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Germanium

Germanium is a chemical element with the symbol Ge and atomic number 32, classified as a gray-white metalloid in group 14 of the periodic table, situated between silicon and tin.^[1] It exhibits semiconductor properties, with electrical conductivity intermediate between metals and insulators, and in its pure form, it is crystalline, brittle, and retains a metallic luster in air at room temperature.^[2] Predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1871 as "ekasilicon" based on periodic table trends, germanium was discovered in 1886 by German chemist Clemens Winkler while analyzing the rare mineral argyrodite from Freiberg, Saxony.^[3] The element occurs naturally in the Earth's crust at an average concentration of about 1.4 parts per million (0.00014%), primarily as a trace substitute in zinc sulfide minerals like sphalerite, from which it is recovered as a byproduct during zinc, lead, and copper ore processing.^[4] As a key material in electronics, germanium was pivotal in the early development of transistors and diodes due to its superior electron mobility compared to silicon, though it has largely been supplanted by silicon in integrated circuits.^[5] Today, it finds critical applications in fiber-optic cables as a dopant to enhance signal transmission over long distances, in infrared optics for lenses and windows owing to its transparency in the infrared spectrum, and in high-efficiency multijunction solar cells used in space applications.^[6] Germanium also serves in radiation detectors, such as high-purity germanium (HPGe) crystals for gamma-ray spectroscopy, providing exceptional energy resolution for nuclear physics and environmental monitoring.^[7] Additionally, it is used in phosphors for fluorescent lamps, as an alloying agent in metallurgy, and in specialized thermistors for low-temperature measurements.^[1] Despite its rarity and reliance on byproduct recovery, global demand for germanium continues to grow, driven by advancements in telecommunications, renewable energy, and defense technologies.^[8]

History

Prediction and discovery

In 1871, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the existence of an undiscovered element positioned below silicon in his periodic table, which he termed "ekasilicon" (meaning "one beyond silicon"). He anticipated that this element would have an atomic weight of approximately 72 and a density of about 5.5 g/cm³, along with other properties such as forming a volatile chloride and a refractory oxide.^[9]^[10] Fifteen years later, in 1886, German chemist Clemens Winkler discovered the element while analyzing samples of the rare silver ore argyrodite (Ag₈GeS₆) from the Himmelsfürst mine in Freiberg, Saxony. During his examination, Winkler noticed that the mineral's composition did not account for its full atomic weight, suggesting the presence of an unknown component; he isolated a grayish-white substance through chemical processing involving sodium carbonate fusion and hydrochloric acid precipitation, followed by spectroscopic analysis that revealed spectral lines distinct from known elements like arsenic and antimony.^[11]^[10] Winkler's initial findings met with skepticism from the scientific community, as the new substance exhibited similarities to arsenic and antimony, leading some, including Winkler himself at first, to tentatively classify it as "eka-antimony." To resolve this, Winkler determined the atomic weight of the element by analyzing its tetrachloride (GeCl₄), yielding a value of 72.32, which closely matched Mendeleev's prediction for ekasilicon and confirmed its placement in the periodic table. Chemists such as Lothar Meyer and Viktor von Lang independently verified these results through replicate analyses, solidifying the identification of germanium as the predicted element; Winkler named it "germanium" in honor of his homeland.^[11]^[12]

Early isolation and characterization

In 1886, German chemist Clemens Winkler isolated germanium from the mineral argyrodite (Ag₈GeS₆) through a series of chemical separations aimed at removing contaminating elements like arsenic and antimony. He began by fusing argyrodite with sulfur and sodium carbonate to form a soluble sodium thiogermanate solution, then weakly acidified it with hydrochloric acid to precipitate arsenic and antimony sulfides (As₂S₅ and Sb₂S₅), which were filtered out. Excess hydrochloric acid was added to the filtrate to precipitate germanium(IV) sulfide (GeS₂) as a snow-white solid. This sulfide was roasted in air to yield germanium dioxide (GeO₂), which Winkler reduced with hydrogen gas to obtain a gray metallic powder he identified as the new element.^[11]^[13] To obtain germanium tetrachloride (GeCl₄) for further analysis, Winkler treated the GeO₂ or related compounds with concentrated hydrochloric acid, producing the volatile, colorless liquid GeCl₄ via the reaction GeO₂ + 4 HCl → GeCl₄ + 2 H₂O; this compound was isolated by distillation due to its low boiling point of approximately 86°C. Using GeCl₄, Winkler determined the atomic weight of germanium to be 72.32 by gravimetric analysis of its chlorine content, aligning closely with Mendeleev's prediction for eka-silicon. Early observations noted germanium's basic reactivity, including the ready formation of GeO₂ upon oxidation of the sulfide or metal in air, and its resistance to dilute acids but solubility in concentrated alkalies to form germanates.^[11]^[14] In the early 20th century, researchers at Cornell University, including L. M. Dennis and Jacob Papish, advanced the isolation of germanium from sources such as zinc oxide and its characterization through analysis of halides and other compounds. Independently, in 1924, G. P. Baxter and W. C. Cooper refined the atomic weight to 72.60 through precise gravimetric analysis of germanium tetrachloride, providing a more accurate value (later adjusted to 72.63). These efforts bridged early qualitative descriptions to quantitative understanding, enabling deeper studies of its chemical behavior and highlighting germanium's amphoteric nature in oxide reactions like GeO₂ + 2 NaOH → Na₂GeO₃ + H₂O.^[14]^[15]

Properties

Physical properties

Germanium is a chemical element with atomic number 32 and electron configuration [Ar] 3d¹⁰ 4s² 4p². It is classified as a metalloid, exhibiting properties intermediate between metals and nonmetals, such as semiconducting behavior and a brittle, crystalline structure.^[1]^[2]^[16] The density of germanium is 5.323 g/cm³ at room temperature. Its melting point is 938.25°C, and the boiling point is 2833°C. The band gap energy is 0.67 eV at 300 K, which contributes to its use as a semiconductor material.^[17]^[1]^[18]^[19] Germanium adopts a diamond cubic crystal structure with lattice constant approximately 5.658 Å. It has a Mohs hardness of 6.0, indicating moderate resistance to scratching. The thermal conductivity is 60 W/(m·K) at 300 K, while the electrical resistivity of intrinsic germanium is approximately 47 Ω·cm at the same temperature.^[20]^[21]^[22]^[3] Germanium exists in multiple allotropic forms, including the stable gray metallic cubic phase and an amorphous variant produced by rapid quenching or deposition. The gray form is the most common and exhibits semiconducting properties, whereas the amorphous form is less ordered and has higher resistivity.^[23]^[24]

Chemical properties

Germanium occupies group 14 of the periodic table and displays chemical properties that bridge the predominantly covalent bonding of carbon and the more metallic behavior of tin and lead.^[25] Its most common oxidation states are +4 and +2, with the +4 state generally more stable, though +2 becomes increasingly viable under certain reducing conditions./Descriptive_Chemistry/Elements_Organized_by_Block/2_p-Block_Elements/Group_14:The_Carbon_Family/Z032_Chemistry_of_Germanium(Z32)) Elemental germanium remains inert toward air and water at room temperature but undergoes oxidation in air at elevated temperatures, such as 250 °C, to produce germanium dioxide (GeO₂).^[26] It shows no reaction with dilute acids or alkalis but dissolves in hot concentrated nitric acid to form GeO₂, and in aqua regia to yield germanium tetrachloride (GeCl₄).^[27] A key compound is germanium dioxide (GeO₂), which exhibits amphoteric character by reacting with both strong acids to form germanous salts and strong bases to produce germanates.^[25] Germanium halides, such as GeCl₄, possess tetrahedral molecular structures and readily hydrolyze in moist air or water to regenerate GeO₂ along with hydrogen chloride.^[25] Organogermanium species, including tetramethylgermane ((CH₃)₄Ge), demonstrate analogous tetrahedral coordination and stability typical of carbon analogs.^[25] In its coordination chemistry, germanium favors tetrahedral geometries in both inorganic and organic derivatives, reflecting its group 14 position.^[25] Additionally, germanides—compounds formed with electropositive metals—feature germanium-germanium bonds, akin to those in silicides.^[25]

Isotopes

Germanium has five stable isotopes: ⁷⁰Ge, ⁷²Ge, ⁷³Ge, ⁷⁴Ge, and ⁷⁶Ge, which together account for all naturally occurring germanium. Their relative natural abundances are 20.84(43)%, 27.54(28)%, 7.73(19)%, 36.28(15)%, and 7.61(8)%, respectively. These values contribute to the standard atomic weight of germanium, which is 72.630(8) u. Although ⁷⁶Ge undergoes double beta decay with an extremely long half-life of approximately 2 × 10²¹ years, it is considered stable for all practical purposes. Numerous radioactive isotopes of germanium exist, but only a few have half-lives long enough to be relevant in applications or studies. For instance, ⁶⁸Ge has a half-life of 270.95(26) days and decays primarily by electron capture to ⁶⁸Ga, making it useful as a calibration source for positron emission tomography (PET) systems due to the short-lived ⁶⁸Ga daughter. Another example is ⁷¹Ge, with a half-life of 11.43(8) days, which also decays by electron capture to stable ⁷¹Ga. Other radioactive isotopes, such as ⁶⁷Ge (half-life 7.7 days) and ⁷⁷Ge (half-life 11.3 hours), decay more rapidly via beta minus emission or electron capture. Radioactive isotopes of germanium do not occur naturally and must be produced artificially. Common methods include neutron activation of stable germanium isotopes in nuclear reactors, such as the reaction ⁷⁴Ge(n,γ)⁷⁵Ge, or charged particle irradiation in cyclotrons, for example, ⁶⁹Ga(p,n)⁶⁸Ge for producing ⁶⁸Ge. These production routes enable the generation of carrier-free radioisotopes for medical and research purposes. Differences in isotopic mass lead to subtle effects on germanium's physical properties. Heavier isotopes result in slightly higher densities due to increased atomic mass, with variations on the order of 0.1% between extreme isotopic compositions. Similarly, the band gap energy exhibits a small isotope dependence, decreasing marginally with increasing average mass because of changes in zero-point phonon energies; for example, the indirect band gap shifts by about 0.2 meV from ⁷⁰Ge to ⁷⁶Ge enriched material.

Occurrence

Terrestrial sources

Germanium occurs naturally on Earth primarily in rare sulfide minerals associated with polymetallic ore deposits. The most significant primary minerals include germanite, with the chemical formula Cu_{13}Fe_{2}Ge_{2}S_{16}, argyrodite (Ag_{8}GeS_{6}), and renierite ((Cu,Zn)_{11}(Ge,As)_{2}Fe_{4}S_{16}).^[28]^[29] These minerals are typically found in hydrothermal vein systems or massive sulfide deposits, where germanium substitutes for elements like silicon or tin in crystal structures due to its geochemical similarity.^[30] Germanium is commonly associated with ores of zinc (particularly sphalerite), copper, and silver, forming solid solutions or inclusions within these host minerals.^[31] It appears less frequently in other geological contexts, such as coal fly ash from certain lignite deposits or bauxite residues, where it concentrates through sedimentary or weathering processes. Notable deposits hosting these germanium-bearing minerals include the Tsumeb mine in Namibia, renowned for germanite and renierite in copper-zinc-lead veins; the Kipushi mine in the Democratic Republic of Congo, featuring similar polymetallic sulfide assemblages; and the historic Freiberg district in Germany, the type locality for argyrodite in silver-rich veins.^[32] Additional significant occurrences are found in China, particularly in coal-associated sediments, and in Russia, within sediment-hosted base metal deposits.^[33]^[34] Due to its low concentrations and dispersion, germanium is not economically viable as a primary target mineral and is instead recovered as a byproduct during the processing of these associated sulfide ores.

Abundance and distribution

Germanium occurs in the Earth's crust at an average concentration of 1.5 parts per million (ppm), making it a relatively scarce element compared to more common constituents like silicon or aluminum.^[8] This low abundance reflects its geochemical behavior as a chalcophile element, which preferentially partitions into sulfide minerals rather than silicates during magmatic processes.^[8] Additionally, germanium exhibits depletion in the upper crust due to its moderate volatility during planetary differentiation and core formation, resulting in lower concentrations than expected from solar compositions.^[8] In contrast, the solar abundance of germanium is approximately 33 ppm, about 22 times greater than in the terrestrial crust.^[35] In oceanic environments, dissolved germanium concentrations are typically low, ranging from 0.00015 to 0.003 μg/L (2 to 41 pmol/L), and are closely coupled to silicate levels due to similar chemical behaviors.^[36] This conservative distribution in seawater arises from minimal biological uptake or removal processes, maintaining near-uniform profiles except in nutrient-depleted surface waters.^[36] Within the biosphere, germanium exists as a trace element in soils at concentrations mirroring crustal averages (around 1.5–1.6 ppm), from which it is absorbed by plants primarily through silicon transport pathways, though at much lower efficiencies. Certain plants, such as grasses and hyperaccumulators, can incorporate germanium into tissues at levels up to several ppm, facilitating its minor cycling in terrestrial ecosystems.^[37] Global economic reserves of germanium are estimated at approximately 8,000 tonnes of recoverable material as of 2024, though precise quantification remains challenging due to its association with byproduct sources like zinc ores and coal.^[38] As of 2025, reserves data are not widely reported and difficult to quantify at a country level, with substantial deposits in China, the United States, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Russia.^[39] Distribution is heavily skewed, with about 60% of known reserves concentrated in China as of 2024, followed by notable deposits in Canada, the United States (especially Alaska), and Finland.^[38] These reserves underscore germanium's strategic importance, as its chalcophile affinity leads to enrichment in specific sulfide-rich geological settings worldwide.^[40]

Production

Extraction methods

Germanium is primarily extracted as a byproduct from the processing of zinc ores, where it occurs in concentrations of up to several hundred parts per million within sphalerite (ZnS) concentrates. During zinc smelting, germanium reports to various streams, including flue dusts and leach solutions from hydrometallurgical operations. Recovery typically involves acid leaching of these byproducts with sulfuric acid to solubilize germanium, followed by selective precipitation as germanium disulfide (GeS₂) using hydrogen sulfide gas from the leachate. Alternatively, in some pyrometallurgical processes, germanium is volatilized as germanium monosulfide (GeS) during roasting and recovered via distillation.^[41]^[42] Another significant source of germanium extraction is coal fly ash derived from the combustion of germanium-rich coals, particularly lignites from regions like China, where ash concentrations can reach approximately 100 ppm germanium. The process begins with acid leaching, often using hydrochloric or sulfuric acid, to dissolve germanium from the ash matrix, achieving extraction efficiencies of up to 90% under optimized conditions such as elevated temperatures and reductive agents. This method has gained prominence due to the abundance of such coals, with China leading in this recovery approach.^[43]^[44] Germanium is also recovered from byproducts of copper and lead smelters, where it concentrates in slags or residues during ore processing, as well as through recycling from electronic waste and scrap optics materials containing germanium compounds. In these secondary sources, hydrometallurgical leaching followed by precipitation or solvent extraction is employed to isolate germanium. For instance, in 2024, the United States produced germanium-bearing zinc concentrates from the Red Dog mine in Alaska, contributing to domestic supply amid global dependencies. Globally, refined germanium output reached approximately 243 tonnes in 2023, with China accounting for 68% of production, primarily from zinc and coal sources.^[45]^[46]^[39]^[47]

Purification and refining

Germanium purification begins with the conversion of crude germanium concentrates into volatile germanium tetrachloride (GeCl₄) through chlorination, typically using chlorine gas at elevated temperatures to facilitate separation from impurities.^[4] The resulting GeCl₄ is then purified by distillation and hydrolyzed with deionized water to produce germanium dioxide (GeO₂), which is dried and subsequently reduced to metallic germanium using hydrogen gas at approximately 760°C or carbon at higher temperatures above 927°C.^[4]^[48] This multi-step process yields germanium metal with initial purities suitable for further refining, emphasizing the removal of elements like arsenic and antimony that co-occur in ores.^[41] For semiconductor-grade germanium, achieving purities exceeding 99.999% (5N), zone refining is employed to progressively segregate impurities by melting and resolidifying the metal in a controlled zone, often using a horizontal or vertical furnace setup.^[49] This is typically followed by the Czochralski method, where a seed crystal is dipped into molten germanium and slowly pulled to form a single-crystal ingot, enabling dopant control and defect minimization essential for electronic applications.^[49] Recent advancements have produced ultra-high-purity crystals up to 99.99999999999% (13N) through optimized zone refining and Czochralski growth, supporting applications in particle physics detectors.^[50] In 2025, ReElement Technologies introduced a solvent extraction-based process that achieves greater than 99.9% purity germanium from both recycled materials and ore-based feedstocks, utilizing a proprietary flow sheet that minimizes chemical use and waste compared to traditional methods.^[51] This innovation addresses supply vulnerabilities by enabling domestic refining in the United States, with commercial protocols scaled for defense and industrial needs.^[52] Innovations in purification have focused on distillation enhancements for infrared (IR) optics, where repeated fractional distillation of GeCl₄ reduces volatile impurities to parts-per-billion levels, ensuring high transmittance in the 2–12 μm range for thermal imaging lenses.^[53] Recycling efforts have gained prominence since 2020, with processes recovering germanium from end-of-life solar cells and electronic waste (e-waste) through hydrometallurgical leaching and selective extraction, promoting a circular economy that reduces the carbon footprint by up to 95% compared to primary production.^[54] Companies like Umicore have developed advanced recycling from fiber optics, LEDs, and IR optics scraps, recovering over 90% of germanium while minimizing environmental impact.^[55] Purification faces challenges from supply concentration, with China dominating over 60% of global refined germanium production in 2024, leading to export restrictions that disrupted international markets. On November 9, 2025, China suspended these export restrictions to the United States until November 27, 2026. In response, the United States has bolstered strategic reserves and authorized disposals from the National Defense Stockpile in 2024–2025 to stabilize domestic supply chains for critical technologies.^[56]^[39]^[57] These measures aim to mitigate risks from geopolitical tensions, though scaling alternative refining remains constrained by technological and economic barriers.^[58]

Applications

Optics and photonics

Germanium exhibits a broad infrared transmission window spanning approximately 2 to 14 μm, attributed to its low absorption coefficient in this range, making it an ideal material for infrared optics.^[59] This property enables the fabrication of high-performance lenses and windows used in night-vision systems, where germanium's durability and minimal chromatic aberration ensure clear imaging in low-light conditions.^[60] In thermal imaging applications, such as forward-looking infrared (FLIR) cameras, germanium components provide rugged, high-transmission optics for detecting heat signatures across mid- and long-wave infrared bands.^[61] Additionally, germanium crystals serve as substrates in Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, particularly in attenuated total reflectance (ATR) configurations, due to their high refractive index and compatibility with biological samples for non-destructive analysis.^[62] In fiber optics, germanium plays a key role through germanium dioxide (GeO₂) doping in the silica core of optical fibers, which shifts the refractive index to enable single-mode propagation at telecom wavelengths of 1.3 to 1.55 μm.^[63] This doping enhances light confinement and reduces dispersion, supporting low-loss signal transmission in early long-haul telecommunication networks.^[64] Pure GeO₂-core fibers have also been explored for mid-infrared extensions, offering potential for broader spectral coverage beyond silica limits.^[65] Recent advancements from 2020 to 2025 have focused on improved crystal growth techniques for germanium, enabling larger-diameter, high-purity ingots up to 500 mm suitable for precision photonics.^[66] These developments support 5G-enabled photonic integrated circuits by integrating germanium with silicon platforms for high-speed optical interconnects.^[67] High-purity germanium windows have been refined for infrared space instrumentation, enhancing transmission in extreme environments for telescopes targeting mid-infrared observations.^[68] To optimize performance in infrared detectors, n-type doping with antimony is employed in germanium, introducing donor levels that improve responsivity and detective quantum efficiency in photoconductive devices operating up to 130 μm.^[69] Antimony-doped germanium photoconductors achieve sensitivities comparable to gallium-doped variants, with low dark current for far-infrared detection.^[70] Anti-reflection coatings, often applied to these doped elements, minimize surface losses and extend operational wavelengths, while zonal leveling during crystal growth ensures uniform doping distribution.^[71]

Electronics and semiconductors

Germanium serves as an intrinsic semiconductor with an indirect band gap of 0.67 eV at room temperature, enabling its use in electronic devices where efficient charge carrier transport is essential.^[72] This material exhibits significantly higher electron and hole mobilities compared to silicon, with values of 3900 cm²/V·s for electrons and 1900 cm²/V·s for holes, allowing for faster switching speeds and lower power dissipation in transistors.^[73] These properties stem from germanium's atomic structure, which facilitates easier excitation of electrons across the band gap, though doping with impurities like phosphorus or boron is required to create n-type or p-type variants for practical device fabrication.^[73] The pivotal role of germanium in electronics began with the invention of the first point-contact transistor at Bell Laboratories in December 1947, which used a germanium crystal to demonstrate signal amplification and laid the foundation for modern solid-state devices.^[74] This breakthrough shifted electronics from vacuum tubes to compact, reliable semiconductors, enabling the development of integrated circuits. In contemporary applications, germanium-based transistors, often in silicon-germanium (SiGe) heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) configurations, are employed in high-speed RF and logic circuits for 5G base stations, where they achieve operating frequencies up to 70 GHz due to enhanced carrier velocities.^[75] Germanium also functions as a substrate material in advanced complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology, particularly through Ge-on-Si epitaxial layers that integrate high-mobility channels onto silicon wafers for improved performance in logic devices.^[76] This approach leverages germanium's superior transport properties to enhance drive currents in p-type metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (pMOSFETs). Additionally, strained germanium layers, induced by lattice mismatch with silicon or silicon-germanium alloys, further boost hole mobility by up to 2-4 times, making them suitable for sub-7 nm technology nodes in high-performance computing.^[77] As of 2025, high-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors continue to see expanded adoption in radiation detection, particularly for gamma-ray spectroscopy in environmental monitoring and nuclear physics, owing to their superior energy resolution down to 40 keV.^[78] Concurrently, nanostructured SiGe alloys are used in thermoelectric applications, achieving figure of merit (ZT) values up to 1.3 at around 900°C for efficient heat-to-electricity conversion, supporting power generation in space and industrial settings.^[79]

Other uses

Germanium serves as a key substrate material in multi-junction solar cells, particularly for space applications, where its lattice compatibility with III-V semiconductors enables high-efficiency photovoltaic performance. These cells, often featuring four or more junctions, achieve efficiencies exceeding 40% under concentrated sunlight, with germanium contributing to the bottom junction for enhanced infrared absorption and structural integrity under cosmic radiation.^[80]^[81] The global market for germanium wafers in space solar cells was valued at approximately USD 125 million in 2024, reflecting growing demand for reliable power sources in satellites and deep-space missions.^[82] In chemical catalysis, germanium dioxide (GeO₂) acts as a stabilizer and catalyst during the polycondensation stage of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) resin production, facilitating the polymerization of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol to form the widely used plastic for bottles and packaging.^[83]^[84] This application consumes a significant portion of refined germanium, primarily in Asia, due to its ability to enhance reaction efficiency and product clarity without introducing color impurities. Germanium-based catalysts, including bimetallic systems like rhodium-germanium, also support selective hydrogenation reactions, such as the reduction of alkynes to alkenes or unsaturated aldehydes to saturated counterparts, offering advantages in environmental compatibility over traditional metal catalysts.^[85]^[86] The isotope germanium-68 (⁶⁸Ge) is essential in medical imaging as the parent nuclide in ⁶⁸Ge/⁶⁸Ga generators, which produce gallium-68 (⁶⁸Ga) for positron emission tomography (PET) scans targeting prostate cancer and neuroendocrine tumors via PSMA and DOTATATE tracers. Since the U.S. FDA's limited approval of ⁶⁸Ga-PSMA-11 in December 2020, demand has surged, driving market growth for these generators to a projected USD 491 million by 2035, fueled by expanded diagnostic applications and improved accessibility.^[87]^[88] Emerging uses of germanium include its incorporation into phosphors for light-emitting diodes (LEDs), where germanium-silicon oxide composites enable multi-colored, ultra-long phosphorescence for advanced displays and anti-counterfeiting applications. In military contexts, germanium alloys enhance infrared components in night-vision systems, providing thermal imaging capabilities for detection in low-light environments. To address supply constraints, recycling efforts have intensified, with up to 30% of global germanium now sourced from secondary materials like electronic scrap, reducing environmental impact and carbon footprint by 95% compared to primary mining.^[89]^[90]^[91]^[54]

Health effects

Biological role

Germanium has no established essential biological role in humans, animals, or plants.^[10]^[92] Trace amounts occur naturally in the environment, with average concentrations in soils ranging from 0.5 to 2.3 ppm, though levels can vary based on geological factors.^[93] Some plants, such as Panax ginseng, can absorb germanium from soil, accumulating it primarily in roots and rhizomes, potentially influencing growth when exposed to organic forms.^[94]^[95] In terms of bioavailability, inorganic germanium compounds exhibit high absorption rates in the gastrointestinal tract, typically 70-96% in animal studies and estimated similarly in humans, facilitating uptake and systemic distribution.^[96] Organic forms, such as carboxyethyl germanium sesquioxide (also known as Ge-132), exhibit lower absorption (~20% in rats), though they are promoted in supplements for purported health benefits that lack clinical evidence.^[97] Germanium's environmental cycling closely parallels that of silicon, with incorporation into biogenic silica structures in aquatic systems and potential microbial reduction to volatile germane (GeH₄) under anoxic conditions in sediments.^[98] Biomagnification through food chains is minimal, as germanium does not persist or concentrate significantly across trophic levels.^[10] Recent studies from 2020 to 2025 have explored germanium's interactions with biological systems, including its uptake in algae and potential for immune modulation, with some suggesting roles as a trace element in antioxidation and inflammation, but no established nutritional requirement or essential function in humans per authoritative reviews.^[99]^[100]^[101] As of 2025, preclinical research indicates potential therapeutic applications such as anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects, though human clinical evidence remains lacking, and essentiality is unconfirmed.^[102]

Toxicity and precautions

Elemental germanium exhibits low acute toxicity, with an oral LD50 greater than 2,000 mg/kg in rats, indicating minimal risk from short-term exposure to the pure metal. ^[103] In contrast, soluble germanium compounds, particularly germanium dioxide (GeO₂), pose significant risks with chronic exposure, leading to nephrotoxicity characterized by renal tubular damage and potential kidney failure due to accumulation in renal tissues. ^[104] This toxicity has been observed in multiple human cases involving prolonged ingestion, where germanium levels were elevated in kidney and other organs compared to controls. ^[105] Certain reactive germanium compounds present acute hazards beyond renal effects. Germane (GeH₄), a highly flammable and potentially pyrophoric gas, is toxic upon inhalation, causing severe lung irritation and damage, with an LC50 of 622 ppm for rats after 1-hour exposure. ^[106] The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) establishes a permissible exposure limit (PEL) for germane of 0.2 ppm (0.6 mg/m³) as an 8-hour time-weighted average to mitigate these risks. ^[107] Germanium dioxide in dust form also carries inhalation hazards, potentially exacerbating respiratory irritation and contributing to systemic toxicity, though its acute effects are generally low. ^[108] Pseudomedical applications of organic germanium compounds, such as propagermanium in supplements promoted for immune enhancement, have been linked to severe adverse outcomes, including over 30 reported cases of renal failure and at least two fatalities since the 1980s. ^[109] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued warnings and an import alert in 1988—revised in 1995—detaining germanium products claiming health benefits due to documented nephrotoxicity even at recommended doses. ^[110] Precautions for handling germanium include using local exhaust ventilation and personal protective equipment during production and processing to prevent inhalation or skin contact, along with strict avoidance of ingestion. ^[111] Ongoing advancements in germanium recycling from electronic waste, emphasized in 2024-2025 supply chain strategies, further reduce occupational and environmental exposure risks by minimizing the need for primary extraction processes.

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Ge
Atomic and nuclear properties of germanium (Ge). Quantity, Value, Units, Value, Units. Atomic number, 32. Atomic mass, 72.630(1), g mol-1. Density, 5.323, g ...
[19]
Semiconductor Band Gaps - HyperPhysics
Semiconductor Band Gaps. Material. Energy gap (eV). 0K. 300K. Si. 1.17. 1.11. Ge. 0.74. 0.66. InSb. 0.23. 0.17. InAs. 0.43. 0.36. InP. 1.42. 1.27. GaP. 2.32 ...
[20]
nglos324 - germanium
Germanium has the diamond cubic crystal structure shown, an fcc lattice with a basis of two germanium atoms, one at (0,0,0) and the other at (1/4, 1/4, 1/4) ...
[21]
Materials Data on Ge by Materials Project (Dataset) - OSTI
Jul 15, 2020 · Ge is diamond structured and crystallizes in the cubic Fd-3m space group. The structure is three-dimensional. Ge is bonded to four ...
[22]
Supplier Data - Germanium (Ge) (Goodfellow) - AZoM
Feb 7, 2003 · Hardness - Mohs, 6.25. Poisson's ratio, 0.32, 0.32. Tensile modulus ( GPa ), 79.9, 79.9. Physical Properties. Boiling point ( °C ), 2830.
[23]
Allotropy of germanium - Solid State Chemistry @Aalto
Jul 9, 2025 · Germanium has seven allotropes, which are presented in Table 2. Six of the allotropes are present in room temperature and in atmospheric pressure.
[24]
Germanium - Sciencemadness Wiki
Dec 5, 2023 · Mohs hardness, 6.0. CAS Registry Number, 7440-56-4. History. Naming, After Germany, homeland of the discoverer. Prediction, Dmitri Mendeleev ( ...
[25]
22.2 The Elements of Group 14
Reactions and Compounds of the Heavier Group 14 Elements. Although silicon, germanium, tin, and lead in their +4 oxidation states often form binary compounds ...
[26]
The Great Element Germanium - LabXchange
Germanium oxidizes at 250 °C to form GeO A 2 . It is insoluble in dilute acids and alkalis, but reacts violently with molten alkalis to create germanates.Ten Interesting & Fun Facts... · Germanium Chemistry... · Germanium Compounds
[27]
Sample Preparation Guides - Inorganic Ventures
Metal - Ge0 is insoluble in H2O and HCl, soluble in Aqua Regia and H2SO4. It reacts with HNO3 to form GeO2 and combines directly with the halogens. It is ...
[28]
Germanite: Mineral information, data and localities.
Formula: Cu 13 Fe 2 Ge 2 S 16. Colour: Pale greyish-pink. Lustre: Metallic, Dull. Hardness: 4. Specific Gravity: 4.46 - 4.59. Crystal System: Isometric.
[29]
Renierite: Mineral information, data and localities.
About RenieriteHide ; Formula: (Cu1+,Zn)11Fe4(Ge4+,As5+)2S ; Colour: Orange-bronze, tarnishes reddish ; Lustre: Metallic ; Hardness: 4 - 5 ; Crystal System:.
[30]
Metallogenesis of germanium—A review - ScienceDirect.com
At high S activities, the thiocomplex [GeS4] 4− can give rise to the formation of thiogermanate minerals, e.g., argyrodite, briartite, renierite, and germanite, ...
[31]
[PDF] Germanium | 2021 Minerals Yearbook
Jun 23, 2025 · Germanium is initially recovered through the leaching of zinc-refining residues or coal ash, followed by precipitation of a germanium ...Missing: silver bauxite
[32]
Germanium Deposits in the United States | U.S. Geological Survey
The element germanium largely occurs as a geochemical substitute in various sulfide minerals, primarily in the mineral sphalerite (ZnS), with minor inclusion ...Missing: discovery occurrence
[33]
Geochemical and mineralogical investigation of germanium-rich ...
The Tsumeb deposit, the most famous and germanium-rich among them, forms a ... germanium coal deposit in the Shengli coalfield, Inner Mongolia, Northeastern China.
[34]
[PDF] Germanium - RFC Ambrian
Apr 2, 2025 · Just three countries hold some 94% of known germanium resources: Russia (48%), China (28%) and the US (18%), with 89% of these resources held in ...Missing: Freiberg | Show results with:Freiberg
[35]
Oceanic distribution of inorganic germanium relative to silicon ...
Jun 26, 2010 · Germanium and silicon concentrations are tightly coupled in oceanic water as can be seen by the strong positive relationship in Figure 4a (Ge ...
[36]
Germanium in the soil-plant system-a review - PubMed
Germanium (Ge) is widespread in the Earth's crust. As a cognate element to silicon (Si), Ge shows very similar chemical characteristics.
[37]
Germanium Industry Annual Report 2024 - Asian Metal
Feb 24, 2025 · Table 2 The ranking and proportion of germanium resources reserves in the world in 2024 (ton) 4. Table 3 The ranking and proportion of ...
[38]
[PDF] Germanium metal - Mineral Commodity Summaries 2024 - USGS.gov
World Resources:8 Germanium reserves data were not widely reported at a mine or country level and thus difficult to quantify. The available resources of ...
[39]
Germanium: Current and Novel Recovery Processes | IntechOpen
This chapter presents a general description of Ge occurrence, associations, and chemistry as well as a review of the current and novel recovery processes of Ge.
[40]
Recovery of Zn and Ge from zinc oxide dust by ultrasonic-H 2 O 2 ...
Oct 15, 2021 · At present, the CL process of recovering germanium from ZOD is leaching the dust with sulfuric acid as solvent, dissolving germanium and zinc ...1. Introduction · 2. Experiments · 2.2. Leaching Experimental
[41]
Extraction of Germanium from Low-Grade Germanium-Bearing ... - NIH
Jul 31, 2023 · Germanium is scarce in nature, with an average abundance of only 1.5 ppm in the earth's crust [6]. As a typical scattered element, it is ...<|separator|>
[42]
Challenges and Opportunities in Hydrometallurgical Recovery of ...
This review examines the characteristics of coal and coal fly ash from combustion and gasification, focusing on their germanium content, modes of occurrence, ...
[43]
Efficient extracting germanium and gallium from zinc residue by ...
This paper introduces an efficient extraction method based on organic and sulfuric complex acid system, to achieve the clean recovery of scattered metals ...
[44]
How we recycle metals at Umicore
Jul 24, 2019 · We also use similar steps to recover germanium from a wide variety of sources including fiber optics, solar cells, LEDs and infrared optics.<|control11|><|separator|>
[45]
[PDF] GERMANIUM - USGS Publications Warehouse
The value of germanium metal and germanium dioxide. (gross weight) imported domestically in 2024 was estimated to be $50 million. A company in St. George, UT,.
[46]
China, Gallium, and Germanium — The Minerals of the Chip War
Aug 8, 2023 · China produces about 98% of the world's gallium, and controls 68% of global refined germanium production in various countries, mainly in ...
[47]
https://cepa.org/article/china-gallium-and-germanium-the-minerals-inflaming-the-global-chip-war/
[48]
High Purity Germanium, a Review on Principle Theories and ...
This paper focuses on an overview of the production chain of Germanium, especially from its concentrate up to the single crystal growth of its valuable ultra- ...
[49]
High Purity Germanium Crystals - Umicore | Electro-Optic Materials
Umicore created the world's purest germanium crystal. With a purity of 99.99999999999% (13N) it is used to detect and analyse gamma rays in particle ...
[50]
ReElement Technologies Produces Greater than 99.9% Pure ...
Aug 11, 2025 · Successfully achieves high-purity germanium from recycled material and ore-based feedstock through internally developed flow sheet.
[51]
ReElement develops US germanium refining - Metal Tech News
Aug 13, 2025 · Will recover critical defense mineral from recycled, ore-based feedstocks. Breaking into a market long dominated by China, ReElement ...
[52]
Germanium: Properties, Uses, and Market Trends Explained!
What are the oxidation states of Germanium? Germanium has +2 and +4 oxidation states. How many electrons are in germanium? Germanium (Ge) has 32 electrons.
[53]
Pioneering the sourcing and recycling of sustainable germanium
Mar 19, 2021 · Umicore aims for 100% sustainable germanium, using recycled and by-product sources. Recycled germanium has a 95% smaller carbon footprint. 50% ...
[54]
Recycling services - Umicore | Electro-Optic Materials
We recycle germanium from a wide variety of sources, including fibre optics, solar cells, LEDs and infrared optics. Advanced processes have been developed to ...
[55]
Current State of Germanium Supply - Quest Metals
Jun 18, 2025 · In 2024, the United States did not produce any germanium from primary ... A mine in Alaska produced zinc concentrates containing germanium ...
[56]
How to Decrease Dependency on China for Critical Minerals ...
Jul 11, 2025 · Germanium is a similar story, except germanium is a byproduct of zinc and other minerals. The U.S. currently has no active germanium refining ...
[57]
https://www.mining.com/china-lifts-export-ban-on-gallium-germanium-and-antimony-to-us/
[58]
Germanium Windows Uses, Properties, Options, Coatings: UQG
Dec 2, 2021 · Germanium windows are used in IR optics, night vision, heat detection, security, medical diagnostics, and home insulation testing.
[59]
Germanium Windows - Thorlabs
Useful for IR Applications in the 1.9 - 16 µm Spectral Range ... We will continue adding visible transmission plots to our infrared optics in the coming months.
[60]
Ready-to-Use Germanium Surfaces for the Development of FTIR ...
Oct 2, 2020 · Germanium is particularly suitable for the design of FTIR-based biosensors for proteins. The grafting of stable and thin organic layers on ...
[61]
[PDF] Calculations and Measurements of Raman Gain Coefficients of ...
Dec 9, 2002 · Doping GeO2 into SiO2 glass has been proved to significantly increase the Raman cross-section and the Raman gain coefficient for silica-based ...
[62]
[PDF] Attenuation in silica-based optical fibers - DTU Research Database
In the analyses of the spectral attenuation of Ge-doped optical fibers that will be presented in this work, the Urbach absorption will be modeled with the ...
[63]
[PDF] Germania-Based Core Optical Fibers
The output power at this wavelength amounted to 210 mW at a pump power of 4.2 W. These results demonstrate the potential of the GeO2-based fibers as low-loss, ...
[64]
Germanium Single Crystals for Photonics - MDPI
Germanium (Ge) is a system-forming material of IR photonics for the atmospheric transparency window of 8–14 µm. For optics of the 3–5 µm range, ...Missing: distillation | Show results with:distillation
[65]
Lighting the way forward: The bright future of photonic integrated ...
This review explores recent advancements in optical platforms, highlighting ongoing research and developments that are driving technological progress in this ...
[66]
New Milestone in Germanium Crystal Growth at USD Advances Ge ...
Oct 3, 2024 · Researchers at the University of South Dakota have significantly improved the production of high-purity germanium crystals, which could help ...Missing: optics photonics 2020-2025 5G space telescopes
[67]
High performance antimony-doped germanium photoconductors
Test results indicate that these devices are nearly identical in sensitivity to the best Ge:Ga in terms of responsivity, detective quantum efficiency, and dark ...
[68]
High-Sensitivity Crystal Infrared Detectors* - Optica Publishing Group
Germanium infrared detectors are cut from a large zone leveled crystal. Compensation with antimony donors is used to obtain n-type material.
[69]
Germanium Detectors for the Far - Space Telescope Science Institute
The other dopant that has had significant application in infrared astronomy has been antimony. Ge:Sb detectors have a cutoff wavelength of 130 mm. Figure 2 ...
[70]
Band Gap – dielectrics, semiconductors, metals, energy, electronic ...
Semiconductors ; lead sulfide (PbS), direct, 0.37 eV ; germanium (Ge), indirect, 0.67 eV ; gallium antimonide (GaSb), direct, 0.726 eV ; silicon (Si), indirect ...Semiconductors · Methods for Measuring Band... · Effects of Doping on the Band...
[71]
Electrical properties of Germanium (Ge)
Breakdown field, ≈105V cm-1. Mobility electrons, ≤3900 cm2 V-1s-1. Mobility holes, ≤1900 cm2 V-1s-1. Diffusion coefficient electrons, ≤100 cm2 s-1.
[72]
1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor | The Silicon Engine
In December 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain achieved transistor action using germanium with two gold contacts, amplifying a signal up to 100 times.
[73]
Introduction to Silicon-Germanium (SiGe) Technology - AnySilicon
HBTs improve transistor performance by making use of the heterojunction interface between germanium and silicon, enabling quicker switching times and reduced ...
[74]
https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/invention-of-the-point-contact-transistor/
[75]
Performance comparison of strained-SiGe and bulk-Si channel ...
Germanium is know to have a higher hole mobility than silicon. Enhancement of hole velocity due to lattice mismatch strain in SiGe epitaxy layers is significant ...
[76]
GEM P-type Coaxial High Purity Germanium (HPGe) Radiation ...
ORTEC GEM radiation detectors are P-type coaxial HPGe detectors designed to address the typical energy range for Gamma Spectroscopy of ~40 keV and upwards.
[77]
Enhanced thermoelectric performance of n-type Si 80 Ge 20 P 3 ...
Thermoelectric materials, such as SiGe alloys, have gained significant attention for their application in electricity generation at high temperatures.
[78]
Germanium substrate: A promising platform for multi-junction solar ...
Mar 29, 2019 · The new CPVMatch four-junction solar cell with a germanium substrate achieved 42.6 % efficiency. The project successfully developed and ...
[79]
Multi-junction Solar Cells for satellites | Umicore
Solar cells for space missions are mostly based on multi-junction technology. The cells have multiple p–n junctions made of different semiconductor materials.
[80]
Germanium Wafer Substrate for Space Solar Cells Market Outlook ...
Sep 23, 2025 · Global Germanium Wafer Substrate for Space Solar Cells market was valued at USD 125 million in 2024 and is projected to reach USD 253 ...
[81]
[PDF] Germanium Dioxide | Indium Corporation
In addition, Germanium dioxide is used as a catalyst in the production of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) resin and in the production of other germanium ...
[82]
Germanium Products - Vital Materials
Catalyst: GeO2 is used as a catalyst for the synthesis of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) used to make bottles. This market is mainly located in Asia. Ge ...
[83]
Bimetallic [Ge-Rh] complex catalyzed alkyne semihydrogenation
May 15, 2024 · The [Ge-Rh] catalyst promotes alkyne semihydrogenation, with the reaction involving two cycles: cis-semihydrogenation and trans-isomerization. ...Missing: metallic | Show results with:metallic
[84]
Germanium Catalysts - Catalysts / Alfa Chemistry
Therefore, germanium catalysts can be used in catalytic hydrogenation of a,β-unsaturated aldehydes to give saturated aldehydes. Environmental protection ...Missing: metallic | Show results with:metallic
[85]
Germanium-68/Gallium-68 Generators Market Forecast 2035
Sep 12, 2025 · Germanium-68/Gallium-68 Generators Market to hit US$ 491.4 Mn by 2035, driven by medical imaging and cancer diagnostics demand.
[86]
Cyclotron vs generator-produced 68Ga PSMA: a single-institution ...
Dec 24, 2022 · In December 2020, the Food & Drug Administration (FDA) granted limited approval for the use of 68Ga-HBED-CC PSMA PET, opening the door to a new ...Missing: growth | Show results with:growth
[87]
Germanium silicon oxide achieves multi-coloured ultra-long ... - Nature
Aug 1, 2022 · Colour-tuned phosphors are promising for advanced security applications such as multi-modal anti-counterfeiting and data encryption.
[88]
Germanium Alloys - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
These thermal imaging systems are used for military applications, night vision, and firefight applications [1]. Infrared systems are a major consumer of Ge ...
[89]
Assessing the Long-Term Sustainability of Germanium Supply and ...
Dec 8, 2024 · Germanium is extracted as a secondary metal from zinc and fly-ash today, but potential new sources are lead, copper, nickel refining residuals, ...
[90]
Germanium - Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center
Feb 10, 2023 · Germanium is a naturally occurring mineral. Whereas trace amounts can be found in some foods, it is not essential for normal body functions, ...
[91]
[PDF] Germanium and Indium - USGS Publications Warehouse
Electrical resistivity ohm meter (Ω-m). 39.37 ohm inch (Ω-in.) ohm-centimeter (Ω-cm). 0.3937 ohm inch (Ω-in.) Thermal conductivity watt per centimeter per ...
[92]
Effect of inorganic and organic germanium treatments on the growth ...
Based on our results, inorganic germanium is more toxic for lettuce growth than organic germanium. Upper critical toxic levels for lettuce growth were 2.5 to 5 ...Missing: bioavailability | Show results with:bioavailability
[93]
(PDF) Characteristics of Absorption and Accumulation of Inorganic ...
Aug 7, 2025 · In the 4-year-old P ginseng, the germanium content was highest in the rhizome and increased in the order of stem, leaf, lateral root, and main ...
[94]
Hazard Assessment of Germanium Supplements - ScienceDirect
Germanium is not an essential element. Its acute toxicity is low. However, at least 31 reported human cases linked prolonged intake of germanium products ...
[95]
Organic Germanium: A Natural Trace Element for Immune ...
Apr 1, 2021 · Organic germanium is found at trace amounts in many foods, and the dietary intake of it has been estimated to be between 0.4 to 3.4 mg daily.
[96]
A Toxicological Evaluation of Germanium Sesquioxide (Organic ...
Apr 4, 2020 · A battery of OECD- and GLP-compliant toxicological studies was performed to assess the safety of a highly purified germanium sesquioxide.Missing: bioavailability | Show results with:bioavailability
[97]
The geochemistry of inorganic germanium in natural waters
Jan 20, 1985 · In the ocean, germanium cycling mimics that of silica, since siliceous organisms incorporate Ge as a trace constituent in biogenic opal. The ...Missing: GeH4 | Show results with:GeH4
[98]
The role of germanium in diseases: exploring its important biological ...
Nov 8, 2023 · Germanium can be divided into two main forms: inorganic and organic germanium. ... Germanium is absorbed by hydrochloric acid or enzymes and ...
[99]
Immune activation of Bio-Germanium in a randomized, double-blind ...
Oct 19, 2020 · Bio-Germanium acts as an effective immunostimulant by increasing the cytotoxicity of NK cells and activating immunoglobulin, B cells and tumor necrosis factor ...Missing: essential nutrient<|control11|><|separator|>
[100]
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0240358
[101]
Nephrotoxicity of germanium compounds: report of a case ... - PubMed
High Ge content was found in serum, urine and various tissues, e.g., spleen, liver, kidney, adrenal gland and myocardium, while in controls Ge could not be ...Missing: GeCl4 | Show results with:GeCl4
[102]
Nephrotoxicity of Germanium Compounds: Report of a Case and ...
High Ge content was found in serum, urine and various tissues, e.g., spleen, liver, kidney, adrenal gland and myocardium, while in controls Ge could not be ...Missing: GeCl4 | Show results with:GeCl4
[103]
GERMANE - CAMEO Chemicals - NOAA
It is toxic by inhalation. Prolonged exposure of the containers to fire or intense heat may result in their violent rupturing and rocketing. It is used in ...
[104]
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1584320/
[105]
[PDF] Germanium Dioxide Safety Data Sheet
Apr 5, 2021 · Product Use: Germanium dioxide is used in the production of phosphors, transistors and diodes, infrared-transmitting glass, and as a catalyst in ...
[106]
Hazard assessment of germanium supplements - PubMed
Germanium is not an essential element. Its acute toxicity is low. However, at least 31 reported human cases linked prolonged intake of germanium products with ...Missing: elemental | Show results with:elemental
[107]
Import Alert 54-07 - accessdata.fda.gov
Germanium is a nonessential trace element that has caused nephrotoxicity (kidney injury) and death when used chronically by humans, even at recommended levels ...Missing: toxicity | Show results with:toxicity
[108]
Germanium - ILO Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety
Feb 11, 2011 · The most harmful germanium compounds are germanium hydride (GeH4) and germanium chloride. The hydride may provoke acute poisoning. Morphological ...
[109]
E-waste recycling | Deloitte Insights
Nov 28, 2023 · Deloitte predicts that multiple regions will run short of gallium and possibly germanium as soon as 2024, impacting chipmakers. By 2025, we ...