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General Directorate of Intelligence

The General Directorate of Intelligence (GDI) is the primary internal security and intelligence apparatus of the Taliban-led Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, functioning as the regime's main enforcer for surveillance, counterintelligence, and suppression of dissent following the Taliban's 2021 takeover of Kabul.^[1]^[2] Headed by Abdul Haq Wasiq, a former Guantanamo Bay detainee with ties to the Haqqani network, the GDI oversees specialized directorates focused on monitoring compliance with Sharia edicts, detaining perceived threats, and conducting interrogations, often in unmarked facilities.^[1]^[3] Described by Taliban supreme leader Hibatullah Akhundzada as the "backbone" of the government, the agency prioritizes domestic control over external threats, collaborating with the Ministry of Interior to enforce ideological conformity and neutralize opposition through arbitrary arrests, forced confessions, and reported instances of torture and humiliation.^[3]^[2] It has drawn international scrutiny for targeting journalists, activists, and former government officials—detaining hundreds in patterns of abuse, including beatings and coerced admissions of spying—while contributing to a sharp decline in media freedom, with active journalists dropping by over half since August 2021.^[1]^[2] Unlike its Republican-era predecessor, the National Directorate of Security, which emphasized counterterrorism, the GDI's operations reflect a shift toward regime preservation, including alleged involvement in aid diversion enforcement and broader human rights violations amid widespread impunity.^[1]^[2]

History

Formation and Early Development

The General Directorate of Intelligence, initially organized as the Ba'ath Party's Jihaz al-Khas (Special Apparatus), was established in 1964 amid Iraq's turbulent post-monarchical republican era following the 1958 revolution that overthrew the Hashemite monarchy under Abdul Karim Qasim.^[4] This formation addressed the intelligence vacuum and internal security challenges in a period marked by frequent coups, factional strife, and ideological threats, building on fragmented republican security structures inherited from Qasim's regime, which had emphasized countering monarchical loyalists but struggled against communist influences and pan-Arab nationalists aligned with Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser.^[5] The Jihaz al-Khas was founded by Saddam Hussein, then a rising Ba'ath operative, to safeguard the party's survival after its brief 1963 rule and subsequent suppression, focusing primarily on internal surveillance of rivals within the military and political spheres.^[4] Early operations under the Jihaz prioritized neutralizing communist elements—perceived as enablers of Qasim's isolationist policies—and pan-Arab competitors who challenged Ba'athist consolidation during the Cold War context of superpower rivalries and regional instability.^[5] No formal state decree immediately elevated it to a governmental body, but its party-based mandate involved rudimentary intelligence gathering, informant networks, and preemptive actions against coup plotters, drawing informal influences from Qasim-era investigative offices that had handled political dissent but lacked centralized coordination.^[4] By the mid-1960s, under the Arif brothers' regimes, the apparatus evolved to monitor Ba'ath underground activities, reflecting the regime's need for partisan loyalty amid ongoing purges and the 1966 Syrian Ba'ath schism that heightened ideological vigilance.^[5] Key early leadership rested with Saddam Hussein, who directed the Jihaz al-Khas from exile and clandestine bases, emphasizing personal networks from Tikrit and party cells to build operational capacity without reliance on state resources.^[4] This phase laid the groundwork for formalized structures, though limited by resources and the Ba'ath's marginal status until the 1968 coup, with initial efforts constrained to domestic threat assessment rather than expansive foreign operations.^[5] The entity's growth reflected causal pressures of survival in a coup-prone environment, where empirical threats from ideologically diverse opponents necessitated agile, party-loyal intelligence over institutionalized bureaucracy.^[4]

Expansion Under Ba'athist Rule

Following the Ba'ath Party's seizure of power in the July 1968 coup, the nascent intelligence apparatus, initially rooted in the party's Jihaz al-Khas (Special Apparatus), underwent rapid integration into Ba'ath structures to ensure regime loyalty amid factional rivalries. Saddam Hussein, as deputy to President Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr, prioritized purges of perceived disloyal elements, including non-Ba'athists and rival party factions, to professionalize the service by installing ideologically aligned personnel. This consolidation emphasized surveillance of internal threats, such as communist sympathizers and Kurdish insurgents, reflecting the regime's imperative for survival in Iraq's divided sectarian landscape.^[6] A pivotal expansion occurred in 1973 after the failed coup attempt led by Nazim Kazzar, the Director of National Security, which exposed vulnerabilities in the existing setup and prompted a major reorganization. The Jihaz al-Khas was formally transformed into the Da'irat al-Mukhabarat al-Amma (General Directorate of Intelligence, or DGI), elevating it as the regime's primary external and internal intelligence arm with enhanced autonomy and resources. This restructuring involved purges of coup sympathizers and a shift toward centralized control under Saddam's oversight, incorporating Ba'ath Party oversight to filter for unwavering loyalty.^[7]^[6] In the mid-1970s, as Saddam's influence grew ahead of his 1979 ascension to presidency, the DGI saw further professionalization through targeted recruitment from trusted networks, notably the Tikriti clan from Saddam's hometown of Al-Awja. Leaders like Saadun Shakir, a Tikriti and Revolutionary Command Council member, headed the agency, supported by Saddam's half-brother Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti, fostering a cadre of kin-based loyalists to counter Shiite opposition and persistent Kurdish unrest. This clannish infusion strengthened causal mechanisms for regime stability by minimizing betrayal risks in a high-stakes authoritarian environment.^[6]

Evolution During Key Conflicts

During the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988), the General Directorate of Intelligence significantly expanded its human intelligence networks inside Iran, recruiting assets among officials and military personnel to gather actionable data on Iranian troop movements, incursion plans, and strategic vulnerabilities, which informed Iraqi counteroffensives.^[8] These operations complemented broader military intelligence efforts, with dedicated units deploying around 80 officers backed by 2,500 non-commissioned and enlisted personnel by 1986 to track Iranian chemical weapons activities and production sites.^[9] In response to the 1991 uprisings triggered by Iraq's defeat in the Gulf War, the Directorate shifted resources to domestic counterintelligence, identifying rebel leadership and strongholds among Shiite groups in the south and Kurdish forces in the north, enabling coordinated strikes by Republican Guard units that restored regime authority within approximately six weeks.^[6] Insurgents specifically assaulted Directorate headquarters in northern cities including Kirkuk and Dohuk, reflecting its operational centrality in disrupting and preempting organized resistance to prevent broader regime collapse.^[5] Post-1991, under UN sanctions and UNSCOM oversight, the agency adapted by prioritizing deception and concealment tactics, such as relocating SCUD missiles during the Gulf War and subsequently hiding weapons program documents to evade inspector access, while conducting surveillance on UN personnel to compromise monitoring efficacy.^[4]^[10] These efforts extended to supporting sanctions evasion through intelligence guidance on smuggling routes for oil exports and dual-use imports, sustaining regime finances amid economic isolation.^[11]

Organization and Structure

Internal Directorates and Divisions

The General Directorate of Intelligence (GID), known as Idarat al-Mukhabarat al-Amma or Mukhabarat, operated through a hierarchical structure comprising approximately 18 specialized directorates, designed for compartmentalized functions to minimize risks of compromise and ensure operational security.^[12] These units handled distinct areas such as domestic surveillance, foreign operations, technical support, and regional coordination, with headquarters primarily in Baghdad's Mansour district.^[12] The structure prioritized functional silos, where information sharing was limited to essential channels, reflecting the regime's emphasis on internal loyalty and counter-espionage.^[12] Key functional directorates included Directorate 4 (Secret Service), based at GID headquarters and tasked with covert domestic and international agent operations; Directorate 8 (Technical Affairs), responsible for logistical and technical support; Directorate 9 (Secret Operations), focused on external sabotage and assassinations in coordination with units like Directorates 5, 12, 14, and 18; and Directorate 12 (Electronic Surveillance), handling signals intelligence and monitoring.^[12] Regional directorates oversaw provincial activities, such as Directorate 23 (Southern District) in Basra for southern Iraq operations, Directorate 24 (Northern District) in Mosul for Kurdish areas, Directorate 25 (Western District) in Ramadi for Syrian and Jordanian borders, and Directorate 26 (Eastern District) in Karbala for central-eastern governorates.^[12] Additional units supported specialized roles, including Directorate 3 (Surveillance) for monitoring suspects and recruits in Baghdad's Jihad district, Directorate 14 (Special Operations) in Salman Pak for overseas missions, Directorate 18 focused on Iranian operations via the Mujahideen-e Khalq, Directorate 21 (Residency) for foreign permit oversight in Karada, and Directorate 28 for securing Military Industrialization Organization sites on Palestine Street.^[12] The agency's estimated 4,000 personnel by the late 1990s were allocated across these directorates, with leadership under figures like Director Rafi' Dahham al-Tikriti from 1997 onward.^[12]^[13] Directorates reported upward through the director's office—encompassing the Political Bureau, Special Bureau, and Administration Bureau—to President Saddam Hussein, independent of formal ministerial oversight despite nominal ties to the Ministry of Interior.^[7] Functional overlaps existed with the Special Security Organization (SSO), which managed regime protection and occasionally interfaced on high-level directives, reinforcing centralized control.^[5] This setup ensured direct presidential access while maintaining directorate-level autonomy in execution.^[7]

Personnel Recruitment, Training, and Oversight

The General Directorate of Intelligence, known as the Mukhabarat or Idarat al-Mukhabarat al-Amma, primarily recruited personnel from loyal Sunni Arab communities, with a strong emphasis on individuals from Saddam Hussein's hometown of Tikrit and surrounding areas, to ensure tribal and regional allegiance within the Ba'athist security apparatus.^[14] Recruitment processes were overseen by internal units such as Directorate 3, which identified and vetted potential recruits through surveillance and Ba'ath Party channels, prioritizing party membership and ideological conformity to minimize infiltration risks.^[12] This selective approach resulted in a personnel composition estimated at around 4,000, dominated by vetted Ba'ath loyalists who underwent rigorous background checks involving family ties and political reliability.^[12] Training for Mukhabarat officers occurred at specialized facilities, including the National Security Institute in Baghdad's Jihad district or Abu Ghraib area, where the Special Bureau coordinated programs focused on surveillance, covert operations, and interrogation techniques.^[12] These programs drew on methods influenced by Soviet and Eastern Bloc intelligence practices, reflecting Iraq's historical military and advisory ties with the USSR, including exchanges and doctrinal adaptations for domestic counterintelligence.^[15] Directorate 14 provided advanced training for elite operatives in secret operations, sometimes in collaboration with external groups like the Mujahideen-e Khalq, emphasizing practical skills in infiltration and agent handling.^[12] Oversight mechanisms emphasized loyalty enforcement through constant internal monitoring by Directorate 1, which issued directives and conducted purges to eliminate suspected disloyalty or factionalism.^[12] Regular rotations of personnel across directorates and postings prevented the formation of independent power bases, a practice reinforced by Saddam Hussein's liquidation committees following high-profile defections, such as those in the early 1990s.^[16] Defection rates remained low during major crises like the 1991 Gulf War due to these controls, including family hostage systems and ideological indoctrination, though isolated senior-level defections occurred, prompting subsequent purges in related security units.^[17]

Core Activities

Domestic Surveillance and Counterintelligence

The General Directorate of Intelligence, commonly known as the Mukhabarat, prioritized domestic surveillance through systematic monitoring of Iraqi citizens, rival security apparatuses, and potential internal dissidents to enforce regime loyalty. Its counterintelligence mandate encompassed detecting espionage, suppressing opposition networks, and overseeing other state security organs to prevent subversion. Directorate 3, based in Baghdad's Jihad district, specialized in tracking suspects and recruiting informants from civilian sectors, forming a foundational layer of proactive threat identification.^[12] The Mukhabarat cultivated extensive internal informant networks that penetrated key societal elements, enabling the early uncovering of plots against Saddam Hussein. These efforts were pivotal in thwarting significant threats, including a 1973 coup attempt led by Nazim Kazzar, which prompted the agency's restructuring into the General Intelligence Directorate to bolster its operational efficacy. Iraqi intelligence reports indicate that such vigilance allowed Saddam to survive at least seven assassination attempts spanning roughly 1968 to 1983.^[6]^[18]^[6] Interrogations of captured suspects were handled by units like the Special Bureau (Office One) within the Mukhabarat's Baghdad headquarters, yielding actionable intelligence to dismantle nascent conspiracies. Although lapses occurred, such as the failure to preempt the 1982 Dujail assassination bid—which triggered leadership shake-ups and purges—the agency's pervasive oversight and rapid response mechanisms sustained Ba'athist control over Iraq's fractious ethnic and sectarian landscape, forestalling widespread insurrections and ensuring regime longevity until external invasion.^[12]^[6]

Foreign Intelligence Collection and Covert Operations

The General Directorate of Intelligence, also known as the Iraqi Intelligence Service or Mukhabarat, operated foreign stations and agent networks in Europe, the Middle East, and select African countries to monitor Iraqi exiles, gather intelligence on regional rivals including Iran and Syria, and counter external threats to the Ba'athist regime.^[12] These overseas activities were coordinated through directorates such as the Secret Service Directorate, which deployed agents under diplomatic cover in Iraqi embassies and consulates to conduct espionage and sabotage.^[12] During the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), foreign collection efforts prioritized intelligence on Iranian military capabilities and exile networks hosted by Tehran, often involving human intelligence assets embedded in border regions and neutral states.^[19] In Europe, Mukhabarat stations focused on surveilling and disrupting Iraqi opposition groups, particularly in countries like West Germany where dissidents gathered in the 1970s and 1980s.^[20] Agents there engaged in covert surveillance, recruitment of informants among exile communities, and efforts to intimidate or repatriate critics, reflecting the regime's strategy to extend domestic control abroad.^[20] Similar operations targeted exiles in Lebanon, a hub for anti-regime activities due to its porous borders and sectarian divisions, where intelligence gathering intertwined with efforts to neutralize Syrian-backed opposition factions.^[21] Covert operations included multiple assassination plots against dissidents from the 1970s through the 1990s, with the Mukhabarat implicated in attempts across Lebanon and Europe to eliminate high-profile exiles.^[5] For example, in the late 1980s, agents pursued plots against figures like Sargon Dadesho, an exiled Iraqi dissident, underscoring the agency's role in extraterritorial eliminations that prompted international scrutiny, including the U.S. cruise missile strike on Mukhabarat headquarters in June 1993 in retaliation for a foiled plot against former U.S. President George H.W. Bush.^[22]^[5] The Mukhabarat forged alliances with non-state actors for deniable operations, notably providing safe haven, financial support, and logistical aid to the Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) from the early 1980s until ANO leader Sabri al-Banna's death in Baghdad in 2002.^[23] Captured Iraqi documents analyzed post-2003 invasion reveal regime directives for ANO funding—totaling millions of dollars annually—and joint training at Iraqi facilities, enabling the group to conduct attacks on behalf of Iraqi interests while maintaining operational separation.^[24]^[23] This partnership extended foreign reach without direct attribution, though it drew UN sanctions under Resolution 687 for supporting terrorism.^[25]

Support to Regime Security and Military Efforts

The General Directorate of Intelligence, known as al-Mukhabarat al-Amma, collaborated with the Republican Guard to safeguard regime stability through coup prevention measures, including ongoing surveillance of military units to identify loyalty risks and internal threats.^[5] This integration extended to tactical intelligence sharing during the Iran-Iraq War from 1980 to 1988, where Mukhabarat agents supplemented frontline efforts with human intelligence on enemy movements and sabotage networks, drawing on its broader counterintelligence mandate.^[26] In the Anfal campaign against Kurdish populations from February 23 to September 6, 1988, the Mukhabarat provided critical ground-based intelligence for military logistics, compiling dossiers on rural villages deemed "prohibited areas" and identifying suspected saboteurs among civilians by mid-1987.^[27] Its officers interrogated detainees aged 15 to 70 at sites like Topzawa camp starting March 15, 1988, extracting operational data to support army clearances, chemical weapon deployments, and executions that contributed to over 50,000 deaths in targeted zones.^[27] This intelligence coordination with Northern Bureau commands enabled precise mapping of peshmerga positions and facilitated the regime's annihilation phases across six regions.^[27] After the 1991 Gulf War, the Mukhabarat adapted to U.S.-enforced no-fly zones and UN sanctions by directing concealment operations for prohibited military assets, including SCUD missiles during coalition airstrikes and sensitive documents from UNSCOM inspectors.^[10] It established proxy procurement networks via intermediaries in Jordan and Syria to evade arms embargoes, smuggling dual-use materials and components essential for regime military reconstitution through the 1990s.^[28] These efforts sustained limited force modernization despite international isolation, prioritizing loyalty enforcement over conventional capabilities.^[5]

Leadership

Notable Directors and Their Tenures

The General Directorate of Intelligence (Da'irat al-Mukhabarat al-Amma), formed in 1973 from the reorganization of the Ba'ath Party's Jihaz al-Khas following the failed coup attempt by internal security chief Nadhim Kzar, saw its leadership dominated by loyalists from Saddam Hussein's Tikriti clan, reflecting the regime's emphasis on familial and tribal ties for control.^[6] Kzar, appointed director of the Directorate of General Security in 1969, orchestrated a July 1973 plot to assassinate Saddam Hussein and other leaders but was captured, tried, and publicly executed alongside his co-conspirators, underscoring the swift purges for perceived disloyalty that characterized agency command. This event prompted the transformation into the IIS, with initial leadership under Saadun Shakir Mahmud al-Tikriti, a relative of Saddam and Revolutionary Command Council member, who served from approximately 1973 to 1982 and oversaw early expansions amid post-coup consolidations.^[4] ^[6] Shakir's tenure ended amid a 1981-1982 shake-up after an assassination attempt on Saddam's uncle, leading to his replacement by Barzan Ibrahim Hassan al-Tikriti, another half-brother of Saddam, who directed the agency from around 1982 until at least 1989, when he transitioned to Iraq's UN ambassadorship in Geneva.^[4] ^[29] Barzan's leadership exemplified Tikriti entrenchment, as he leveraged clan networks to centralize operations while facing internal regime scrutiny over security lapses. Succeeding him was Sabawi Ibrahim al-Hassan al-Tikriti, Saddam's half-brother, who headed the Mukhabarat from 1989 to 1995, managing intelligence during the 1991 Gulf War but dismissed by Saddam in June 1995 for operational failures, including inadequate threat assessments.^[30] ^[6] The final pre-invasion director, Tahir Jalil Habbush al-Tikriti, assumed leadership around 1999 and held the post until the 2003 U.S.-led invasion, navigating sanctions-era challenges and coordinating with regime elites amid growing international isolation.^[31] ^[10] Habbush, also from the Tikriti lineage, maintained continuity in clan-based appointments, though his era featured repeated purges of subordinates suspected of disloyalty, reinforcing Saddam's personal oversight.^[7] Overall, directorships were marked by short tenures for non-relatives, frequent dismissals or executions tied to coup fears—such as the 1973 incident—and pervasive Tikriti dominance, with at least four of the primary post-1973 leaders sharing Saddam's tribal affiliation to ensure alignment amid Ba'athist power struggles.^[32]

Command Dynamics and Loyalty Mechanisms

The command structure of the General Directorate of Intelligence emphasized Saddam Hussein's personal dominance, with directors reporting directly to him through irregular, palace-based briefings that avoided formalized chains of command within the broader bureaucracy.^[33] This approach, reliant on trusted intermediaries from Saddam's inner circle—often kin from the Tikrit region—enabled rapid information flow while isolating the agency from potential institutional subversion.^[32] By 1990s, such dynamics had centralized oversight under the Presidential Secretariat, where intelligence outputs were vetted personally by Saddam or his sons to preempt disloyalty or misinformation.^[34] To mitigate risks of unilateral betrayal, the GDI functioned alongside parallel entities like the Special Security Organization (SSO), which conducted independent audits of personnel and operations, fostering a layered surveillance system that cross-checked outputs across agencies.^[5] The SSO, established in the early 1980s and commanded by family loyalists such as Hussein Kamel until his 1995 defection, maintained overlapping mandates in counterintelligence, ensuring no single apparatus held unchecked authority and compelling mutual vigilance among security branches.^[35] This redundancy, extending to the General Security Directorate and Republican Guard intelligence units, structurally diffused power while amplifying internal monitoring, as agencies vied to demonstrate fidelity through preempted threats.^[33] Loyalty mechanisms hinged on material incentives, including wealth redistribution via state contracts, property grants, and black-market access allocated to vetted operatives, predominantly from Saddam's Albu Nasir tribe, to bind personal fortunes to regime persistence.^[32] These rewards, disbursed through ad hoc patronage networks rather than institutional salaries, cultivated a cadre of approximately 8,000 personnel by the late 1990s whose allegiance derived from economic dependency.^[6] Yet empirical outcomes revealed vulnerabilities; in the 2003 invasion, GDI units exhibited widespread capitulation, with directors and rank-and-file surrendering en masse to coalition forces by April 9, underscoring how incentives tethered to perceived regime strength eroded absent battlefield success.^[34]

Controversies and Criticisms

Allegations of Repression and Human Rights Abuses

The General Directorate of Intelligence (Mukhabarat al-Amma) was implicated in systematic torture of detainees, including methods such as electric shocks, beatings, suspension from ceilings, and sexual assault, as documented in interrogations targeting perceived regime opponents.^[36]^[37] These practices were routine in Mukhabarat-run facilities, contributing to thousands of enforced disappearances, where individuals arrested on suspicion of disloyalty vanished without trial or record.^[36] In the 1982 Dujail reprisals, following an assassination attempt on Saddam Hussein by Iran-linked Dawa Party militants on July 8, Mukhabarat agents led investigations, resulting in the arrest of over 400 residents, primarily Shiites.^[38] Detainees endured torture at sites including Abu Ghraib prison to extract confessions, culminating in the execution of 148 individuals—mostly men and boys—after expedited proceedings by a Revolutionary Court.^[39]^[38] Testimony from Mukhabarat officer Wadah Ismael Al-Sheik during Hussein's 2005 trial confirmed the agency's role in coordinating detentions and evidence fabrication.^[38] During the Anfal campaign against Kurdish insurgents, Mukhabarat provided intelligence support for targeting, including in the March 16, 1988, Halabja attack, where Iraqi forces deployed chemical agents (mustard gas and nerve agents) on the PUK-held town, killing an estimated 5,000 civilians immediately and injuring up to 10,000 more.^[40] The agency's census data and surveillance identified "saboteurs," facilitating deportations and gassings amid broader operations that displaced hundreds of thousands.^[40] Regime defenders, including former officials, contended that such measures were essential countermeasures against existential threats, including Iran-backed Shiite militias during the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War and Kurdish peshmerga alliances with Tehran, which involved multiple assassination plots and territorial incursions aimed at regime overthrow.^[39] Without ruthless suppression, proponents argued, Iraq risked fragmentation akin to post-colonial states facing hybrid warfare, though empirical records confirm excesses beyond immediate military necessity.^[41]

Claims of International Terrorism Support and Assassinations

The Iraqi General Directorate of Intelligence (IIS), also known as the Mukhabarat, has been accused by Western governments of providing safe haven, training, and financial support to international terrorist organizations, particularly Palestinian militant groups opposed to Israel. Declassified U.S. intelligence assessments indicate that the IIS hosted operatives from groups such as the Abu Nidal Organization in Baghdad during the 1980s and 1990s, offering them operational bases and logistical aid as part of Saddam Hussein's strategy to project power against shared enemies.^[42] Additionally, Iraq under Saddam maintained training facilities where Palestinian fighters received instruction in sabotage, explosives, and small arms tactics, with payments reportedly made to families of Palestinian suicide bombers as incentives for attacks on Israeli targets.^[43] These activities positioned Iraq as a state sponsor of terrorism, though evidence points primarily to opportunistic alliances with secular or nationalist militants rather than ideological alignment with global jihadist networks like al-Qaeda. Allegations of IIS collaboration with al-Qaeda, including purported involvement in the September 11, 2001, attacks, have been extensively examined and largely refuted by official inquiries. The 9/11 Commission Report concluded there was no evidence of a collaborative operational relationship between Iraq and al-Qaeda, nor any Iraqi provision of support for the 9/11 plot, despite pre-war U.S. claims of meetings between Iraqi officials and al-Qaeda figures such as a 2000 Prague encounter involving hijacker Mohamed Atta, which lacked corroboration.^[44] While Saddam's regime shared antipathies with al-Qaeda toward the United States, mutual suspicions—stemming from Iraq's secular Ba'athism and al-Qaeda's Islamist ideology—prevented substantive ties, as evidenced by declassified IIS documents showing no joint operations or funding transfers.^[43] The IIS was directly implicated in several high-profile assassination plots against foreign leaders and dissidents, with the most documented case being the April 1993 attempt on former U.S. President George H.W. Bush during his visit to Kuwait. Declassified CIA analysis of confessions from captured Iraqi suspects, including bomb-maker Raed Abdullah Al-Aziz and operative Wali Abd Al-Hadi Muhammad, confirmed the plot involved a Toyota-laden explosive device detonated by IIS-directed agents, motivated by revenge for the 1991 Gulf War.^[45] The U.S. responded with a June 26, 1993, cruise missile strike on IIS headquarters in Baghdad, citing forensic evidence linking the operation to Directorate M14, the IIS unit specialized in external assassinations and chemical testing for covert killings.^[46] Other alleged IIS-orchestrated attempts included plots against UN officials and exiled Iraqi opponents in Europe, though many remain unproven beyond initial intelligence reports, highlighting the challenges in attributing covert actions amid the agency's compartmentalized structure.^[42]

Effectiveness Versus Brutality Debates

The General Directorate of Intelligence (GDI), known as the Mukhabarat, played a pivotal role in safeguarding the Ba'athist regime against internal subversion, successfully neutralizing multiple coup attempts that threatened Saddam Hussein's rule, including the 1973 plot led by internal security chief Nadhim Kzar and the 1996 effort involving military and tribal elements.^[6]^[35] These interventions, often involving preemptive arrests and executions, contributed to a form of enforced domestic stability that persisted through periods of economic sanctions and military strain. Proponents of the regime's approach, including some post-invasion Iraqi observers, contend that such measures prevented the fragmentation seen in neighboring states and maintained a unified national front against external threats like the 1980-1988 Iran-Iraq War, where intelligence operations helped suppress dissent and Shia clerical networks amid battlefield setbacks.^[14] Critics, drawing from declassified assessments and survivor accounts, argue that the GDI's reliance on pervasive surveillance, torture, and arbitrary detentions fostered a culture of fear-driven compliance rather than genuine loyalty, eroding social cohesion and contributing to societal atomization under Ba'athist rule.^[47] This overreach, while effective in short-term threat elimination, incurred immense human costs, with estimates of tens of thousands detained or disappeared annually in the 1980s and 1990s, prioritizing regime perpetuation over sustainable governance.^[4] Such methods, per analyses from security experts, amplified underlying sectarian resentments without resolving them, setting the stage for regime brittleness when external pressures mounted. Debates on the GDI's balance of efficacy and excess often contrast pre-2003 Iraq's authoritarian order—marked by contained violence under sanctions, with annual conflict-related deaths in the low thousands—with the post-invasion surge in instability, including over 200,000 civilian deaths from 2003-2011 and the Islamic State's territorial control of roughly 40% of Iraqi land by 2014, displacing millions.^[48] Advocates for the pre-invasion model, echoed in some Iraqi voices and strategic reviews, posit that the GDI's brutal deterrence provided a net security benefit by averting civil war-like conditions and containing Islamist extremism, as evidenced by the absence of ISIS precursors under Saddam.^[49] Opponents counter that this stability was illusory and predatory, with repression's long-term erosion of institutional trust and economic vitality exacerbating vulnerabilities exposed after 2003, though data on elevated post-invasion violence underscores the challenges of rapid de-Ba'athification without viable alternatives.^[48] These perspectives highlight a causal tension: while the GDI's tactics demonstrably extended regime longevity, their ethical and societal toll invites scrutiny over whether securitized brutality yields enduring order or merely deferred collapse.

Dissolution and Legacy

Dismantlement After 2003 Invasion

The fall of Baghdad on April 9, 2003, marked the effective collapse of the General Directorate of Intelligence (GDI), as coalition forces overran the Iraqi capital and key regime sites, prompting the agency's leadership to disband operations and flee. Director Tahir Jalil Habbush al-Tikriti evaded capture by going into hiding immediately after the regime's downfall. U.S. troops promptly seized vast archives of GDI documents from multiple locations in Baghdad, including millions of files on April 29, 2003, from a building associated with regime informants, revealing details on secret prisons, surveillance operations, and internal purges. Additional raids in June 2003 uncovered code equipment, nuclear-related manifests, and further intelligence caches abandoned by fleeing personnel.^[50]^[51]^[52] On May 23, 2003, Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) Order Number 2 formally dissolved the GDI alongside the Iraqi military, security apparatus, and other Ba'athist entities, vesting their assets in the CPA and prohibiting their reconstitution. This order explicitly targeted the intelligence infrastructure, including the GDI's networks of agents, safe houses, and operational directorates, effectively ending its institutional existence. Complementing this, CPA Order Number 1 on de-Ba'athification, issued May 16, 2003, purged senior GDI personnel—many of whom held high Ba'ath Party ranks—from any future government roles, exacerbating the agency's disintegration. The abrupt dismantlement scattered GDI's estimated 8,000 personnel, with many former officers dispersing into the civilian population or underground networks, as employment bans and asset seizures left them without structure or livelihood. Subsequent U.S. raids captured some operatives linked to insurgent financing and attacks, while others faced trials for regime-era crimes; for instance, GDI-linked figures were implicated in operations tied to Ali Hassan al-Majid ("Chemical Ali"), who commanded intelligence-driven campaigns during the Anfal genocide and was later convicted in part on evidence from seized files. This dispersal created an immediate security vacuum in intelligence gathering and counter-subversion, as the CPA lacked equivalent capabilities, allowing fragmented ex-GDI elements to pivot toward armed resistance.^[53]^[54] In the ensuing months, the absence of a cohesive intelligence framework hindered coalition efforts to map threats, contributing to the rapid onset of insurgency by mid-2003, as unemployed ex-regime specialists, including GDI veterans, provided tactical expertise to nascent militant groups exploiting the power void. Analysts attribute part of this instability to the decisions' failure to integrate or vet lower-level personnel, alienating skilled operators who might have stabilized security but instead fueled decentralized violence.^[54]

Post-Saddam Repercussions and Successor Agencies

Following the 2003 U.S.-led invasion, the General Directorate of Intelligence was formally dissolved on May 23, 2003, via Coalition Provisional Authority Order Number 2, which dismantled Iraq's Ba'athist-era security and intelligence apparatuses, including the Mukhabarat, vesting their assets in the CPA and prohibiting their reconstitution.^[55] This order, combined with CPA Order Number 1 issued on May 16, 2003, implemented de-Ba'athification by barring senior Ba'ath Party members—many of whom staffed the Directorate—from public employment, resulting in the abrupt dismissal of thousands of experienced intelligence personnel without structured transition or vetting processes. The policy aimed to eradicate regime loyalty networks but created an immediate intelligence vacuum, as former operatives, lacking reintegration pathways, dispersed into unemployment or opposition networks, exacerbating post-invasion disorder.^[56] The Iraqi National Intelligence Service (INIS), established in early 2004 under the interim government with U.S. and CIA assistance, emerged as the primary successor to the Mukhabarat, tasked with foreign and domestic intelligence gathering and reporting to the prime minister.^[14] However, de-Ba'athification severely hampered INIS recruitment and capacity-building; by barring most ex-Directorate experts, the agency inherited minimal institutional knowledge, relying instead on hastily trained novices and foreign advisors, which delayed effective counterinsurgency operations amid rising violence. Empirical records indicate that INIS struggled with basic human intelligence collection in Sunni areas until at least 2007, partly due to this expertise purge, allowing insurgent safe havens to persist. The Directorate's dissolution contributed to enduring security repercussions, notably by enabling the rapid expansion of Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI), founded in October 2004 by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, as the loss of repressive monitoring networks—pre-2003 tools that had contained Islamist cells through infiltration and elimination—left gaps exploited by foreign fighters and local recruits. Insurgency data from 2003–2006 show a correlation between the May 2003 orders and spikes in attacks, with former intelligence officers sometimes joining militias or AQI for survival, amplifying operational know-how in improvised explosives and assassinations. This vacuum contrasted with the Ba'athist era's empirical success in suppressing groups like Zarqawi's network, where Mukhabarat operations had neutralized precursors through mass arrests and executions, maintaining a lid on jihadist activity despite regime brutality.^[57] Debates persist on whether the disbandment inherently exacerbated chaos or represented a necessary rupture from authoritarian control; proponents of the policy, including CPA administrator Paul Bremer, argued it prevented Ba'athist sabotage of the new order, citing risks of embedded loyalists undermining reconstruction. Critics, drawing on causal analyses of unemployment-driven radicalization—where over 100,000 security personnel were idled without pensions—contend it fueled Sunni disenfranchisement and AQI recruitment, contrasting the pre-invasion containment of Islamists under a unified, if coercive, apparatus.^[56] Later U.S. reviews acknowledged inefficiencies in de-Ba'athification's implementation, such as blanket exclusions over targeted vetting, which prolonged the intelligence deficit and contributed to sectarian violence peaking in 2006–2007.

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Mudiriyyat al-Istikhabarat al-'Askariyya al-. 'Amma (The General Military Intelligence. Directorate) was created in 1932, at the time of. Iraq's independence.( ...
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Iraqi Intelligence Service - IIS [Mukhabarat]
In 1973 the Jihaz was transformed into the Da'irat al Mukhabarat al Amah (General Intelligence Department or GID) after the failed coup attempt by Director of ...
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Iraqi Intelligence Service - IIS [Mukhabarat] - GlobalSecurity.org
Jul 28, 2011 · In 1973 the Jihaz was transformed into the Da'irat al Mukhabarat al Amah (General Intelligence Department or GID) after the failed coup attempt ...Missing: Amma growth 1970s recruitment<|separator|>
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[PDF] Iraqi Human Intelligence Collection on Iran's Nuclear Weapons ... - CIA
Under the rule of Saddam Hus- sein, Iraqi intelligence was a com- plex, interconnected network of five government agencies responsible for ensuring Saddam's ...
[9]
Iraqi Records and the History of Iran's Chemical Weapons Program
Apr 4, 2022 · By 1986, Iraqi military intelligence had nearly eighty officers supported by 2,500 non-commissioned officers and enlisted men working on ...
[10]
Saddam's Security and Intelligence Network and The Iraqi Security ...
Sep 30, 2002 · Iraq's security apparatus is the most important instrument of state control in Saddam's regime and has been fundamental in the preservation of his rule.
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Containing Iraq: Sanctions Worked - jstor
of the resolution in 1992, Iraqi leaders told UN officials that they wanted concrete assurances that sanctions would be lifted before Iraq would agree to accept ...Missing: adaptations counter
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Iraqi Intelligence Service - IIS [Mukhabarat]
Political Bureau · Directorate 4. Secret Service · Directorate 8. Technical Affairs · Directorate 9. Secret Operations · Directorate 12. Electronic Surveillance.Missing: divisions | Show results with:divisions
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Iraqi Intelligence Agencies
Iraqi Intelligence Agencies ; Iraqi Intelligence Service - IIS General Intelligence Directorate - GID [Jihaz al-Mukhabarat al-Amma], 4,000 ; Military Intelligence
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[PDF] Iraq's Security and Intelligence Structures: More Problems
Originally the Iraqi General Intelligence Department relied on assistance from the USSR, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Cuba. These four countries provided ...<|separator|>
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Russia's Primakov and Iraq's Hussein: the World's Most Dangerous ...
The Soviet-Iraqi Intelligence Relationship. The relationship between Primakov and Saddam Hussein cannot be understood without an understanding of the Soviet ...
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[PDF] Conflict Studies Research Centre - comw.org
According to unconfirmed reports Baghdad tried to establish contacts with Teheran in the spring of 1999, when the head of the Iraqi Mukhabarat visited Teheran ...<|separator|>
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https://oxfordre.com/politics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-1829
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Attempts. Iraq's President Saddam Hussein has survived seven assassination attempts over the past 15 years, his intelligence chief says in a newly-published ...
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https://cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp90t01298r000300300001-8
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Saddam's Mukhabarat in West Germany: Monitoring and Silencing ...
Dec 20, 2021 · The aim of the Iraqi Mukhabarat was usually to make dissidents return to Iraq in order to monitor them better. On November 7, 1982, for example, ...Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
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[PDF] THE LEBANON - Refworld
Jul 14, 2006 · of apparently politically-motivated assassinations and assassination attempts during ... Lebanon: Killing of Gibran Tueni. (MDE 18/011/2005) ...
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[PDF] MIDDLE EAST WATCH OVERVIEW
assassinations against Iranian nationals in Europe, the United States ... suspected assassination plot against Sargon Dadesho, an exiled Iraqi dissident.
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[PDF] Iraqi Perspectives Project - DTIC
This report is a redacted version of the original Iraqi Perspectives Report-Saddam and. Terrorism: Emerging Insights from Captured Iraqi Documents, ...
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Iraqi Perspectives Project: Saddam and Terrorism
Captured Iraqi documents have uncovered evidence that links the regime of Saddam Hussein to regional and global terrorism.Missing: Abu Nidal
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Saddam Hussein's Support for International Terrorism
UNSCR 687 prohibits Saddam Hussein from committing or supporting terrorism, or allowing terrorist organizations to operate in Iraq.Missing: documents | Show results with:documents
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This document, titled 'SADDAM'S GENERALS', discusses 'Perspectives of the Iran-Iraq War' and was published by the Institute for Defense Analyses in 2011.
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GENOCIDE IN IRAQ: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds ...
This report is a narrative account of a campaign of extermination against the Kurds of northern Iraq. It is the product of over a year and a half of research.
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Many Helped Iraq Evade U.N. Sanctions On Weapons
Oct 7, 2004 · BERLIN, Oct. 7 -- As part of its stealth effort to evade U.N. sanctions and rebuild its military, the Iraqi government under President ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Nadhim Kzar - Wikipedia
Nadhim Kzar was the first head of the Iraqi Directorate of General Security. Contents. 1 History. 1.1 Attempted coup; 1.2 Execution. 2 References. History.Missing: intelligence | Show results with:intelligence
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Profile: Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti | News - Al Jazeera
Jan 15, 2007 · Barzan Ibrahim Hassan al-Tikriti was one of Saddam Hussein's three half-brothers and a former chief of the feared Mukhabarat intelligence service.
[31]
Sabawi Ibrahim Hasan al-Tikriti | Historica Wiki - Fandom
Sabawi Ibrahim Hasan al-Tikriti (27 February 1947-8 July 2013) was the Director of the Iraqi Intelligence Service from 1989 to 1995 and then Head of the ...Missing: tenure Mukhabarat
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Tahir Jalil Habbush - Powerbase.info
Aug 12, 2008 · Tahir Jalil Habbush al-Tikriti is the former head of Iraqi intelligence. Habbush was appointed head of Iraqi intelligence in 1999, ...Missing: tenure | Show results with:tenure
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Many Iraqis follow the cus- tom of employing their birthplace as a surname. Sa'dun Shakir and Saddam Husayn, for example, used to bear the surname al-Tikriti.Missing: Mukhabarat Amma recruitment
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Introduction - Iraqi Intelligence Agencies
Political power in Iraq is concentrated in a repressive one-party apparatus dominated by Saddam Hussein. The provisional Constitution of 1968 stipulates that ...
[35]
Iraqi Intelligence Agencies - GlobalSecurity.org
Jul 28, 2011 · Most of the center's monitoring equipment was purchased from the Soviet Union and Japan during the early 1980s. Some electronic equipment was ...
[36]
[PDF] MORI DocID: 1127938 - The National Security Archive
The Iraqi intelligence and security services, as presently constituted, date from the assumption of political power by the Bath Party in 1969, though two of the ...
[37]
Iraq: A Population Silenced - state.gov
Silence Through Torture Under Saddam Hussein's orders, the security apparatus in Iraq routinely and systematically tortures its citizens. Beatings, rape ...
[38]
[PDF] Iraq: Stop the torture - Amnesty International
In a report published today -- Iraq: Systematic torture of political prisoners -- the organization paints a grim picture of routine torture, whereby ...Missing: General | Show results with:General
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Ex-spy to testify before Saddam trial resumes - NBC News
Oct 20, 2005 · The witness, Wadah Ismael Al-Sheik, was a senior Iraqi intelligence officer at the time of the Dujail massacre in 1982 that Saddam and seven ...
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Saddam's Iron Grip: Intelligence Reports on Saddam Hussein's Reign
Oct 18, 2005 · The National Security Archive today posted a series of declassified US intelligence documents and other US agency reports on Saddam Hussein's human rights ...
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[PDF] GENOCIDE IN IRAQ - Human Rights Watch
The March 16 Chemical Attack on Halabja ... Appendix C: Known Chemical Attacks in Iraqi Kurdistan, 1987-1988 ...
[42]
[PDF] Were The Atrocities Committed By Saddam Hussein Against The ...
argument that the large counter-assault and massacre at Al-Dujail was a necessary response does not muster credibility. Under customary international law, any ...
[43]
INVOLVEMENT OF THE IRAQI INTELLIGENCE SERVICE IN IRAQ'S ...
NADHIM ((KAZAR)), FORMER DIRECTOR OF THE DGS, ESTABLISHED IT TO TORTURE PEOPLE. KAZAR ALLEGEDLY HAD A POOL OF ACID WHICH HE USED TO DIP PEOPLE IN AND HAD ...Missing: Nazhim Kzar
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National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States
While enjoying safe haven in Iraq, the ANO conducted a number of terrorist attacks on Jewish and Israel targets in the 1970s and 1980s, including murders at ...
[45]
[PDF] THE 9/11 COMMISSION REPORT - GovInfo
... al Qaeda (1988–1992) 55. 2.4 Building an Organization, Declaring. War on the United States (1992–1996) 59. 2.5 Al Qaeda's Renewal in Afghanistan (1996–1998) 63.
[46]
[PDF] IRAQ'S ATTEMPT TO ASSASSINATE FORMER P - CIA
Evidence surrounding the assassination plot consists of four mutually reinforcing segments: о о о. Public threats by senior Iraqi officials.
[47]
A Decade of Deception and Defiance - state.gov
Sep 12, 2002 · Creates the United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM) to verify the elimination of Iraq's chemical and biological weapons programs and mandated ...
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[PDF] LESSONS LEARNED IN THE IRAN-IRAQ WAR - CIA
The shortcomings cited by Saddam and the party included incompetent commanders, poor troop morale, inade- quate training, inadequate intelligence, and insuffi-.
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Trends in Iraqi Violence, Casualties and Impact of War: 2003-2015
Sep 14, 2015 · It is clear that misgovernment, Maliki's ambitions, and corruption enabled the invasion by ISIS, and that the sectarian and ethnic divisions ...
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15 Years After U.S. Invasion, Some Iraqis Are Nostalgic For Saddam ...
Apr 30, 2018 · Before the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, Gen. Najm al-Jabouri would ... Months After ISIS, Much Of Iraq's Mosul Is Still Rubble. It's ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Army Seizes Massive Files On Iraq's Secret Prisoners
Apr 30, 2003 · BAGHDAD, April 29 -- Backed by tanks, U.S. troops have seized millions of Iraqi intelligence files from a citizens group involved in a ...
[52]
Tahir Jalil Habbush al-Tikriti | Historica Wiki - Fandom
Tahir Jalil Habbush al-Tikriti was the head of the Iraqi Intelligence Service from 2001 to 2003 under Ba'athist Iraq.Missing: tenure | Show results with:tenure
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Iraq's most wanted - where are they now? - BBC News
Sep 1, 2010 · He was a key commander in the suppression of the failed Shia uprising in 1991. Indict also accuses Mr Ibrahim of the use of excessive military ...<|separator|>
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Iraqi Intelligence Service - Wikipedia
The Iraqi Intelligence Service also known as the Mukhabarat, General Intelligence Directorate, or Party Intelligence, was an 8,000 men agency and the main ...
[55]
U.S.: Raids net dozens of Iraqi insurgents - Dec. 10, 2003 - CNN
Dec 10, 2003 · In addition, forces captured an Iraqi intelligence officer, a financier of the Iraqi insurgents and doctors "who treat terrorists so they ...
[56]
An Autopsy of the Iraq Debacle: Policy Failure or Bridge Too Far?
This article examines whether the outbreak of an insurgency after the US invasion of Iraq was an avoidable policy failure.
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U.S. dissolves Iraqi army, Defense and Information ministries - CNN
Paul Bremer, the top US civilian administrator in Iraq, on Friday dissolved the Iraqi Armed Forces, the ministries of Defense and Information, and other ...
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[PDF] ConsequenCes of IraqI de- BaathIfICatIon
This paper aims to outline the consequences, both direct and secondary, of the Coali- tion Provisional Authority Orders 1 and 2, including the De-Baathification ...
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Resurgence of al Qaeda in Iraq: Effect on Security and Political ...
Mar 4, 2014 · Just a few years ago, military efforts by Iraqi and coalition forces severely weakened ISIL, and many experts believed it was permanently ...