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Atomic number

The atomic number (symbol: Z), also known as the proton number, is defined as the number of protons present in the atomic nucleus of an atom of a chemical element.^[1] This integer value uniquely identifies each chemical element and determines its position in the periodic table, serving as the fundamental property that distinguishes one element from another.^[2] For a neutral atom, the atomic number equals the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus, which governs the element's chemical behavior and reactivity.^[3] The concept of atomic number emerged from early 20th-century advancements in atomic physics, building on Dmitri Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table, which initially ordered elements by atomic weight rather than this more precise criterion.^[4] In 1913–1914, British physicist Henry Moseley developed X-ray spectroscopy techniques to measure the wavelengths of characteristic X-rays emitted by elements, revealing that atomic number—rather than atomic weight—correlates directly with these spectral lines and thus defines elemental identity.^[2] Moseley's work resolved inconsistencies in Mendeleev's arrangement, such as the misplacement of elements like tellurium and iodine, and confirmed that all atoms of a given element share the same atomic number, even if they differ in neutron count (as in isotopes).^[5] This discovery provided a physical basis for the periodic law, enabling the prediction and eventual synthesis of missing elements, such as technetium (Z=43) and promethium (Z=61).^[2] Today, atomic numbers range from 1 (hydrogen) to 118 (oganesson) for recognized elements, with ongoing research exploring superheavy elements beyond this in the periodic table's extension.^[6] The atomic number plays a central role in nuclear physics, chemistry, and materials science, influencing nuclear stability, electron configurations, and applications from nuclear energy to medical imaging.^[7] Isotopes of an element share the same atomic number but vary in mass number (protons plus neutrons), affecting properties like radioactivity without altering chemical identity.^[8]

Definition and Notation

Definition

The atomic number, denoted as Z, is defined as the number of protons contained within the nucleus of an atom. This value uniquely identifies a chemical element and governs its chemical properties by determining the arrangement of electrons in the atom's outer shells. According to authoritative sources, the atomic number serves as the primary criterion for classifying elements in the periodic table, with each element distinguished by its specific Z.^[9]^[10] All atoms belonging to the same element share an identical atomic number [Z](/page/Z), regardless of variations in the number of neutrons that define its isotopes. This constancy ensures that isotopic forms of an element exhibit the same chemical behavior while differing potentially in physical properties such as stability or mass.^[8] The atomic number [Z](/page/Z) also quantifies the positive electric charge of the atomic nucleus, arising from the protons' individual charges. In a neutral atom, this charge is precisely balanced by [Z](/page/Z) electrons, maintaining overall electrical neutrality and influencing the atom's reactivity.^[11]^[3] Atomic numbers are assigned as consecutive positive integers, beginning with hydrogen at Z = 1 and extending to the heaviest recognized element, oganesson, at Z = 118, as verified by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. This sequential ordering reflects the progressive increase in nuclear proton count across the known elements.^[6]

Notation and Symbolism

The atomic number is universally denoted by the symbol Z, derived from the German word Zahl, meaning "number." In nuclear and isotopic notation, the atomic number appears as a subscript to the left of the element's chemical symbol, combined with the mass number A as a superscript, in the form ^{A}_{Z}\text{X}, where \text{X} represents the element symbol; for example, carbon-12 is written as ^{12}_{6}\text{C}.^[8] The symbol Z frequently appears in fundamental equations of atomic physics, such as the Bohr model expression for the radius of the n-th electron orbit in hydrogen-like atoms, given by

r_n = \frac{n^2 a_0}{Z},

where n is the principal quantum number and a_0 is the Bohr radius; this formula illustrates Z's role in scaling orbital dimensions inversely with nuclear charge.^[12] In periodic tables and atomic data charts, Z serves as the primary indexer, with elements arranged in order of increasing atomic number, typically displayed as a subscript or numeral below or beside the element symbol to facilitate quick reference to proton count and periodic positioning.^[13]

Historical Development

Pre-20th Century Concepts

In the early 19th century, the concept of assigning sequential identifiers to chemical elements began to emerge through speculations on atomic weights. William Prout proposed in 1815 that all elements were composed of hydrogen atoms, with their atomic weights being integer multiples of hydrogen's weight of approximately 1, suggesting a fundamental numerical ordering based on the number of constituent hydrogen units.^[14] This hypothesis, known as Prout's hypothesis, implied that elements could be ranked by these whole-number multiples, foreshadowing a discrete sequence despite lacking knowledge of atomic structure.^[14] Throughout the 19th century, chemists compiled atomic weight tables based on experimental measurements of element densities and chemical combinations, primarily using hydrogen or oxygen as standards.^[15] These tables, such as those refined by Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Jean-Baptiste Dumas, aimed to provide unique numerical values for each element to aid classification, but they faced significant limitations due to measurement inaccuracies and inconsistencies across laboratories.^[15] For instance, atomic weights were often non-integer and showed variations, such as the reversal between tellurium (approximately 127.6) and iodine (approximately 126.9), which complicated efforts to establish a strict sequential order without unique, reliable identifiers.^[15] Dmitri Mendeleev advanced this idea in 1869 by arranging the known elements in a table ordered primarily by increasing atomic weight, revealing recurring patterns in chemical properties that suggested an underlying natural sequence.^[16] Although based on atomic weights, Mendeleev's periodic table implied a positional numbering for elements, where gaps in the sequence indicated undiscovered ones with predicted properties.^[16] A notable example was his prediction of "eka-silicon," an element positioned after silicon with an expected atomic weight of about 72, which was later identified as germanium in 1886, validating the sequential framework despite the reliance on imperfect atomic weight data.^[17]

Rutherford-Bohr Model and Early Proposals

In 1911, Ernest Rutherford conducted experiments bombarding thin gold foil with alpha particles, observing that most particles passed through undeflected while a small fraction were scattered at large angles, up to 180 degrees. This unexpected result led him to propose a new atomic model: the atom consists primarily of empty space with a tiny, dense, positively charged nucleus at its center containing nearly all the mass and positive charge, surrounded by electrons.^[18] That same year, Dutch physicist Anton van den Broek suggested a connection between this nuclear charge and the periodic table, proposing that the ordinal position of an element in the table—later termed the atomic number—corresponds to the magnitude of the nuclear charge in units of the elementary charge. He hypothesized that the nuclear charge number equals approximately half the atomic weight, aligning the sequence of elements with a fundamental charge-based ordering rather than solely atomic mass.^[19] Building on Rutherford's nuclear model, Niels Bohr introduced his quantized atomic model in 1913, describing electrons orbiting the nucleus in discrete stationary states to explain atomic spectra. In this framework, Bohr explicitly incorporated the atomic number Z as the total positive nuclear charge in multiples of the electron charge e, with the number of electrons in a neutral atom equaling Z; for hydrogen-like atoms, the orbital energies scale with Z², providing a parameter that distinguishes elements.^[20] Early indications supporting the nuclear charge as a sequential integer came from X-ray scattering experiments by Charles Glover Barkla in 1911, who measured the scattering coefficients of X-rays by various elements and found that the effective number of scattering electrons per atom approximated half the atomic weight, implying a balancing positive nuclear charge of similar magnitude. This work, interpreted in light of Rutherford's model, suggested that the scattering intensity increased with the square of the nuclear charge, offering preliminary quantitative links between element properties and nuclear charge before direct spectral measurements.^[21]

Moseley's Experiment and Confirmation

In 1913, Henry Moseley conducted pioneering experiments using X-ray spectroscopy to investigate the characteristic X-ray emissions from various elements, focusing on the K-alpha lines produced when electrons transition from the L shell to the K shell in the atom. He bombarded samples of elements ranging from aluminum (Z=13) to gold (Z=79) with high-energy electrons in a vacuum tube, capturing the emitted X-rays with a crystal spectrometer and measuring their wavelengths or frequencies. These measurements revealed distinct spectral lines for each element, with the frequencies increasing systematically across the periodic table.^[22] Moseley derived an empirical law relating the frequency ν of the K-alpha X-ray line to the atomic number Z: ν ∝ (Z - b)^2, where b is a screening constant approximately equal to 1, accounting for the shielding effect of inner electrons. Plotting the square root of the frequency against Z yielded straight lines, confirming that Z is an integer that increases sequentially by 1 for each successive element and corresponds directly to the positive nuclear charge. This relationship provided experimental evidence that the atomic number, rather than atomic weight, defines an element's position in the periodic table and is fundamental to its nuclear structure.^[23]^[24] The experiment resolved longstanding anomalies in the periodic table ordering, such as the inversion between cobalt and nickel, where atomic weights (cobalt 58.93, nickel 58.69) suggested nickel precedes cobalt chemically, but Moseley's X-ray data placed cobalt at Z=27 and nickel at Z=28, aligning their properties correctly with increasing nuclear charge. Furthermore, Moseley's analysis identified gaps in the sequence of atomic numbers up to 79, predicting the existence of undiscovered elements at Z=43, Z=61, and Z=75; these were later confirmed as technetium (Z=43, discovered 1937), promethium (Z=61, discovered 1945), and rhenium (Z=75, discovered 1925), validating the completeness of the table based on Z.^[23]^[24] Tragically, Moseley was killed in action at the Battle of Gallipoli on August 10, 1915, at the age of 27, preventing further advancements in his research.^[25]

Post-Moseley Advances in Nuclear Structure

Following Henry Moseley's 1913 confirmation that atomic number Z corresponds to the nuclear charge, Ernest Rutherford advanced the understanding of nuclear composition in his 1920 Bakerian Lecture. He proposed that the nucleus of the hydrogen atom consists of a single positively charged particle, which he termed the "proton," and suggested that atomic nuclei are built from protons and alpha particles (helium nuclei). This linked Z directly to the number of protons in the nucleus, as the positive charge would be provided by Z protons to balance the Z electrons in the neutral atom.^[21] In the 1920s, physicists grappled with the discrepancy between atomic mass (A) and Z, leading to the widespread nuclear electron hypothesis. This model posited that nuclei contain Z protons for charge, paired with (A - Z) tightly bound electrons to account for the additional mass without altering the charge; these "nuclear electrons" were also invoked to explain beta decay, where a nuclear electron is emitted. Proponents including Rutherford initially considered such bound proton-electron systems, though the hypothesis faced challenges from inconsistencies in nuclear stability and scattering experiments.^[26] The hypothesis was decisively disproven by James Chadwick's 1932 discovery of the neutron, a neutral particle of approximately unit mass. Chadwick interpreted penetrating radiation from beryllium bombarded by alpha particles as neutrons, confirming their existence through ionization measurements on various gases. This established that nuclei consist of Z protons and (A - Z) neutrons, resolving mass discrepancies without invoking nuclear electrons and solidifying Z as the proton number.^[27] Chadwick's neutron clarified the isotope concept, first formalized by Frederick Soddy in 1913 for chemically identical elements with varying atomic weights. With the nuclear model, isotopes were understood as having fixed Z (thus identical chemical properties and position in the periodic table) but differing A due to variable neutron numbers, enabling stable and radioactive variants within each element.

Physical Significance

Relation to Protons and Nuclear Charge

The atomic number Z represents the number of protons within the nucleus of an atom, a fundamental property that distinguishes one chemical element from another.^[28] This proton count directly determines the positive nuclear charge, which is given by +Ze, where e is the elementary charge of approximately $1.602 \times 10^{-19} coulombs.^[29] The electrostatic repulsion arising from this charge plays a critical role in nuclear physics, as it opposes the strong nuclear force that binds protons and neutrons together. In nuclear fusion reactions, the Coulomb barrier—the electrostatic potential energy that two approaching nuclei must overcome—has a height proportional to Z_1 Z_2, where Z_1 and Z_2 are the atomic numbers of the interacting nuclei.^[30] This barrier, typically expressed as V_C \approx \frac{Z_1 Z_2 e^2}{4\pi \epsilon_0 R} with R being the interaction distance (often the sum of nuclear radii), increases with higher Z values, making fusion more challenging for heavier elements and requiring higher energies or quantum tunneling effects.^[31] Nuclear stability is significantly influenced by Z, particularly through the Coulomb term in the semi-empirical mass formula for binding energy. The formula includes a repulsive contribution -a_c \frac{Z(Z-1)}{A^{1/3}}, where a_c is the Coulomb coefficient (around 0.7–0.8 MeV) and A is the mass number; this term, often approximated as -a_Z \frac{Z^2}{A^{1/3}}, reduces the overall binding energy by accounting for proton-proton electrostatic repulsion across the nuclear volume.^[32] As Z grows relative to A, this repulsion destabilizes the nucleus, favoring neutron-rich configurations for heavier elements to minimize the energy penalty. The value of Z and its associated nuclear charge have been experimentally verified through scattering experiments, such as those involving alpha particles. In Rutherford scattering, the differential cross-section \frac{d\sigma}{d\Omega} is proportional to Z^2, reflecting the squared dependence on the target nucleus's charge and confirming the nuclear charge as +Ze.^[33] This proportionality, derived from classical Coulomb trajectories, provided early quantitative evidence for the concentrated nuclear charge distribution.

Isotopes and Mass Number Distinction

The atomic number Z represents the number of protons in an atom's nucleus, which defines the element and remains constant for all atoms of that element. In contrast, the mass number A is the total number of nucleons, consisting of both protons and neutrons in the nucleus. This distinction arises because neutrons contribute to the mass but not to the nuclear charge or the element's identity.^[8]^[34] Isotopes are variants of the same element that share the same atomic number Z but differ in their mass number A due to varying numbers of neutrons. For instance, carbon-12 (^{12}\mathrm{C}) and carbon-14 (^{14}\mathrm{C}) both have Z = 6, meaning six protons, but carbon-12 has six neutrons while carbon-14 has eight, resulting in different masses and nuclear properties. These differences can influence stability, with some isotopes being stable and others radioactive, yet all isotopes of an element exhibit nearly identical chemical behavior because their electron configurations are determined by Z.^[8]^[34] The standard notation for specifying an isotope is ^{A}_{Z}\mathrm{X}, where \mathrm{X} is the chemical symbol of the element, A is the mass number as a left superscript, and Z is the atomic number as a left subscript; often, Z is omitted when the element symbol clearly indicates it. The neutron number N is then derived as N = A - Z, providing a complete description of the nucleus's composition. This notation facilitates precise identification in nuclear chemistry and physics.^[8]^[34] Most elements occur naturally as a mixture of multiple isotopes with varying natural abundances, which directly impacts the element's standard atomic weight listed in periodic tables. For example, the atomic weight of carbon is approximately 12.011 due to the 98.93% abundance of carbon-12 and the 1.07% of carbon-13, with trace amounts of radioactive carbon-14; this weighted average is calculated as the sum of each isotope's mass multiplied by its fractional abundance. Stable isotopes, which do not undergo radioactive decay, dominate natural mixtures for lighter elements, while heavier elements often include both stable and long-lived radioactive isotopes, affecting applications in geochemistry and medicine. Of the approximately 339 known nuclides occurring in nature, only about 250 are stable.^[8]^[35]

Role in Atomic Spectra and Ionization

In multi-electron atoms, the electrons do not experience the full nuclear charge due to shielding by inner electrons, resulting in an effective nuclear charge Z_{\text{eff}} = Z - \sigma, where \sigma is the screening constant that accounts for the partial neutralization of the nuclear charge by core electrons. This Z_{\text{eff}} governs the binding of valence electrons and thus influences the energy levels available for electronic transitions. The atomic number Z plays a central role in determining the energies of spectral lines, particularly in X-ray spectra, through Moseley-like laws derived from the scaling of transition energies with nuclear charge. For inner-shell X-ray emissions, such as Kα lines, the energy E scales approximately as (Z - b)^2, where b is a screening constant specific to the shell (typically around 1 for K-shell transitions), reflecting the increased attraction between the nucleus and inner electrons as Z rises. This quadratic dependence arises because the energy levels of inner electrons follow a hydrogen-like formula adjusted for screening, enabling precise identification of elements from their characteristic X-ray wavelengths.^[2] Ionization processes are similarly tied to Z, with the first ionization energy generally increasing across a period as Z increases, primarily because the rising Z_{\text{eff}} strengthens the electrostatic pull on valence electrons without a corresponding increase in shielding from the same principal quantum shell. For example, the ionization energy rises from about 5.4 eV for lithium (Z = 3) to 21.6 eV for neon (Z = 10) in the second period, illustrating how higher Z compresses electron orbitals and elevates removal energies.^[36] This trend underscores Z's influence on atomic stability and reactivity thresholds. In astrophysics, the atomic number Z enables the identification of elements in stellar atmospheres and interstellar media through analysis of emission line spectra, where specific wavelengths correspond to transitions unique to each Z.^[37] For instance, the prominent Hα line at 656.3 nm identifies hydrogen (Z = 1), while helium's lines around 587.6 nm reveal Z = 2 in hot stellar environments, allowing astronomers to map elemental abundances and ionization states across galaxies. Isotopic variations can cause minor shifts in these lines, but the dominant signature remains the atomic number.

Chemical Implications

Position in the Periodic Table

The modern periodic table arranges the chemical elements in rows and columns based on increasing atomic number Z, the number of protons in the nucleus of a neutral atom, which determines the element's identity and position. This sequential ordering by Z ensures that elements with similar chemical properties are grouped together, reflecting the underlying electronic structure. Unlike Dmitri Mendeleev's 1869 periodic table, which relied on increasing atomic weights and occasionally required inversions to match observed properties, the contemporary version eliminates such adjustments by using Z as the fundamental ordering principle.^[6] The seven horizontal rows, or periods, in the periodic table correspond to the principal quantum number n of the valence electron shell, with the period number matching n for the outermost electrons in main-group elements. For instance, period 1 (hydrogen and helium, Z=1 to $2) involves the n=1 shell, while period 2 (lithium to neon, Z=3 to $10) fills the n=2 shell. As Z increases within a period, electrons occupy orbitals in the same shell, leading to period lengths of 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32, and 32 elements, respectively, due to the increasing number of available subshells (up to 16 for n=4 onward). Groups, the vertical columns numbered 1 through 18, contain elements sharing the same valence electron configuration, resulting in analogous reactivity; alkali metals in group 1, for example, all have one valence electron in an s-orbital.^[38] The periodic table's block divisions—s, p, d, and f—emerge from the progressive filling of atomic subshells as Z rises, governed by the Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule. The s-block (groups 1 and 2) includes elements where the ns subshell is being filled; the p-block (groups 13–18) where np orbitals fill; the d-block (groups 3–12, transition metals) where (n-1)d subshells are occupied; and the f-block (lanthanides and actinides) where (n-2)f orbitals are filled. These blocks highlight trends in properties, such as metallic character decreasing across a period from left to right.^[6] Ordering by Z resolves key anomalies from atomic weight-based systems, such as the argon–potassium pair, where argon's higher mass (39.95 u) than potassium's (39.10 u) led Mendeleev to place argon after potassium despite argon's noble gas properties aligning it with helium and neon. With Z, argon (Z=18) precedes potassium (Z=19), correctly situating argon at the end of period 3 and potassium at the start of period 4, consistent with their electron configurations and reactivity.

Electron Configuration and Valency

The atomic number Z directly determines the total number of electrons in a neutral atom, which in turn governs its electron configuration through the Aufbau principle. This principle, meaning "building up" in German, posits that electrons occupy atomic orbitals in order of increasing energy, starting from the lowest available state, as Z increases sequentially across the periodic table.^[39] The filling order follows the Madelung rule, prioritizing orbitals by increasing sum of the principal quantum number n and the azimuthal quantum number l (where s = 0, p = 1, d = 2, f = 3), and for equal n + l, by increasing n. This results in the standard sequence: $1s, $2s, $2p, $3s, $3p, $4s, $3d, $4p, and so on, ensuring each element's configuration builds upon the previous one.^[40] The outermost electrons, known as valence electrons, are those in the highest energy shell or unfilled subshell, and their number is primarily dictated by [Z](/page/Z) modulo the core electrons of the preceding noble gas. For main group elements, the count of valence electrons typically equals the group number (1–2 for alkali and alkaline earth metals, 13–18 adjusted for p-block), which sets the maximum valency—the number of bonds an atom can form or electrons it can lose/gain to achieve a stable octet. For instance, carbon ([Z](/page/Z) = 6, configuration $1s^2 2s^2 2p^2) has four valence electrons, enabling a valency of four in compounds like methane.^[41] This correlation arises because increasing [Z](/page/Z) adds electrons to the valence shell across a period until it fills, then restarts in the next s orbital.^[42] Exceptions to the strict Aufbau order occur in transition metals, where stability favors half-filled or fully filled d subshells over energy minimization alone, leading to irregular configurations. Chromium (Z = 24), for example, adopts [\ce{Ar}] 4s^1 3d^5 instead of the expected [\ce{Ar}] 4s^2 3d^4, as the half-filled 3d subshell provides extra exchange energy and symmetry.^[39] Similar anomalies appear in copper (Z = 29, [\ce{Ar}] 4s^1 3d^{10}) and other d-block elements, influencing their valency by altering available unpaired electrons for bonding.^[43] In transition metal periods, maximum oxidation states—which often align with maximum valency—increase with Z from group 3 to mid-period (around group 7), as more d electrons become available for ionization, then decrease toward group 12 due to increasing nuclear charge stabilizing lower states. For the first transition series, scandium (Z = 21) reaches +3, manganese (Z = 25) up to +7, and zinc (Z = 30) only +2, reflecting the progressive filling and utilization of 3d and 4s orbitals.^[44] This trend underscores how Z modulates chemical reactivity through electron arrangement, with peak valency mid-period enabling diverse coordination chemistries in compounds like permanganate (\ce{MnO4^-})./Coordination_Chemistry/Structure_and_Nomenclature_of_Coordination_Compounds/Oxidation_States_(Oxidation_Numbers))

Modern Applications and Extensions

Synthesis of Superheavy Elements

Superheavy elements, those with atomic numbers Z greater than 92 (uranium), are synthesized artificially through nuclear fusion reactions in particle accelerators, primarily by bombarding heavy actinide targets with beams of lighter ions. This process, pioneered in the mid-20th century and advanced with modern heavy-ion facilities, involves accelerating projectiles such as calcium-48 ions to energies sufficient to overcome the Coulomb barrier, allowing the nuclei to fuse and form a compound nucleus that subsequently evaporates neutrons to produce the desired isotope. For instance, early transuranic elements like neptunium (Z=93) were created via cyclotron bombardment of uranium with deuterons or neutrons, but contemporary syntheses of elements beyond Z=100 rely on hot or cold fusion methods using synchrotrons or cyclotrons at facilities like the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). These reactions typically yield isotopes with very low production cross-sections, on the order of picobarns, necessitating extended irradiation times and sophisticated detection systems to observe rare events.^[45] The atomic number Z of these superheavy elements is assigned based on the total proton count in the fusion product, calculated as the sum of protons from the target and projectile nuclei, and is rigorously confirmed through the observation of alpha decay chains that genetically link the new isotope to previously characterized elements of lower Z. In such decay sequences, each alpha particle emission reduces Z by 2, allowing researchers to trace the lineage back to known nuclides whose properties match the observed energies and timings; discrepancies would invalidate the assignment. This method ensures the element's identity without direct measurement of electron configurations, which is infeasible due to the fleeting lifetimes (often milliseconds) of these isotopes. For example, the synthesis of flerovium (Z=114) via the reaction ^{244}Pu(^{48}Ca,4n)^{288}Fl was verified by decay chains terminating at known isotopes of elements like curium (Z=96).^[46]^[47] Theoretical models predict an "island of stability" in the superheavy region, where certain isotopes exhibit enhanced stability due to closed nuclear shells analogous to those in lighter magic nuclei like lead-208; this island is anticipated around Z=114 or Z=120 and neutron number N=184, potentially yielding half-lives of seconds to days rather than microseconds. These shell closures arise from quantum mechanical effects that increase binding energy, reducing fission probabilities and alpha decay rates, as described by the nuclear shell model extended to superheavy nuclei. Experimental efforts target neutron-rich isotopes approaching this region to test the hypothesis, with syntheses like those of isotopes near Z=114 providing preliminary evidence of slightly longer half-lives compared to neighbors.^[45] A landmark recent synthesis is that of oganesson (Z=118), first reported in 2006 from the fusion reaction ^{249}Cf(^{48}Ca,3n)^{294}Og at JINR, where three decay events were observed, each initiating an alpha decay chain that corroborated the Z=118 assignment by linking through livermorium (Z=116) and flerovium (Z=114) to known seaborgium (Z=106) isotopes. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) officially recognized the discovery in 2015, confirming the element's place in the periodic table based on independent verifications, including additional events in subsequent experiments. This achievement extended the seventh row of the periodic table and highlighted the challenges of probing the island of stability, as ^{294}Og has a half-life of about 0.7 milliseconds.^[48] Ongoing research as of 2025 continues to pursue elements beyond Z=118, such as ununennium (Z=119) and unbinilium (Z=120), using advanced techniques to access more neutron-rich isotopes closer to the predicted island of stability. Recent breakthroughs include the use of titanium-50 beams to produce livermorium (Z=116) with higher yields, demonstrating a path for heavier elements, and novel methods combining multiple fusion approaches. However, no confirmed syntheses of elements beyond oganesson have been achieved, with experiments at facilities like JINR, GSI Helmholtz Centre, and LLNL focusing on overcoming low cross-sections and short half-lives.^[49]^[50]^[51]

Atomic Number in Nuclear Physics and Isotope Production

In nuclear fission, the atomic number Z is conserved overall, as the total number of protons in the initial nucleus equals the sum in the fission fragments. For instance, the induced fission of uranium-235 (Z=92) by a neutron typically produces two fragments with atomic numbers around 50–60 and 36–42, respectively, along with neutrons, ensuring the proton count balances. The distribution of Z among fragments influences fission yields, with asymmetric splits (e.g., favoring fragments near Z=56 for tin and Z=38 for strontium) yielding higher probabilities due to nuclear shell effects, optimizing energy release in chain reactions.^[52]^[53] Nuclear fusion reactions combine light nuclei, where the atomic number of the product equals the sum of the reactants' Z values, facilitating the buildup of heavier elements. In stellar nucleosynthesis, sequential fusion steps progressively increase Z; for example, the triple-alpha process fuses three helium-4 nuclei (each Z=2) to form carbon-12 (Z=6), releasing energy and enabling further reactions up to iron-group elements. This process powers stars and contributes to elemental abundances, with the total Z conserved in each fusion step per baryon number conservation laws.^[54] Isotope production often employs neutron capture, which increases the mass number A by one without altering Z, as a neutron is absorbed into the nucleus. This (n,γ) reaction is widely used in research reactors to generate medical isotopes; for example, molybdenum-98 (Z=42, A=98) captures a thermal neutron to form molybdenum-99 (Z=42, A=99), which decays to technetium-99m for diagnostic imaging in over 40 million procedures annually. Irradiation fluxes of 10^{12}–10^{14} n/cm²/s in facilities like TRIGA reactors yield up to 300 mCi/g of Mo-99, supporting non-fission alternatives with simpler processing.^[55] Beta decay alters Z by ±1 while conserving A, enabling transmutation between isotopes of adjacent elements. In beta-minus decay, a neutron converts to a proton, emitting an electron and antineutrino, thus increasing Z by 1 (e.g., carbon-14, Z=6, decays to nitrogen-14, Z=7); conversely, beta-plus decay converts a proton to a neutron, decreasing Z by 1 via positron and neutrino emission. This process stabilizes neutron-rich or proton-rich nuclei and is crucial in decay chains following neutron capture or fission, facilitating artificial transmutation in reactors.^[56]

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The Number of Possible Elements and Mendeléff's “Cubic” Periodic System. A. VAN DEN BROEK. Nature volume 87, page 78 (1911)Cite this ...
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[PDF] Philosophical Magazine Series 6 I. On the constitution of atoms and ...
It will further be shown that from this theory we are led to a theory of the constitution of molecules. In the present first part of the paper the mechanism of".
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Bakerian Lecture: Nuclear constitution of atoms - Journals
It should be noted that, from the consideration of the scattering of X-rays by light elements, Barkla had shown, in 1911, that the number of electrons was equal ...
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XCIII. <italic>The high-frequency spectra of the elements</italic>
Berlin, Phvsikalisches Institut tier Univorsitk't, July 1913. XCIII. The High-Frequency Spectra of the Elements. By H. O. J. MOSELEY, M.A. e. [.Plate XXIII.].
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[PDF] High-Frequency Spectra of the Elements. 703 - MIT
The quantitative measurements of. Moseley and Darwin on the reflexion of the general radiation must have been little affected by these fringes, as the incident ...
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Full article: LXXX. The high-frequency spectra of the elements. Part II
Apr 8, 2009 · 3.The atomic numbers for all elements from Al to Au have been tabulated on the assumption that N for Al is 13. 4.Missing: paper | Show results with:paper
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The Nuclear Electron Hypothesis - SpringerLink
James Chadwick's discovery of the neutron in 1932 is justifiably viewed as a watershed in the history of nuclear physics.
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The existence of a neutron - Journals
1. It was shown by Bothe and Becker that some light elements when bombarded by α-particles of polonium emit radiations which appear to be of the γ-ray type.
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2.2: Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Mass Unit
Jun 28, 2019 · This number is known as the atomic number, which identifies the number of protons in the nucleus of ALL atoms in a given element.
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[PDF] Atoms and Nuclei - NMSU Astronomy
The positive nuclear charge is +Ze, where Z is an integer (Z = 1, 2, 3 ... A normal atom is charge neutral, containing a nucleus of charge +Ze and Z electrons ...
[30]
coulomb barrier, neutron cross sections, cold fusion
V (in MeV) = 1.44*Z1*Z2 / d (in F). Replacing d by R=7.5 F, and knowing that Z1*Z2 is 128, one finds that CB = 24.5 MeV. A more realistic potential would ...
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[PDF] PHYS 390 Lecture 18 - Tunneling What's Important: • Coulomb barrier
Coulomb barrier to nuclear reactions. The elementary particle reactions that ... Barrier: Z1 = 1, Z2 = 6. R = 1.4 x 121/3 = 3.2 fm. V(R) = 1.44•1•6/3.2 ...
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1.2: Binding energy and Semi-empirical mass formula
Mar 3, 2022 · The third term − a c ⁢ Z ⁢ ( Z − 1 ) ⁢ A − 1 / 3 derives from the Coulomb interaction among protons, and of course is proportional to Z.
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[PDF] Rutherford Scattering - MIT
We conclude this section with two further remarks: (a) If we changed the scattering material, the cross section would also change, as (Z/Z')² ...
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2.2: Isotopes: Atomic Number and Atomic Mass Unit
Jul 21, 2020 · An isotope of any element can be uniquely represented as AZX, where X is the atomic symbol of the element, A is the mass number and Z is the ...Atomic Number and Mass... · Atomic Mass Unit (Dalton) · Isotopes
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2.3: Isotopic Abundance and Atomic Weight - Chemistry LibreTexts
Jun 29, 2019 · This can be done through the following formula: Average Atomic Mass = (Mass of Isotope 1 x Fractional Abundance of Isotope 1) + (Mass of ...Isotopic Abundance · Measuring Isotopic Abundances · Average Atomic Mass
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NIST: Atomic Spectra Database Lines Form
NIST Atomic Spectra Database Lines Form. Main Parameters: Spectrum eg, Fe I or Na;Mg; Al or mg i-iii or 198Hg I. Search for Wavelength, Wavenumber, Photon, ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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6.6 Building Up the Periodic Table
Locate the nearest noble gas preceding each element and identify the principal quantum number of the valence shell of each element.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Quantum Numbers and Electron Configurations
The principal quantum number (n) describes the size of the orbital. Orbitals for which n = 2 are larger than those for which n = 1, for example. Because they ...
[39]
https://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/ch6/quantum.html
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Valence Electrons - The Covalent Bond
The electrons in the outermost shell are the valence electrons -- the electrons on an atom that can be gained or lost in a chemical reaction.
[41]
Electron Configurations - FSU Chemistry & Biochemistry
The size of atoms increases going down in the periodic table. This should be intuitive since with each row of the table you are adding a shell (n). What is not ...
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https://www.chem.fsu.edu/chemlab/chm1045/e_config.html
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The transuranic elements and the island of stability - Journals
Aug 17, 2020 · Since the 1930s the synthesis of nuclides too unstable to exist naturally on Earth has stretched the periodic table to 118 elements.The advent of element synthesis · Searches for the island · Cold and hot fusion
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Synthesis of a New Element with Atomic Number | Phys. Rev. Lett.
A new method of synthesizing superheavy elements, with Z ≥ 112 and neutron numbers closer to the predicted spherical shell closure at N = 184 , was pioneered ...
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On the Production of Superheavy Elements - Annual Reviews
Dec 1, 2000 · In 1996, at GSI, element 112 was synthesized by fusion of 70 Zn with 208 Pb, and its atomic number was established by a decay chain linked to known isotopes.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Synthesis of the isotopes of elements 118 and 116 in the 2 4 9 C f ...
Oct 9, 2006 · A new element with atomic number 118 was synthesized for the first time in the Cf 249 + Ca 48 reaction. Atomic and mass numbers of the isotope ...
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Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion - Purdue University
Nuclear fission is the splitting of heavy nuclides, while nuclear fusion is the fusing of light nuclei, both can liberate energy.Missing: sum | Show results with:sum
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CH103 - CHAPTER 3: Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry
We use the law of conservation of matter, which says that matter cannot be created or destroyed. This means we must have the same number of protons and neutrons ...
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[PDF] Stellar Nucleosynthesis - Princeton University
Stellar Nucleosynthesis. Figure 1 shows the relative abundances of solar system elements versus atomic number. Z, the number of protons in the nucleus. A ...
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[PDF] Production of Molybdenum-99 Using Neutron Capture Methods
Aug 4, 2010 · Molybdenum-99 is produced via the neutron capture reaction 98Mo(n,γ)99Mo, using natural or enriched molybdenum oxide. The irradiated molybdenum ...
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DOE Explains...Beta Decay - Department of Energy
Beta decay is a radioactive process where an unstable nucleus emits an electron/positron and a neutrino/antineutrino, converting a neutron to a proton or vice ...