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Haole

Haole is a term in the Hawaiian language denoting a foreigner or outsider, most commonly applied to persons of European or Caucasian ancestry residing in or visiting Hawai'i. Its etymology derives from hā ("breath") and ʻole ("without" or "lacking"), reflecting observations by Native Hawaiians that early European arrivals did not exchange breath in the traditional honi greeting involving nose-touching.^[1] Historically, the word encompassed any non-Hawaiian elements, including newly introduced plants, animals, or objects, before narrowing primarily to describe white individuals during the period of Western contact and colonization beginning in the late 18th century. In the Kingdom of Hawai'i and subsequent U.S. territorial censuses, haole served as an official category to differentiate non-Native residents from Kanaka Maoli (Native Hawaiians), underscoring its role in marking ethnic and cultural boundaries amid plantation economies and missionary influences dominated by white settlers.^[2] Over time, the term evolved in local vernacular to signify not just racial difference but also perceived cultural insensitivity or privilege, often carrying pejorative undertones when uttered with intonation implying disdain for mainland attitudes or historical grievances tied to land dispossession and political overthrow.^[3] While some dictionary definitions maintain a neutral connotation equivalent to "white person of foreign origin," empirical accounts from Hawaiian communities reveal contextual variability, where neutral usage coexists with derogatory applications, particularly in response to behaviors reinforcing outsider status.^[3]^[4] Contemporary debates highlight tensions over haole's classification, with some viewing it as a straightforward descriptor akin to ethnic labels elsewhere, while others, including affected parties, argue its frequent weaponization against whites evokes racial animus, especially given Hawai'i's demographic shifts and ongoing sovereignty discussions.^[4] This duality stems from causal factors like colonial legacies, where haole-led institutions amassed economic control, fostering resentment without equivalent scrutiny of intra-islander hierarchies.^[5] Academic sources, often produced within left-leaning institutions, tend to frame haole through lenses of whiteness studies that emphasize systemic power dynamics over individual agency or bidirectional cultural exchanges, potentially understating reciprocal adaptations in Hawaiian society.^[6]

Etymology and Origins

Linguistic Roots

The term haole is native to the Hawaiian language (ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi), where it fundamentally denotes a foreigner, stranger, or person of foreign origin, without inherent racial connotation in its earliest usages.^[7]^[8] Its attestation predates European contact, appearing in indigenous chants such as one honoring King Kualiʻi of Oʻahu in the 18th century or earlier, where it referred to outsiders from distant Polynesian regions like Kahiki (the mythical homeland).^[9] A widespread folk etymology parses haole as ha (breath) + ʻole (lacking or without), implying "without breath" to describe foreigners who did not perform the traditional Hawaiian honi nose-touch greeting upon arrival in 1778.^[10] However, Hawaiian linguists, including Noenoe K. Silva, reject this as an unsubstantiated post-contact invention, noting it relies on artificial word-splitting and lacks support in pre-contact texts or oral traditions.^[5]^[3] The precise etymological derivation remains obscure and debated among scholars, as no definitive Proto-Polynesian root has been conclusively linked, though it aligns with broader Austronesian patterns for terms denoting externality or otherness.^[4] Pre-contact applications likely targeted inter-island or migratory strangers rather than a specific ethnicity, with semantic shift occurring only after sustained European presence.^[11] This indigenous origin underscores haole as a linguistic artifact of Hawaiian insularity, not a borrowed calque from English or other colonial languages.^[2]

Pre-Contact Interpretations

The term haole predated European contact with Hawaiʻi in 1778 and was used in the Native Hawaiian language to denote foreigners or outsiders from distant places, such as Kahiki—a mythical or distant homeland often associated with origins in the Pacific or supernatural realms.^[9] ^[3] One of the earliest attestations appears in a traditional chant describing a demi-god or hero from Kahiki as haole, as documented by Hawaiian historian Samuel Kamakau in accounts of pre-contact oral traditions.^[9] This usage reflects a broader Polynesian context where terms for non-locals distinguished those unbound by local customs, genealogies, or lands, though the precise connotation in pre-contact Hawaiʻi remains partially obscure due to reliance on oral histories recorded post-contact.^[12] The popular folk etymology deriving haole from ha (breath) and ʻole (without), implying "one without breath" for failing to perform the traditional honi nose-touch greeting, emerged later and cannot apply to pre-contact interpretations, as it presupposes awareness of foreign behaviors absent before 1778.^[12] ^[3] Linguistic origins of haole are otherwise uncertain, with no definitive Proto-Polynesian root established, though it functioned neutrally as a descriptor of otherness rather than a pejorative.^[12] Pre-contact applications likely extended to inter-island visitors or legendary figures from afar, emphasizing cultural and geographic estrangement over racial categories unknown in isolationist Hawaiian society.^[9]

Historical Usage

Early Post-Contact Period (1778–19th Century)

The arrival of British explorer Captain James Cook at Waimea, Kauaʻi, on January 18, 1778, marked the first recorded European contact with the Hawaiian Islands, during which Native Hawaiians applied the term haole to Cook's crew, identifying them as foreigners distinct from local people.^[13] This usage persisted through subsequent visits by European and American vessels in the late 18th century, encompassing traders, whalers, and explorers whose pale skin and unfamiliar customs set them apart, though initial interactions often involved exchanges of goods like iron tools for provisions.^[14] In the 1790s, haole individuals such as British sailor John Young and Welsh sailor Isaac Davis, who remained in Hawaiʻi after being separated from their ships, integrated into Native society and served as military advisors to Kamehameha I, supplying knowledge of firearms and cannon operation that facilitated his conquests and the unification of the islands by 1810.^[15]^[16] Young, known as Olohana, rose to governorship of Hawaiʻi Island and married into the aliʻi class, while Davis similarly held advisory roles; their elevated status underscored the term's descriptive rather than derogatory application in elite contexts, as haole expertise proved instrumental in warfare and diplomacy.^[17] The early 19th century saw haole dominance in the sandalwood trade, with American and British merchants exporting vast quantities—estimated at over 10 million pounds between 1810 and 1821—to China, depleting island forests and enriching Kamehameha's successors while introducing economic dependencies.^[18] On April 4, 1820, the first company of American Protestant missionaries arrived aboard the Thaddeus, led by Hiram Bingham, establishing stations that promoted literacy, abolished the kapu system by 1819's end, and converted aliʻi like Kaʻahumanu, framing haole as bearers of moral and civilizational reform in official narratives.^[19] Throughout the century, haole denoted white foreigners in official documents and censuses of the Hawaiian Kingdom, distinguishing them from Native Hawaiians and Asian laborers, as their numbers grew amid influences on governance, such as advising on the 1840 Constitution that formalized monarchical rule with Western legal elements.^[20] While welcomed for innovations like vaccination against smallpox post-1850s outbreaks, haole arrivals correlated with demographic collapse—Native population falling from approximately 300,000 in 1778 to under 40,000 by 1890 due to introduced diseases—yet the term retained a primarily neutral, ethnic descriptor without widespread pejorative freight until later economic tensions.^[21]

Plantation Era and Annexation (Late 19th–Early 20th Century)

In the late 19th century, Hawaii's economy shifted toward large-scale sugar plantations, primarily controlled by haole entrepreneurs descended from American missionaries and other white settlers, who formed powerful cartels known as the "Big Five" companies. These entities, including firms like Castle & Cooke and C. Brewer & Co., monopolized sugar production after the 1875 Reciprocity Treaty with the United States granted duty-free access to American markets, boosting exports from 20,000 tons in 1875 to over 200,000 tons by 1890.^[22] Haole owners imported contract laborers from China, Japan, Portugal, and other regions to supplement a declining Native Hawaiian workforce, decimated by diseases introduced earlier by foreigners; by 1890, Native Hawaiians comprised less than 40% of the islands' population of about 90,000.^[23] The term "haole" during this era typically referred to these white plantation elites and their overseers, or lunas, who enforced strict labor regimes amid ethnic hierarchies that placed haoles at the apex.^[24] Plantation conditions fostered resentment toward haoles, as lunas—88% of whom were white in 1882—exercised authority through physical discipline, long hours, and wage deductions, often treating workers of Asian and Native Hawaiian descent as interchangeable commodities.^[24]^[23] Strikes, such as the 1909 Japanese laborers' walkout demanding higher wages, highlighted ethnic solidarity against haole management, though suppressed by armed militias and legal reprisals. Native Hawaiians, viewing haoles as cultural disruptors who had eroded traditional land tenure (ahupua'a systems) via the 1848 Great Māhele privatization favoring foreign interests, increasingly associated the term with exploitative outsiders.^[23] This dynamic intensified as haole planters lobbied for U.S. protection to secure their investments, framing Native Hawaiian monarchy as inefficient.^[25] The political culmination occurred with the 1893 overthrow of Queen Liliʻuokalani, orchestrated by the Committee of Safety—a cadre of haole businessmen, including Sanford Dole and Lorrin Thurston—backed by U.S. Marines from the USS Boston, amid fears of royal reforms threatening plantation leases.^[26]^[27] The provisional government, dominated by haoles, suppressed Native Hawaiian opposition, leading to the 1895 counter-revolution attempt and subsequent imprisonment of the queen. Annexation followed in 1898 via the Newlands Resolution, ratified amid the Spanish-American War to establish a Pacific coaling station, despite a failed 1897 treaty due to anti-imperialist opposition; haole elites like the sugar barons viewed it as essential for economic stability, exporting over $10 million in sugar annually by then.^[28] In Hawaiian discourse, "haole" encapsulated these actors as agents of foreign domination, symbolizing the erosion of sovereignty through economic leverage rather than outright conquest.^[25]

Contemporary Usage

Descriptive and Neutral Applications

In contemporary Hawaiian English and local vernacular, "haole" functions primarily as a neutral ethnic or cultural descriptor for individuals of European or Caucasian ancestry, particularly those from the continental United States or other non-Pacific Islander backgrounds. This application traces to its core linguistic sense of "foreigner" or "person from a foreign country," as defined in authoritative Hawaiian lexicons, where it denotes someone with "a white skin" distinct from Native Hawaiian or Polynesian traits, without specifying haole eleele (black foreigner) for those of African descent.^[29]^[30] The term appears in routine, non-hostile contexts to highlight observable differences in customs, appearance, or origin, such as referring to "haole food" for mainland American dishes like hamburgers or casseroles, which contrast with traditional Hawaiian staples.^[31] Similarly, it describes behavioral norms associated with outsiders, including reserved interpersonal styles or formal etiquette lacking the traditional Hawaiian exchange of ha (breath) in greetings, serving to clarify social dynamics rather than imply inferiority.^[3] In media and public discourse, "haole" is invoked descriptively in demographic analyses or cultural commentaries to categorize non-local whites, as in early 20th-century censuses distinguishing haole residents from Native Hawaiians for administrative purposes.^[2] Neutral usage extends to self-identification or community labels like "local haole," applied to Caucasians born or long-established in Hawaii who adopt island customs, speak Hawaiian Creole English fluently, and participate in local activities, thereby mitigating perceptions of transience.^[32] This contrasts with transient tourists or recent migrants, underscoring "haole" as a marker of relational integration rather than fixed racial animus; for instance, as of 2010 U.S. Census data, approximately 24.7% of Hawaii's population identified as white alone (non-Hispanic), often encompassed under this descriptor in local parlance without pejorative intent. Such applications persist in educational and journalistic settings to discuss multiculturalism, where the term aids in unpacking Hawaii's ethnic pluralism—comprising Native Hawaiians (10%), Asians (37%), and whites—fostering awareness of historical migrations without endorsing bias.^[3]

Pejorative and Hostile Contexts

In contemporary Hawaii, the term "haole" is commonly deployed in pejorative and hostile contexts, serving as a verbal marker of exclusion, resentment, or incitement during harassment and assaults targeting white individuals or those perceived as mainland outsiders. Federal prosecutors have cited its derogatory invocation in racially motivated violence, as in the 2014 Kahakuloa, Maui beating of Christopher Kunzelman by two Native Hawaiian men, Kaulana Alo-Kaonohi and Levi Aki Jr., who reportedly yelled phrases including "You have the wrong skin color" and "No haole is ever going to live in our neighborhood" while using a shovel and fists; the U.S. District Court ruled it a hate crime in 2023, sentencing them to 6.5 and 4 years in prison, respectively, marking the first such federal conviction of Native Hawaiians for anti-white bias.^[33]^[34] Similar usage appears in documented attacks, such as the 2007 Waikele Center parking lot assault on a white military couple, where perpetrators beat them unconscious while shouting "fucking haoles." The Visitor Aloha Society of Hawaii, which aids victims of race-based incidents against tourists, has reported assisting dozens of cases involving slurs like "haole" paired with physical harassment or violence since statehood, often linked to perceptions of haole privilege amid local economic strains from tourism and migration.^[35]^[35] In educational settings, "haole" has fueled bullying traditions referenced in legal records, including the informal "Kill Haole Day" observed around the end of the school year in some public schools, where non-white students reportedly harassed or attacked white peers; a 2010 Ninth Circuit opinion noted its amplification through "random acts of racial violence against non-Native Hawaiian children," though empirical documentation remains anecdotal and contested, with some analyses attributing persistence to unverified oral histories rather than widespread statistics.^[36]^[37]^[38] Public discourse amplifies this hostility, with media cycles prompting letters to editors demanding bans on "haole" as a slur, reflecting cyclical claims of victimization amid Hawaii's non-white majority demographics, where whites comprise about 22% of the population per 2020 Census data. Such contexts often tie to causal factors like historical overthrow resentments and modern outsider status, enabling situational racism without systemic institutional backing, as evidenced by rare hate crime prosecutions relative to incidents.^[39]^[35]

Cultural and Racial Dynamics

Role in Hawaiian Local Identity

In Hawaiian local identity, the term haole functions as a primary boundary marker, delineating "locals"—typically non-Caucasian individuals born and raised in the islands, including Native Hawaiians and descendants of Asian, Filipino, and other immigrant laborers—from perceived outsiders. This exclusion persists even for white individuals native to Hawaii, as local status is tied to shared multi-ethnic experiences from the plantation era, proficiency in pidgin English, and adherence to communal norms like kuleana (responsibility to place and people), which haoles are often viewed as lacking due to historical associations with missionary influence, annexation, and mainland cultural detachment.^[40]^[5] The haole-local dichotomy reinforces local cohesion by defining identity in opposition to haole stereotypes, such as arrogance, ignorance of island etiquette, or prioritization of individual achievement over group harmony—traits linked to broader power imbalances where haoles historically dominated economic and political spheres despite comprising a minority. Empirical observations from ethnographic studies indicate that local identity formation often involves performative rejection of these traits, with anti-haole sentiment serving as a cultural adhesive, though not universally hostile; for instance, surveys and narratives show that while overt discrimination occurs, it stems from resentment over land loss and cultural erosion rather than inherent racial animus alone.^[41]^[4] Efforts to bridge this divide, such as through "local haole" self-identification, highlight contested hybridity: whites raised in Hawaii may adopt local customs, yet racial markers prevent full assimilation, as evidenced by persistent qualifiers in social discourse and limited intermarriage rates outside ethnic enclaves. Sociologists note that this dynamic maintains local identity's resilience amid tourism-driven influxes, where haoles symbolize transient entitlement, but also prompts reflection on whether local exclusivity risks insularity in a diversifying population.^[42]^[43]

Associations with Whiteness and Outsider Status

In Hawaiian contexts, the term "haole" has become strongly associated with individuals of European or Caucasian descent, particularly those from the continental United States, due to the historical predominance of white arrivals following Captain James Cook's expedition in 1778.^[44] Originally denoting any foreigner, its application narrowed as white missionaries, traders, and later sugar plantation owners from America and Europe assumed dominant economic and political roles, embedding racial connotations tied to paleness and foreign origin.^[4] This linkage reflects causal patterns of colonial influence, where white settlers' control over land and governance—such as the 1893 overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy by a haole-led provisional government—reinforced perceptions of haole as external imposers rather than integrated locals.^[40] The outsider status inherent in "haole" persists in contemporary Hawaiian society, marking white individuals as culturally disconnected from indigenous and multi-ethnic "local" norms, irrespective of birthplace or duration of residence. Empirical observations from ethnographic studies indicate that even whites born and raised in Hawaii, often termed "local haole," face exclusion from full local identity due to inherited associations with historical privilege and mainland affiliations.^[45] For instance, local identity evolved during the plantation era (late 19th to mid-20th century) to encompass working-class Asian and Native Hawaiian descendants, explicitly contrasting with haole elites who controlled 70-80% of arable land by 1900 through mechanisms like the 1895 Reciprocity Treaty extensions favoring American interests.^[25] This demarcation underscores a relational dynamic where haole status signals potential ignorance of kanaka maoli (Native Hawaiian) protocols, such as communal resource sharing or aloha practices, fostering a persistent perceptual divide.^[40] Racial essentialism in the term's usage is evident in dictionary definitions and legal contexts, where "haole" equates to "white person" or "Caucasian," distinguishing it from other ethnic outsiders like Japanese or Filipino immigrants who assimilated into local categories post-plantation labor influxes of 1850-1920.^[46] Hawaii Civil Rights Commission rulings, such as in employment discrimination cases from the 2010s, have classified "haole" as a non-derogatory descriptor of race akin to "Caucasian," yet its invocation often highlights outsider privilege in resource allocation debates, like post-1959 statehood land trusts benefiting Native Hawaiians over haole developers.^[47] Such associations prioritize observable historical causation—white demographic minority (about 22% of Hawaii's population per 2020 U.S. Census data) correlating with higher median incomes ($85,000 vs. state average $81,000)—over self-identification, rendering "haole" a marker of inherited otherness in multicultural hierarchies.^[48]

Controversies

Accusations of Inherent Racism

Critics, including some white residents and legal advocates in Hawaii, have accused the term "haole" of inherent racism, arguing that its routine ethnic marking of Caucasians as perpetual outsiders inherently encodes prejudice, regardless of context or intent. They contend this stems from the word's historical linkage to European colonizers and missionaries, transforming a neutral descriptor of foreigners into a vehicle for systemic exclusion and hostility that parallels slurs against other groups. For instance, in analyses of local identity, Euro-American commentators have framed "haole" as a pejorative enforcing reverse racism, where its invocation normalizes discrimination against whites amid narratives of Hawaiian victimhood.^[49] A focal point of these accusations is the phenomenon known as "Kill Haole Day," an unofficial pattern of anti-white bullying reported in Hawaiian public schools, particularly around the first day after spring break, involving harassment or assaults on students identified as haole. Court documents from cases like a 2010 federal appeals ruling describe it as encompassing "random acts of racial violence against non-Native Hawaiians," with the term "haole" central to targeting.^[36] Similarly, in 2001 legislative debates over a hate crimes bill, Hawaii lawmakers opposed it partly due to fears that prosecuting "Kill Haole Day" incidents—framed as racially motivated—would overwhelm courts, underscoring perceptions of the term's role in embedded anti-white animus.^[50] In a 2022 federal case, United States v. Alo-Kaonohi, a witness's testimony on "haole" was limited by the court, which ruled she could not claim the term is "never racially derogatory under any circumstance," implicitly validating accusations of its potential as a slur in hostile usages.^[51] Commentators like sociologist Jonathan Okamura have noted contemporary anti-haole racism and violence as expressions of local identity, where the term facilitates scapegoating of whites for historical and economic grievances.^[43] These claims persist despite counterarguments emphasizing descriptive origins, positing that the term's racial specificity and association with resentment render it functionally equivalent to derogatory epithets, fostering a climate where whites face unacknowledged bias in institutions and daily interactions.^[38]

Empirical Evidence of Anti-Haole Sentiment

In 2014, two Native Hawaiian men, Alo Kaonohi and Levi Aki, assaulted Christopher Kunzelman, a white resident of Maui, using racial slurs including "haole" and "fucking haole" during the attack, which involved punching, kicking, and striking him with a weapon, leaving him hospitalized with severe injuries.^[52] In 2022, a federal jury convicted them of federal hate crimes, determining the violence was motivated by racial animus against Kunzelman's perceived whiteness, as evidenced by their repeated use of anti-haole epithets and statements expressing resentment toward non-Native residents.^[53] The U.S. Department of Justice prosecuted the case under statutes addressing racially motivated violence, with the defendants sentenced to prison terms in March 2023, highlighting judicial recognition of anti-white bias as a factor in the incident.^[54] Hawaii's hate crime reporting, mandated after the state's 2001 hate crimes legislation, has documented incidents targeting whites, though overall numbers remain low relative to population; for instance, federal data from the Uniform Crime Reporting Program includes cases where anti-white bias was a motivator, often linked to "haole" derogation in local contexts.^[37] A 2023 analysis of persistent anti-haole violence traces patterns back to historical events like the 1779 killing of Captain James Cook, interpreted by some scholars as an early manifestation of outsider hostility, with modern echoes in assaults on haole tourists and residents amid "locals-only" sentiments.^[35] Survey data on school environments provides quantitative insight: a 2024-2025 study of Hawaii public schools found that approximately 47% of white students reported experiencing racism, a rate significantly higher than for white students on the U.S. mainland, often involving exclusionary taunts tied to "haole" outsider status or demands for proof of local ancestry ("got koko?").^[55] Broader discrimination assessments, such as a 2017 analysis, indicate whites in Hawaii encounter everyday racial microaggressions at levels comparable to Pacific Islanders and other minorities, including verbal harassment and social ostracism rooted in perceptions of colonial privilege.^[56] These findings counter narratives of Hawaii's racial harmony by evidencing measurable prejudice against whites, particularly those viewed as non-indigenous transplants.

Counterarguments from Cultural Relativism

Proponents of cultural relativism maintain that anti-haole sentiment in Hawaii constitutes a culturally specific response to historical colonization and dispossession, not equivalent to racism as defined in Western egalitarian frameworks. They posit that judging such expressions through universal moral standards ignores the causal chain of events, including the 1893 overthrow of Queen Liliʻuokalani by haole businessmen and U.S. military forces, which led to the suppression of Native Hawaiian sovereignty and cultural practices. This perspective frames hostility as a form of resistance to ongoing settler dominance, akin to indigenous critiques of external power structures elsewhere, rather than prejudice against individuals based on immutable traits.^[57] Relativists argue that the term "haole," deriving from Hawaiian words implying "without breath" or foreigner (lacking traditional greeting protocols), carries contextual meanings tied to outsider behaviors and historical roles, not inherent racial animus. In this view, its occasional pejorative use reflects power asymmetries—where haoles, comprising about 22% of Hawaii's population in recent censuses, have disproportionately influenced land ownership and governance—rather than symmetric ethnic hatred.^[9] Anthropological interpretations emphasize that such terms function as identity markers in multi-ethnic societies like Hawaii, where locals (including Native Hawaiians, Asian Americans, and others) distinguish between kamaʻāina (long-term residents) and malihini (newcomers), prioritizing relational and communal norms over abstract individualism.^[2] A 1995 decision by the Hawaii Civil Rights Commission held that "haole" alone does not qualify as derogatory or discriminatory, underscoring the need for situational analysis over absolutist labeling of indigenous lexicon as slurs.^[57] Critics of anti-haole accusations from this standpoint liken it to other culturally embedded descriptors (e.g., "gringo" in Latin America), which express socio-political critique without implying biological inferiority, and warn that deeming them racist perpetuates a form of cultural imperialism by demanding conformity to outsider sensitivities.^[58] Empirical observations of Hawaii's racial diversity—where intermarriage rates exceed 40% and no group holds absolute demographic majority—further support claims that relativizing such dynamics avoids false equivalences with historical mainland U.S. racism.

Modern Developments and Perceptions

Influence of Tourism and Media

Following Hawaii's statehood in 1959, annual visitor arrivals surged from approximately 250,000 to over 10.4 million by 2019, with the majority originating from the U.S. mainland and often categorized as haole due to their racial and cultural outsider status.^[59]^[60] This rapid expansion, driven by jet travel and marketing of Hawaii as a tropical escape, positioned haole tourists as symbols of economic influx—contributing roughly 17-25% to the state's GDP through spending and jobs—but also as agents of strain, including overcrowding, environmental degradation, and cultural commodification that locals associate with haole ignorance of Native Hawaiian protocols.^[61]^[62] Such dynamics have intensified pejorative connotations of haole, framing the term as denoting not just whiteness but entitlement and disruption, evident in resident surveys where 67% view tourism favorably for its economic role yet 67% perceive their islands as run at locals' expense.^[63] Media representations, particularly through Hollywood's "Haolewood" lens, have further entrenched haole as the archetypal outsider by centering white protagonists in narratives of self-discovery against a Hawaiian backdrop, often marginalizing or exoticizing Native Hawaiian elements.^[64] Films and series like those critiqued in analyses of post-1959 cinema depict haole characters embarking on voyages of personal redemption in paradise, reinforcing perceptions of Hawaii as a stage for continental redemption rather than a site of indigenous continuity, which locals interpret as cultural erasure.^[65] This portrayal aligns with tourism's visual rhetoric—lei-wearing arrivals and hula performances—but overlooks empirical local realities, such as the displacement effects of visitor-driven development, thereby sustaining haole's association with historical and ongoing imposition despite tourism's measurable benefits like $17.8 billion in 2019 visitor spending.^[62]^[66] In tandem, these influences have modulated haole's usage toward highlighting behavioral and structural divides: tourism incidents, such as trespassing on sacred sites or resource overuse, empirically link to anti-haole expressions, while media's selective framing—evident in over 50 years of films using Hawaii for white-centric plots—perpetuates a causal perception of haole as culturally extractive, even as data indicate 57% of residents see net benefits from the industry.^[2]^[63] This interplay underscores a realist tension between economic interdependence and identity preservation, where haole embodies both opportunity and affront without inherent resolution.

Shifts in Usage Post-Statehood (1959–Present)

Following Hawaii's admission to statehood on August 21, 1959, the term haole retained its primary connotation as a descriptor for white people of European or American descent, often implying outsider status rooted in historical colonialism, though rhetorical shifts emphasized broader American inclusion. Phrases such as "We All Haoles" or "Now We Are All Haoles" emerged in political discourse around statehood to symbolize the assimilation of Hawaii's multiethnic population—predominantly non-white locals—into U.S. citizenship, reflecting optimism for reduced ethnic hierarchies after decades of territorial haole elite dominance in economy and politics.^[67] However, this did not erase underlying distinctions; post-statehood political realignments empowered local (non-haole) Democrats, diminishing the haole oligarchy's control while reinforcing haole as a marker of persistent racial and cultural separation.^[40] The 1960s tourism explosion, with visitor numbers surging to 1.7 million by 1970, intensified associations of haole with affluent mainland whites, as marketing campaigns promoted Hawaii's "Aloha Spirit" and multiracial harmony to attract them, yet commodified non-white locals as exotic service providers.^[68] This influx perpetuated class-racial divides, with haole tourists and migrants viewed as beneficiaries of colonial legacies, prompting early resistance that framed haole in oppositional terms to local identity. The 1970s Hawaiian Renaissance, a cultural revival emphasizing indigenous language and sovereignty, heightened scrutiny of haole influence, amplifying the term's use in critiques of ongoing economic and military dominance by white outsiders.^[40]^[68] By the late 20th century, the notion of "local haole"—whites born and raised in Hawaii who adopt Pidgin English, local customs, and anti-mainland attitudes—emerged as a contested subcategory, illustrating partial shifts toward acceptance through cultural assimilation, though full integration remained elusive due to ingrained distrust.^[40] Surveys indicate mixed perceptions: in one poll, approximately half of respondents viewed haole as neutral, while a third considered it derogatory, reflecting dilution in everyday usage amid demographic diversification and intermarriage, yet retention of pejorative undertones in contexts of perceived entitlement or insensitivity.^[5] Persistent anti-haole incidents, such as verbal harassment or violence in schools and communities, underscore that the term's hostile edge endures, particularly toward recent transplants, even as Hawaii's economy integrates haoles via military bases and real estate.^[45]^[40]

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1820 (April 4th) SS Thaddeus arrives to Kailua-Kona with 1st wave of American Missionaries. 1821 Start of mission schools. These were institutions founded, ...
[20]
[PDF] THE HAWAIIAN CONSTITUTION OF 1840 - The University of Arizona
Apr 11, 2013 · Prominent among these were the increase of the haole population, the abolishment of the Hawaiian kapu system, and massive population decline due ...
[21]
1820: Protestant missionaries begin teaching in Hawai'i
The Reverend Hiram Bingham, a Congregationalist, begins teaching in Honolulu. Bingham starts what he calls “singing schools” on O'ahu, in which he teaches ...Missing: haole | Show results with:haole
[22]
History of Labor in Hawai'i - University of Hawaii System
The notorious "Big Five" were formed, in the main, by the early haole missionary families at first as sugar plantations then, as they diversified, as Hawai'i's ...Missing: resentment | Show results with:resentment
[23]
Hawai'i Labor History - University of Hawaii System
But the most resentment was often caused by the cruelty and arrogance of the plantation overseer or luna as he was called. When Hawai'i became a territorial ...
[24]
[PDF] Hawai'ian Sugar Plantations and Colonialism
In 1882, 88% of lunas, or overseers, were White, contrasted to 76.8% of field workers being from Hawai'ian or Chinese ethnicities. (Fleischman & Tyson, 2000, pp ...Missing: resentment | Show results with:resentment
[25]
[PDF] haole.pdf - Keiko Ohnuma
"Just as the haole, or foreigner, is the quintessence of all that pressed in on the. Hawaiian way of life in the nineteenth century, so the mainland haole is ...
[26]
How white planters usurped Hawaii's last queen | National Geographic
May 13, 2021 · Liliʻuokalani, the last queen of Hawaii, sits for a portrait more than two decades after a cabal of plantation owners overthrew her government in 1895.
[27]
The US annexation of Hawaii, 1893 - Libcom.org
Dec 13, 2016 · Thurston and other haole, as Hawaiians called their white neighbors, had been waiting for an excuse to strike against the monarchy. Now they had ...
[28]
Annexation of Hawaii, 1898 - state.gov
America's annexation of Hawaii in 1898 extended U.S. territory into the Pacific and highlighted resulted from economic integration and the rise of the United ...Missing: haole | Show results with:haole
[29]
Haole - Hawaiian Dictionaries
Haole (hā'-ō-le), n. ... 1. A person with a white skin; hence, a foreigner; but Hawaiians say haole eleele for negro. 2. A person from a foreign country; an alien ...
[30]
https://www.dictionary.com/browse/haole
[31]
Shut up and don't be so haole to make new friends in Hawaii - 3 of 6
May 13, 2024 · The word “haole” can have different meanings based on when and how it's used. When said in a neutral or positive context, such as in the ...
[32]
What It Means To Be A 'Local Haole' In Hawaii - HuffPost
Oct 7, 2015 · To be a local haole is to remember the Hawaiian kings and queens and the hard-working makaainana and still feel their presence as ghosts ...
[33]
A hate crime lays bare Hawaii's complicated race relations | AP News
Mar 2, 2023 · “Haole,” a Hawaiian word ... Kunzelman testified that what's not audible in the video is the men calling him “haole” in a derogatory way.
[34]
2 Native Hawaiians get prison in hate crime beating of white ... - NPR
Two Native Hawaiian men wouldn't have brutally beaten a man if he weren't white, a U.S. judge said Thursday in sentencing them to ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
Anti-Haole Violence Has Persisted Since The Killing Of Captain Cook
Aug 28, 2023 · James Cook was killed in 1779 as possibly the first victim of anti-haole violence in Hawaii.Missing: pejorative | Show results with:pejorative
[36]
[PDF] USCOURTS-ca9-09-15448-0.pdf - GovInfo
Mar 2, 2010 · The context no doubt includes random acts of racial violence against non-Native Hawaiian children. This is amplified by calls for “kill haole ...
[37]
“Locals Only” and “Got Koko?”: Is Haole Victimized? - DOI
When haoles talk about anti-haole violence, they often reference “kill haole day” in the public school system—a recurring event when haole kids were supposedly ...
[38]
Denby Fawcett: 'Kill Haole Day,' Situational Racism and Surfing
Jun 2, 2015 · Hawaii has seen plenty of white supremacism, particularly among its elites, but the In Crowd knew nothing of the elites. Most of the kids were ...Missing: evidence incidents
[39]
Are Haoles Victimized? - Honolulu Civil Beat
Jan 3, 2011 · The media cyclically runs articles focusing on 'haole' as a pejorative, and an unending stream of letters to the editor call for the banning of ...Missing: incidents | Show results with:incidents
[40]
[PDF] Local Haole? - UCSB History Department
Not only were Haoles at the top, but they habitually cast Hawaiians, Filipinos, and other pigment-‐rich peoples in terms parallel to those continental White ...
[41]
[PDF] What School You Went? Local Culture, Local Identity, and Local ...
If one's identity is based solely on being “anti-haole,” as the first quotation of this section suggests, does one's iden- tity vanish if the object of the ...Missing: sentiment | Show results with:sentiment
[42]
Denby Fawcett: Can A White Person Ever Be 'Local' In Hawaii?
Feb 4, 2020 · Yet that designation is still linked to the color of my skin, with the word haole coming after local. It seems more of an honorific title than ...
[43]
Jonathan Okamura: Local Identity Means A Lot More Than Eating ...
Feb 5, 2024 · As a group, haoles are not viewed as local by locals, but many are in Hawaii because they love the islands and its people.
[44]
[PDF] Hawaii's People - ScholarSpace
However, as some of these foreigners, chiefly British and Ameri can, gained positions of power and prestige in the Hawaiian com munity, the word haole also ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[45]
"Local" Haole--a Contradiction in Terms? The Dilemma of Being ...
Haole represents whiteness and external influences, contrasting with local identity. The term 'local' evolved to exclude haole, symbolizing solidarity against ...
[46]
[PDF] Critical Toponymies
Haole: white person, American, Englishman. Caucasian (formerly, any foreigner). Ho ike honua: Geography ("to show the earth"). Kaona: hidden meaning ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[47]
[PDF] CIVIL RIGHTS COMMISSION STATE OF HAWAII LINDA C. TSEU ...
In Hawaii, the word “haole” is a non—derogatory term used to denote a person ... racial slur. Kondo admitted that “bitch” is a derogatory term for ...Missing: empirical data descriptor
[48]
[PDF] Assimilating Hawai'i: Racial Science in a Colonial “Laboratory ...
definition of the Hawaiian word haole is “foreigner” or someone not indigenous to Hawai'i, since the mid- to late nineteenth century it has been used ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[49]
View of Judy Rohrer, Haoles in Hawai'i: Race and Ethnicity in Hawai ...
As a pushback, Euro-Americans have challenged haole as a pejorative term, stating that they suffer from reverse racism by Native Hawaiians. In Chapter 3, Rohrer ...Missing: slur | Show results with:slur
[50]
racial discourse in Hawai'i and the naturalization of haole
Aug 19, 2008 · Specifically, some legislators argued against a hate crimes bill because they feared the alleged practice of 'kill haole day' would open the ...
[51]
National Indian Law Library (NILL) - Native American Rights Fund
Oct 17, 2022 · Oliveira to testify on the term “haole,” except that she cannot testify that “haole” is never racially derogatory under any circumstance.<|control11|><|separator|>
[52]
2 Native Hawaiian men found guilty of hate crime in 2014 beating of ...
Nov 18, 2022 · "When people commit violent crimes against someone out of hatred for the victim's race, the Department of Justice will ensure they face criminal ...Missing: documented | Show results with:documented
[53]
[PDF] United States v. Kaonohi and Aki - Department of Justice
Feb 14, 2024 · The district court denied the motion, explaining that it was premature for the court to “judge the sufficiency of the evidence.” 1-ER-35, 41. c.
[54]
2 Hawaiian men sentenced to prison for hate-crime beating of white ...
Mar 5, 2023 · “The law protects everyone in this country from racially motivated violence, and these sentences send a strong message that such violence will ...
[55]
Racism Is Common In Hawaiʻi Schools — And Often Goes ...
Feb 10, 2025 · White students are far more likely to experience racism in Hawaiʻi than in schools on the continent, according to the survey, with roughly 47% ...
[56]
It Is Not Black and White: Discrimination and Distress in Hawaiʻi
Mar 9, 2017 · Whites reported similar levels of everyday discrimination as those in the other race/ethnicity category as well as Pacific Islanders, Native ...
[57]
Haole As Seen Through The Lens of White Fragility - LA Progressive
Mar 7, 2023 · The Department of Justice (DOJ) argued the men's use of the Hawaiian word “haole” was evidence of “anti-white” hatred. The court decision ...
[58]
Opinion | "Haole," Hawaii, Hate Crimes, and White Supremacy
Mar 6, 2023 · The Department of Justice (DOJ) argued the men's use of the Hawaiian word “haole” was evidence of “anti-white” hatred. The court decision ...Missing: sentiment | Show results with:sentiment
[59]
Hawai'i Tourism: A Century and a Half in the Making - Hawaii ...
Feb 12, 2025 · He says Hawai'i hosted nearly a quarter of a million visitors in 1959, a tally that surged with the start of jet flights between Hawai'i and the ...
[60]
[PDF] Fact Sheet: Benefits of Hawai'i's Tourism Economy
In 2019, Hawai'i's tourism economy has recorded. ➢ State Tax Revenue: $2.07 billion (+1.4%,+$28.5 million YOY versus 2018). ➢ Visitor Arrivals: 10,424,995 (+5. ...
[61]
[PDF] Tourism and Hawaii Economy
Oct 3, 2023 · Percentage of the area's GDP. 2017. 17.3%. 14.3%. 29.6%. 30.7 ... Estimated impacts of $1 billion visitor spending in 2022 on Hawaii economy.
[62]
Rebooting Hawai'i's Visitor Industry - Hawaii Sea Grant
Tourism represents roughly a quarter of Hawai'i's economy. In 2019, the visitor industry supported 216,000 jobs statewide, yielded nearly $17.8 billion in ...
[63]
Resident Sentiment Toward Tourism Recovering After Prolonged ...
Feb 8, 2023 · Sixty-seven percent of residents stated they had a favorable opinion of tourism as an industry in Hawai'i. More residents in this wave compared ...Missing: identity haole
[64]
[PDF] An Analysis of Haolewood's Attempts to Tell Hawai'i's Stories ...
use the term "haole," meaning "foreigner" in the Native Hawaiian language, to refer to all movies about Hawai'i from the mainland. Hollywood's images ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[65]
Styling Hawai'i in Haolewood: White protagonists on a voyage of self ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Styling Hawai'i in Haolewood: White protagonists on a voyage of self discovery. May 2012; Multilingua - Journal of Cross-Cultural and ...
[66]
Chad Blair: Lame 'Aloha' Is Typical Fare for Haolewood - Civil Beat
Jun 1, 2015 · Chad Blair: Lame 'Aloha' Is Typical Fare for Haolewood. Cameron Crowe's movie falls short as entertainment, but it's prompted us to think about ...
[67]
“Conclusion: “We All Haoles?”” in “Last Among Equals
Phrases like “We All Haoles” or “Now We Are All Haoles” were widely used to symbolize the acceptance of Hawaii's diverse peoples as Americans under statehood.Missing: evolution | Show results with:evolution
[68]
[PDF] Hawai'i Tourism and the Commodification of Racial Tolerance, 1959 ...
Tourism bolstered haole power by attracting affluent mainlanders to the Royal. Hawaiian and other luxurious Waikiki resorts 'designed to keep social and racial ...