4 weeks, subacute when lasting 4 to ...
[40]
Acute Sinusitis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Aug 2, 2025 · Both complications typically originate from frontal sinus infections, spreading through the valveless diploic vein system via the bloodstream.
[41]
Frontal sinusitis and its intracranial complications - PubMed
Classically, frontal sinusitis presents with headache or pain usually following an upper respiratory infection. Purulent nasal discharge may be noted on ...Missing: treatment | Show results with:treatment
[42]
IDSA Clinical Practice Guideline for Acute Bacterial Rhinosinusitis in ...
Evidence-based guidelines for the diagnosis and initial management of suspected acute bacterial rhinosinusitis in adults and children were prepared
[43]
The serious complications of frontal sinusitis, a case series ... - NIH
Dec 31, 2020 · The serious complications of frontal sinusitis ranges from orbital abscess to frank frontal lobe abscess. The management is a combination of systemic ...
[44]
Frontal Sinus Fractures - PMC - NIH
Epidemiology. Frontal sinus fractures represent 5 to 15% of all facial fractures and are most often the result of high velocity craniofacial trauma, such as ...
[45]
Frontal Sinus Fractures - StatPearls - NCBI - NIH
Jun 30, 2023 · Fractures of the frontal sinus are most commonly seen in the emergency department after motor vehicle accidents (MVAs), falls, assaults, falling objects, and ...
[46]
Management of frontal sinus trauma: a retrospective study of ...
Jan 18, 2024 · The incidence of frontal sinus fracture is relatively rare, accounting for only 2–15% of cases of maxillofacial trauma, given the dome-shaped ...
[47]
Frontal Sinus Fractures: Management and Complications - PMC
Feb 19, 2019 · The most frequent complaints are frontal headache, nasal purulent drainage, frontal sinus tenderness, and fluctuant swelling of the forehead.<|separator|>
[48]
Frontal Sinus Fractures: Evidence and Clinical Reflections - LWW
Apr 18, 2022 · The purpose of this study was to present an evidence-based overview of frontal sinus fracture management and outcomes.
[49]
Frontal Sinus Fractures: Management and Complications
Sep 1, 2019 · Long-term complication of frontal sinus fracture can occur up to 10 years after initial injury or intervention; so, judicious long-term ...
[50]
Incidence, patterns, and management of frontal sinus fractures - NIH
Frontal sinus fractures were mostly required surgical treatment (63.9%) and post-operative complications occurred especially the neurological and ophthalmic.
[51]
Contemporary Management of Frontal Sinus Fractures
Sep 2, 2024 · Open surgical repair has been considered the “workhorse” of frontal sinus fracture treatment. However, advances in radiography and ...
[52]
Complications of Frontal Sinus Fractures - PMC - NIH
Mucocele, encephalocele, volume loss, and cicatrix related problems are usually late complications. Once again, the need for lifelong surveillance and routine ...
[53]
Traumatic Frontal Sinus Fractures Management
Mar 18, 2021 · Complications · 4) demonstrated that 36% of patients with surgically managed frontal sinus injuries had a preoperative CSF leak. · 35) reported a ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[54]
Primary Frontal Sinus Carcinoma: A Case Report
Primary frontal sinus carcinoma is extremely rare, with an incidence of 0.3-1% of all paranasal sinus carcinomas. It occurs more often in adults over 50, ...
[55]
Frontal sinus cancer resection and reconstruction - PMC - NIH
Jan 13, 2011 · Nasal cavity and paranasal sinus cancer has an incidence of less than 1 per 100,000 persons per year, the frontal sinus being involved in less ...
[56]
Osteomas and Mucoceles of the Frontal Paranasal Sinuses in
Both osteomas and mucoceles may be confused with fibrous dysplasia or an underlying meningioma in some cases. It is also important to note that some of the ...<|separator|>
[57]
Is the frontal sinus immune to carcinoma? A retrospective study and ...
Aug 15, 2023 · The frontal sinus seems to be immune from primary carcinoma. Further studies are needed to explain such immunity.
[58]
Malignant Tumors of the Sinuses - Medscape Reference
May 9, 2024 · Sinonasal malignancies (SNMs) can grow to considerable size before presentation, and aggressive therapy may be needed in areas close to the skull base, orbits, ...
[59]
Sinonasal Malignancies Involving the Frontal Sinus - NIH
Apr 28, 2023 · This is a retrospective review of patients affected by frontal sinus malignancies surgically treated in a tertiary-care referral center over a period of 20 ...
[60]
Isolated Frontal Sinus Undifferentiated Carcinoma: First Case ...
Sinonasal undifferentiated carcinoma (SNUC) is a rare tumor which usually seen in nasal cavity and maxillary sinus.
[61]
Frontal Sinus Schwannoma: Case Report and Review of Literature
We report a patient with an incidentally found right frontal sinus lesion. The patient underwent resection of the tumor via a right craniotomy.
[62]
Lymphoma of the Frontal Sinus: Case Report and Review of Literature
A 43-year-old woman had an unusual case of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) of the frontal sinus. Although the tumor was not diagnosed until after gross.
[63]
Paranasal Sinus Mucocele - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Paranasal sinus mucoceles are epithelium-lined cystic masses usually resulting from obstruction of sinus ostia. They most frequently occur in the frontal ...
[64]
Frontal sinus mucocele with orbital complications - NIH
The mucoceles are benign, slow-growing lesions that commonly occur in the frontal or ethmoidal group of sinuses and are rarely found as an isolated intranasal ...
[65]
Sinus mucocele: Natural history and long-term recurrence rate
Sinus mucoceles are benign cystic tumours, arising at the expense of the paranasal sinus mucosa, lined by non-neoplastic epithelium, and containing usually ...
[66]
Sinonasal Mucocele – Symptoms and Causes | Penn Medicine
A sinonasal mucocele is usually caused by a buildup of mucus in the drainage channels of your sinuses. This obstruction can result from chronic sinus infections ...
[67]
Giant frontal sinus mucocele mimicked a primary brain tumor
We present a rare case of a giant frontal sinus mucocele in which the neurological and radiological findings strongly suggested a high-grade brain tumor.
[68]
Paranasal sinus mucocele | Radiology Reference Article
May 6, 2010 · Paranasal sinus mucoceles represent complete opacification of one or more paranasal sinuses by mucus, often associated with bony expansion due to obstruction ...
[69]
The Frontal Sinus and Frontal Recess: Anatomical, Radiological and ...
Jul 31, 2020 · This paper will provide a comprehensive overview of the most useful concepts and techniques regarding frontal sinus surgery.
[70]
Standard Endoscopic Approaches in Frontal Sinus Surgery - PubMed
The mainstay of frontal sinus surgery for chronic rhinosinusitis is to achieve and maintain an adequate frontal outflow tract.
[71]
Clinical Outcome of Endoscopic Surgery for Frontal Sinusitis
Although the long-term results of endoscopic surgery for frontal sinusitis are unknown, this approach appears to be effective for most patients.
[72]
Revision endoscopic frontal sinus surgery - PubMed
Frontal sinus obliteration used to be the preferred technique of most sinus surgeons for addressing difficult frontal sinus disease; however, several effective ...
[73]
Draf classification of frontal sinus surgery - Radiopaedia.org
Jul 1, 2025 · The Draf classification breaks down the different methods to approach the frontal sinus, in order of increasing surgical complexity and ...
[74]
The Draf III procedure: A review of indications and techniques - PMC
Mar 22, 2022 · The Draf Ⅲ procedure involves the creation of a common frontal sinus cavity. The most common indication for the Draf Ⅲ procedure is chronic ...
[75]
[PDF] Frontal Sinus Surgery: The State of the Art
Aim: Review and describe the essential components of modern frontal sinus surgery. Background: Frontal sinus surgery has evolved considerably.
[76]
[PDF] Prevention and Management of Complications in Frontal Sinus ...
A critical preoperative review of the computed tomography (CT) scan is vital and must be performed by the operating surgeon once a decision for surgery has been ...
[77]
Modern concepts of frontal sinus surgery - PubMed
In contrast, the osteoplastic frontal sinusotomy remains the "gold standard" for external approaches to frontal sinus disease. Methods: A retrospective review ...
[78]
Frontal Sinus Osteoplastic Flap | Iowa Head and Neck Protocols
Apr 30, 2017 · Operative Procedure · Bone flap is replaced over sinus and fat. · Secure bone back in place with microplates or wires. · Close periosteal ...
[79]
Frontal sinus osteoplastic flap: is it relevant today?
Nov 2, 2018 · The mean follow-up period ranged from 1 to 3 years. There was no recurrence of disease and no significant postoperative complications have been ...
[80]
Osteoplastic Frontal Sinus Surgery With Fat Obliteration: Technique ...
Jan 2, 2009 · The osteoplastic flap with fat obliteration is a highly effective method of management of chronic frontal sinus disease when the entire frontal ...
[81]
Sinus Preservation Management for Frontal Sinus Fractures in the ...
We systematically reviewed the existing literature supporting the efficacy and safety of sinus preservation management for frontal sinus fractures in the modern ...
[82]
Changing the surgical dogma in frontal sinus trauma - PubMed
Background: Management of frontal sinus trauma includes coronal or direct open approaches through skin incisions to either ablate or obliterate the frontal ...
[83]
The role of the osteoplastic flap in the endoscopic era - NIH
Apr 26, 2023 · To retrospectively review the experience of five tertiary-care university hospitals on frontal sinus revision surgery with osteoplastic flap (OPF).
[84]
Revision endoscopic frontal sinus surgery with surgical navigation
Endoscopic techniques with surgical navigation are effective in revision frontal sinus cases. The dissection of remnant agger nasi, obstructing frontal and ...
[85]
Frontal sinuses as tools for human identification: a systematic review ...
Computed tomography and radiographs of the skull (several techniques for acquisition) were the image modalities of choice across studies. Metric (measurements) ...
[86]
Uniqueness of radiographic patterns of the frontal sinus for personal ...
This study was performed to evaluate the uniqueness and reliability of the frontal sinuses by comparing various patterns of frontal sinus as observed on Waters ...
[87]
Identification by frontal sinus pattern in forensic anthropology
A general discussion about identification using frontal sinus X-rays is presented, pointing out the reliability of the method, in reference to the uniqueness of ...
[88]
Frontal sinus pattern analysis for human identification using non ...
Dec 19, 2022 · Some proven methods employed by forensic scientists and legal authorities for person identification are fingerprinting, DNA analysis, and ...
[89]
Identification by frontal sinus pattern in forensic anthropology
A general discussion about identification using frontal sinus X-rays is presented, pointing out the reliability of the method, in reference to the uniqueness of ...
[90]
Personal Identification in Forensic Science Using Uniqueness of ...
This study shows that the frontal sinus of each individual is unique and, as a consequence, frontal sinus pattern matching can be useful as a technique in some ...
[91]
Forensic application of frontal sinus measurement among the Indian ...
Conclusion: The observation of the present study suggests that the frontal sinus is highly asymmetrical and unique to the individual and hence can be ...
[92]
[PDF] Positive Identification Using Frontal Sinus Comparisons
“Personal Identification in Forensic Anthropology.” On Campus. Presentation. ... research assessing the frontal sinus for its use in personal identification.
[93]
The Effects of Cranial Orientation on Forensic Frontal Sinus ...
The utility of frontal sinuses for personal identification is widely recognized, but potential factors affecting its reliability remain uncertain.
[94]
Visual assessment for frontal sinus radiographic identifications ...
Jan 20, 2025 · This study aimed to test the accuracy of visual assessment in frontal sinus identifications across a large and experientially diverse participant sample.
[95]
Comparative study of the reliability of frontal and maxillary sinuses in ...
The frontal sinuses showed the best overall correct predictive accuracy which was 100% in both males and females. Conclusion: Left transverse, right and left ...
[96]
Frontal Sinus Absence Rates in Various Populations
Mar 23, 2018 · Results may be useful in forensic identification comparisons involving individuals who lack a frontal sinus. KEYWORDS: frontal sinus ...
[97]
Forensic personal identification using two-dimensional computed ...
Aug 12, 2025 · Personal identification plays a crucial role in forensic investigations. The frontal sinus (FS), due to its unique anatomical ...Abstract · Materials And Methods · Discussion
[98]
Human identification through frontal sinus 3D superimposition
The uniqueness of the frontal sinus topography is remarkable and through the described technique, can be used in forensic as an identification method whenever ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[99]
Paranasal sinus analysis based on deep learning and machine ...
This survey provides an in-depth review of recent advancements in forensic anthropology through the application of imaging and modeling techniques for paranasal ...
[100]
A Novel Algorithm for Forensic Identification Using Geometric ... - MDPI
Aug 23, 2024 · Extensive research has demonstrated the utility of the frontal sinus as a valuable feature for human identification [21,22] and differentiating ...2. Materials And Methods · 2.7. Victim Identification... · 2.8. Algorithm Testing...
[101]
Frontal sinus pattern analysis for human identification using non ...
Dec 19, 2022 · Chaudhary S, Singh U. Uniqueness of frontal sinus as tool for personal identification in forensic odontology. Ann Int Med Dent Res 2016; 2: 7–9.<|separator|>