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Working hypothesis

A working hypothesis is a provisional assumption or tentative explanation proposed in scientific research to guide the formulation of predictions, the design of experiments, and the interpretation of data, serving as a starting point that can be tested, refined, or rejected based on empirical evidence.^[1]^[2]^[3] The concept of the working hypothesis emerged in the late 19th century as a methodological tool to mitigate bias in scientific inquiry, distinguishing it from a more rigid "ruling theory" by emphasizing its role in directing fact-finding rather than presupposing truth.^[4] In 1890, geologist Thomas C. Chamberlin articulated this in his seminal paper "The Method of Multiple Working Hypotheses," arguing that a single working hypothesis risks "parental affection" toward preconceived ideas, leading investigators to selectively gather supporting evidence while ignoring contradictions.^[4] Instead, Chamberlin advocated employing multiple working hypotheses simultaneously—considering a "family" of plausible explanations—to foster impartial analysis, encourage comprehensive data collection, and reveal complex causal interactions, as exemplified in geological studies of phenomena like the formation of the Great Lakes basins.^[4] In modern research methodology, the working hypothesis remains integral to the scientific method, functioning as an educated guess that bridges observation and experimentation while remaining falsifiable.^[5]^[6] It promotes iterative progress by informing testable predictions, with outcomes either corroborating, modifying, or disproving the initial assumption, thereby advancing knowledge through cycles of hypothesis-driven investigation.^[7] This approach is particularly valuable in fields like statistics and biology, where it structures comparative studies, such as testing the effects of variables on outcomes like plant growth.^[3] By avoiding premature commitment to unverified ideas, the working hypothesis enhances the reliability and objectivity of scientific conclusions.^[4]

Definition and Characteristics

Core Definition

A working hypothesis is a tentatively accepted explanation or prediction of observed phenomena that serves as an initial framework for further scientific investigation, without requiring immediate proof or full commitment to its validity.^[8] It functions as a provisional guide for directing experiments, observations, or data analysis, often formulated as a direct statement of the researcher's expectations.^[9] Central to its design is a provisional nature, whereby the hypothesis remains flexible and open to modification or falsification based on emerging evidence, unlike established scientific theories that represent well-substantiated, broadly applicable explanations of natural processes.^[10] This tentativeness allows researchers to explore ideas iteratively, acknowledging that the hypothesis may evolve or be discarded as new data accumulates.^[11] The core purpose of a working hypothesis is to structure and advance ongoing research by focusing efforts on testable predictions, thereby facilitating the collection and interpretation of evidence to refine understanding.^[12] For example, in biology, a researcher might propose that a specific nutrient like nitrogen influences plant growth rates, using this as a basis to design experiments comparing growth under varying nutrient conditions.^[9]

Key Features

A working hypothesis is characterized by its tentative nature, serving as a provisional assumption that guides initial research efforts without committing to unalterable conclusions. This tentativeness allows researchers to hold the hypothesis loosely, fostering an open-minded approach that accommodates emerging evidence and reduces the risk of premature fixation on a single explanation.^[10] As articulated by early pragmatist philosophers, it functions as a "provisional, working means of advancing investigation," subject to revision as new data unfolds.^[13] This flexibility distinguishes it from more dogmatic frameworks, enabling adaptation to complex or uncertain research contexts.^[14] Central to its effectiveness is the requirement that a working hypothesis be testable and falsifiable, ensuring it can be empirically scrutinized through experiments, observations, or data analysis. This structure demands clear predictions that can be verified or refuted, thereby directing the collection of relevant evidence and preventing vague or unassailable propositions.^[15] For instance, it must incorporate measurable variables or conditions under available techniques, allowing for systematic evaluation that either supports provisional acceptance or prompts modification.^[16] Such testability aligns with scientific standards, promoting rigorous inquiry while maintaining the hypothesis's exploratory role.^[10] Working hypotheses are typically specific and focused, targeting a narrow facet of a broader problem to streamline research efforts and avoid overwhelming generality. By concentrating on particular relationships or mechanisms, they provide a precise lens for investigation, often breaking down into sub-hypotheses that address discrete elements.^[13] This specificity ensures conceptual clarity and simplicity, making the hypothesis accessible for targeted testing without diluting its utility.^[16] In practice, this focused approach enhances efficiency, as it channels resources toward verifiable aspects rather than diffuse speculation.^[14] The iterative quality of a working hypothesis underscores its role in ongoing scientific processes, where it evolves through repeated cycles of formulation, testing, and refinement. Initial versions may be adjusted or supplanted based on findings, gradually leading to more robust hypotheses or even theoretical advancements.^[15] This dynamism reflects a pragmatic emphasis on practical problem-solving, where the hypothesis serves as a evolving tool rather than a static endpoint.^[10] Through such iterations, it facilitates cumulative knowledge building, adapting to discrepancies between predictions and realities.^[13] In contrast to ruling theories, which offer comprehensive explanatory frameworks backed by extensive validation, a working hypothesis functions primarily as a fact-finding instrument rather than a dominant paradigm. It lacks the rigid relational expectations of formal theories and is unbound by prior doctrinal commitments, prioritizing exploration over confirmation.^[14] This subservient position allows multiple working hypotheses to coexist and challenge entrenched views, mitigating confirmation bias and encouraging pluralistic inquiry.^[10] By design, it remains exploratory, yielding to stronger evidence without aspiring to theoretical supremacy.^[16]

Historical Development

Origins in the 19th Century

The concept of the working hypothesis emerged in 19th-century scientific discourse as a provisional framework to direct empirical investigations, allowing researchers to test ideas against observations without premature commitment to unverified theories. This approach addressed the limitations of rigid deductive models in an era of expanding empirical data from fields like geology and biology, where field-based uncertainties demanded flexible guiding principles.^[5] Its roots traced to inductive methodologies popularized in the 19th century, which echoed Francis Bacon's emphasis in Novum Organum (1620) on building knowledge from systematic observations rather than a priori assumptions, thereby adapting 17th-century philosophy to practical 19th-century research needs. Scientists increasingly employed such provisional ideas to organize data collection and experimentation, marking a shift toward more dynamic hypothesis formation in response to the era's scientific advancements. The term "working hypothesis" itself appears in philosophical contexts as early as William James's writings, predating its methodological formalization in geology. In geology and natural sciences during the mid-1800s, provisional assumptions facilitated exploration of complex phenomena, such as the extent of past ice ages, by providing a testable starting point for field studies amid incomplete evidence. For instance, during his 1865–1866 expedition to Brazil, Louis Agassiz posited a possible glacial extension to tropical regions to interpret geological formations and guide sampling, demonstrating the value of tentative explanations in handling observational ambiguities without endorsing speculative theories. Philosophically, William James integrated the working hypothesis into pragmatic psychology in his 1882 essay "The Sentiment of Rationality," describing faith as synonymous with a "working hypothesis" that serves as a useful conception for advancing inquiry rather than claiming absolute truth. James's application in the 1890s underscored its role in fostering experimental attitudes in human sciences, influencing how provisional ideas could drive both intellectual and practical progress. This early adoption paved the way for refinements like multiple working hypotheses in later scientific methodology.^[17]

T.C. Chamberlin's Contributions

Thomas C. Chamberlin, a leading geologist and educator who served as president of the University of Wisconsin and later the University of Chicago, advanced the concept of the working hypothesis through his advocacy for a pluralistic approach in scientific reasoning. In his 1890 paper "The Method of Multiple Working Hypotheses," published in Science, Chamberlin proposed the simultaneous development and consideration of several competing hypotheses to guide research, marking a significant evolution from earlier singular uses of the term in the 19th century.^[18] This method aimed to mitigate the pitfalls of intellectual bias by distributing investigative effort across multiple ideas rather than fixating on one.^[4] Chamberlin warned that a single working hypothesis frequently evolves into a "ruling theory," fostering "parental affection" for it and leading to selective fact-gathering that ignores contradictory evidence.^[18] By contrast, the method of multiple working hypotheses promotes objectivity, as investigators treat each hypothesis impartially—like provisional intellectual tools—encouraging comprehensive evidence evaluation and detachment from preconceptions.^[4] He described this process as circumventing the dangers of emotional attachment, thereby enhancing the fertility and thoroughness of scientific inquiry.^[19] In applying this method to geology, Chamberlin utilized it to explore complex phenomena such as glacial formations and the broader history of the Earth, including the multifaceted origins of the Great Lake basins shaped by diverse agencies like ice action, water flow, and tectonic forces.^[4] He positioned the working hypothesis not as a tool for proof-seeking but as a "stimulus for study," primarily functioning to suggest lines of investigation that uncover underlying facts.^[18] As Chamberlin articulated, the hypothesis "has for its chief function the suggestion of lines of inquiry," directing attention toward empirical discovery over confirmation.^[4] Chamberlin's framework exerted lasting influence on 20th-century research practices, underscoring the hypothesis's role in fostering unbiased, multifaceted analysis across disciplines.^[20] His ideas resonated in John R. Platt's 1964 paper "Strong Inference," which explicitly built upon the multiple working hypotheses method to advocate rigorous experimental design for decisive hypothesis elimination in biological and physical sciences. This endorsement helped embed Chamberlin's principles into modern scientific methodology, promoting them as essential for reducing bias and advancing knowledge.^[21]

Formulation Process

Steps for Creating a Working Hypothesis

Creating a working hypothesis involves a systematic process that begins with identifying gaps in knowledge and progresses through iterative refinement to produce a testable, provisional statement guiding further investigation. This approach ensures the hypothesis serves as a flexible framework for research rather than a fixed conclusion, particularly in exploratory contexts where it is provisionally accepted to develop feasible theories.^[22]^[10] The first step is to identify the research problem or observation gap through a background review and preliminary data collection. Researchers start by observing phenomena or anomalies in existing data that warrant explanation, such as unexpected patterns in ecological datasets or inconsistencies in behavioral studies, and frame these into a clear research question to pinpoint the knowledge void. This initial phase relies on exploratory analysis to establish the scope, avoiding overly broad or vague issues.^[22]^[23] Next, conduct a thorough review of existing literature to avoid redundancy and inform potential explanations. This involves surveying peer-reviewed articles, books, and databases to understand prior findings, theoretical frameworks, and unresolved debates related to the identified gap, ensuring the new hypothesis builds on established knowledge without duplicating efforts. For instance, in studying climate impacts on agriculture, this step might reveal gaps in how specific variables like soil pH interact with temperature changes.^[22]^[23] The third step is to formulate a tentative prediction linking variables, such as independent to dependent, based on logical reasoning. Drawing from the literature and observations, researchers propose a provisional relationship, like predicting that increased exposure to a pollutant (independent variable) will elevate stress levels in aquatic species (dependent variable), serving as an educated guess to direct inquiry. This prediction remains open to revision as it embodies the tentative nature of a working hypothesis.^[22]^[24] In the fourth step, ensure testability by specifying measurable outcomes and methods for verification. The hypothesis must outline observable, quantifiable criteria for success or failure, including experimental designs, control groups, and statistical tools, such as measuring biomarker changes in blood samples over time to verify the prediction. This makes the hypothesis falsifiable, a core requirement for scientific validity.^[22]^[25] The fifth step is to state the hypothesis clearly and concisely as a direct, falsifiable statement. For example, "Application of fertilizer X will increase plant height by at least 20% in loamy soil under controlled irrigation conditions over a 30-day period." This phrasing avoids ambiguity, specifies conditions, and facilitates empirical testing.^[22]^[23] Finally, engage in iterative refinement by adjusting the hypothesis based on initial tests or feedback before full experimentation. Pilot studies or peer reviews may reveal flaws, prompting revisions to enhance precision or address overlooked factors, ensuring the working hypothesis evolves as a dynamic tool in the research process.^[22]^[24]

Essential Components

A robust working hypothesis requires clear identification of independent and dependent variables to specify the causal elements under investigation. The independent variable represents the manipulated or observed cause, such as a treatment intervention, while the dependent variable denotes the measured effect or outcome, like changes in patient recovery rates.^[26] This delineation ensures the hypothesis is focused and actionable, allowing researchers to design targeted experiments or observations.^[10] The expected relationship between these variables must outline the anticipated direction and, where applicable, magnitude of the effect, providing a provisional prediction that can guide data collection. For instance, it might posit a positive correlation, such as increased dosage leading to greater efficacy, or a threshold beyond which no effect occurs, like environmental stress impacting biodiversity only above a certain level. This component emphasizes the hypothesis's role in suggesting lines of inquiry without rigid commitment, while incorporating testability to allow empirical verification or refutation.^[26] Scope and boundaries define the contextual limitations of the hypothesis, restricting its applicability to specific populations, conditions, or settings to maintain precision and avoid overgeneralization. These may include demographic constraints, such as applying only to adult participants in a clinical trial, or environmental factors, like temperature ranges in ecological studies, ensuring the hypothesis remains relevant and feasible within defined parameters.^[10] By articulating these limits upfront, researchers can prevent misinterpretation and align the hypothesis with practical research constraints. The rationale basis grounds the working hypothesis in preliminary evidence, existing theory, or observational data, offering a brief justification without demanding exhaustive proof at the outset. This foundation, drawn from prior literature or pilot findings, supports the proposed variables and relationships while acknowledging the provisional nature of the hypothesis.^[26] For example, it might reference established patterns in related studies to justify expecting a certain causal link, thereby linking the hypothesis to broader scientific discourse.^[10] A typical structure for articulating a working hypothesis integrates these elements into a concise, if-then format: "If [independent variable changes, e.g., exposure to a specific nutrient increases], then [dependent variable will respond in this way, e.g., plant growth rate will improve by at least 20%] because [brief reason, e.g., preliminary soil analyses indicate nutrient deficiency as a limiting factor]." This format promotes clarity and directs subsequent testing.^[24]

Integration in Scientific Inquiry

Position Within the Scientific Method

In the standard sequence of the scientific method, a working hypothesis emerges following the identification of a research problem and initial background research or observation, where it serves as a provisional explanation that guides subsequent steps. This placement positions it immediately before the design and execution of experiments or data collection, allowing researchers to formulate testable predictions derived from the hypothesis. For instance, after observing patterns in data, scientists develop a working hypothesis to structure their inquiry, which then informs the variables and methods used in experimentation, preceding analysis and conclusion phases.^[1] The working hypothesis functions as a critical bridge between exploratory observations and rigorous testing, translating broad empirical insights into specific, falsifiable predictions that enable hypothesis-driven research rather than unfocused exploration. By providing a tentative framework, it directs the investigative process toward empirical validation, ensuring that experiments are purposeful and aligned with potential outcomes. This transitional role underscores its utility in maintaining scientific rigor, as it converts qualitative observations into quantitative or qualitative tests that can confirm, refute, or refine the initial idea. Within the iterative cycles of scientific inquiry, the working hypothesis is subject to revision based on experimental results, potentially looping back to new observations or the formation of alternative hypotheses to advance understanding. If testing disproves the hypothesis, it prompts refinement or replacement, fostering progressive knowledge accumulation through repeated cycles of conjecture and refutation. This dynamic process aligns closely with the deductive approach in science, where the working hypothesis starts from general principles or existing theories to derive specific predictions for testing, in contrast to inductive methods that generalize from particular observations without a priori frameworks.^[1]^[10] A practical illustration of this cycle occurs when researchers observe plants wilting under certain conditions, leading to a working hypothesis that water deficiency is the cause; this is then tested through controlled experiments varying water levels while isolating other variables, with results feeding back to adjust the hypothesis if needed. As T.C. Chamberlin emphasized in his advocacy for multiple working hypotheses, this approach encourages parallel evaluation to mitigate bias, enhancing the reliability of the scientific progression.^[19]

Comparison to Other Hypothesis Types

A working hypothesis differs from the null hypothesis in that it serves as a predictive and explanatory proposition tentatively accepted to guide further investigation and theory development, whereas the null hypothesis posits no effect or relationship between variables and is primarily used for statistical testing to determine if observed data contradict it.^[27] For instance, a working hypothesis might propose that a specific nutrient enhances plant growth rates, directing experimental design, while a null hypothesis would state no such enhancement occurs, serving as the baseline for rejecting or failing to reject based on p-values.^[28] In contrast to the alternative hypothesis, which directly opposes the null by predicting a specific relationship or effect and is tested only after null evaluation, a working hypothesis is broader and less formalized, often incorporating potential alternatives during the initial research stages without immediate statistical opposition.^[27] This allows the working hypothesis to evolve through iterative refinement, such as adjusting predictions based on preliminary data, rather than being rigidly positioned as the counterpart in hypothesis testing.^[29] Compared to the exploratory hypothesis, which involves open-ended qualitative probing to generate ideas and clarify phenomena without structured predictions, the working hypothesis is more formalized and testable, typically employed in deductive phases where it directs targeted data collection and analysis.^[27] For example, an exploratory approach might broadly investigate user behaviors in a new app to identify patterns, whereas a working hypothesis would propose a specific mechanism, like "intuitive navigation reduces drop-off rates," for empirical verification.^[28] Unlike a scientific theory, which represents a well-substantiated, broad explanation supported by extensive evidence and repeated validation, a working hypothesis remains tentative, narrow in scope, and subject to provisional acceptance pending further substantiation.^[28] Chamberlin emphasized this distinction by contrasting the working hypothesis with a "ruling theory," noting that the former avoids bias by serving as an impartial guide to facts rather than a preconceived framework demanding confirmation.^[4] The unique provisional status of the working hypothesis underscores its role in ongoing research, where it facilitates multiple tentative interpretations without the immediate imperative for disproof inherent in formal hypothesis testing, thereby promoting objectivity and adaptability; this aligns with its emphasis on falsifiability as a core feature for guiding inquiry.^[4]

Practical Applications

Use in Natural Sciences

In natural sciences, working hypotheses serve as provisional frameworks that direct empirical investigations, allowing researchers to test predictions through controlled experiments and observations. In biology, scientists often formulate working hypotheses about how specific genetic mutations contribute to disease traits, which are then validated or refined via laboratory experiments such as gene editing or phenotypic assays. For instance, a working hypothesis might posit that a mutation in the CFTR gene disrupts chloride ion transport, leading to cystic fibrosis symptoms, and this can be tested by introducing the mutation into cell cultures and measuring ion flow rates. Similarly, in agronomic biology, working hypotheses guide experiments on environmental factors affecting growth; researchers might hypothesize that varying fertilizer rates influence plant height differently across crop varieties, analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) to assess treatment effects while controlling for genetic variability. In physics, working hypotheses provide tentative assumptions about fundamental interactions that inform the design of high-energy experiments, such as those at particle accelerators. For example, in the search for dark matter, physicists have adopted the working hypothesis that it constitutes a new form of non-baryonic matter interacting weakly with ordinary particles, which directs the configuration of detectors in underground experiments to capture rare collision events and refine the hypothesis based on null results or signals. This approach was evident in early data from the Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS), where the hypothesis shaped expectations for event rates and backgrounds, leading to iterative adjustments in experimental parameters. Working hypotheses play a crucial role in experimentation by specifying variables to control and measures to take, ensuring focused data collection that advances understanding of complex systems. In ecology, a working hypothesis might propose that rising temperatures from climate change reduce biodiversity in coral reef ecosystems by altering species interactions, tested through field monitoring of temperature gradients and species abundance to evaluate predictive power. Charles Darwin exemplified this in his development of natural selection, where he treated the idea—that heritable variations advantageous for survival would become more common—as a working hypothesis iteratively tested through observations of finch beak adaptations and breeding experiments during and after his Beagle voyage. Such hypotheses integrate with computational tools like simulations, where biologists model mutation propagation in populations to predict outcomes, or field studies in physics where Monte Carlo simulations based on particle interaction hypotheses forecast detector responses before data acquisition. In psychology, working hypotheses facilitate tentative explorations of links between behaviors and environmental factors, often tested through surveys and observational methods. For instance, Robert Karasek's job demand-control model posits that high job demands combined with low decision latitude lead to increased psychological strain, such as stress and burnout, among workers; this provisional framework has been empirically examined in workplace studies using self-reported surveys to assess environmental stressors like workload and autonomy.^[30] Such hypotheses allow researchers to iteratively refine understandings of human responses in dynamic settings, drawing on multiple provisional ideas to mitigate confirmation bias as advocated in earlier methodological discussions. In the social sciences, working hypotheses serve as exploratory frameworks for evaluating policy impacts, enabling provisional assumptions about societal outcomes that guide data-driven investigations. A common application involves hypothesizing that education reforms, such as equity-focused policies, reduce socioeconomic inequality by improving access and graduation rates; this is tested through longitudinal analyses of policy implementation effects on diverse populations.^[31] Similarly, in policy research on higher education, scholars have used working hypotheses to probe whether elite university admissions perpetuate inequality at postgraduate levels, informing targeted interventions via comparative case analyses.^[32] Applied fields like product design leverage working hypotheses to predict user behavior changes, validated through controlled experiments such as A/B testing. Designers might provisionally assume that modifying interface elements, like color schemes, enhances user engagement by making interactions more intuitive; these are tested by exposing user groups to variants and measuring metrics like click-through rates or session duration.^[33] In qualitative research within sociology, working hypotheses structure interview protocols and case studies by outlining expected patterns in social phenomena, such as community dynamics, allowing researchers to collect targeted evidence while remaining open to revisions based on emergent data.^[10] In economics, working hypotheses underpin provisional models of market trends, which are simulated to forecast behaviors under varying conditions. Economic models simplify real-world interactions to generate testable predictions, such as how supply-demand shifts influence prices, and these are run through simulations to evaluate policy scenarios like tax reforms on market equilibrium.^[34] This approach ensures hypotheses inform practical simulations without assuming permanence, adapting to new data on trends like consumer responses to economic shocks.

Benefits and Limitations

Advantages

The use of working hypotheses in scientific research offers significant advantages by promoting a structured yet flexible approach to inquiry. Primarily, it reduces confirmation bias by encouraging researchers to treat hypotheses as provisional tools for testing rather than fixed beliefs, thereby fostering evidence-based revision and preventing undue attachment to initial ideas.^[35] This detachment is achieved through the method's emphasis on impartial evaluation, where investigators avoid magnifying evidence that supports a favored explanation while downplaying contradictory data.^[36] Furthermore, working hypotheses enhance focus by narrowing the scope of investigation to testable predictions, making studies more manageable and resource-efficient without sacrificing comprehensiveness.^[35] By delineating clear boundaries for data collection and analysis, this approach streamlines experimental design and allocation of limited resources, such as time and funding, toward high-impact questions.^[36] The provisional nature of working hypotheses also facilitates iteration, allowing researchers to adapt quickly to emerging data and refine their models accordingly, which accelerates overall scientific progress.^[36] This iterative process supports a dynamic workflow, where hypotheses can be revised or discarded based on new evidence, promoting continuous improvement in understanding complex phenomena.^[35] As articulated by Thomas C. Chamberlin, employing multiple working hypotheses supports diverse perspectives by requiring simultaneous consideration of several competing explanations, which prevents premature conclusions and encourages a balanced assessment of evidence.^[35] This multiplicity fosters "simultaneous vision from different points of view," enabling researchers to coordinate multiple causal factors without favoring one prematurely.^[35] In practical terms, working hypotheses provide clear, testable directions that guide the preparation of grant proposals and the design of experiments, ensuring alignment with empirical validation.^[36] By outlining specific predictions, they help articulate the rationale for proposed studies, increasing the likelihood of securing support and optimizing methodological rigor.^[35]

Potential Drawbacks

One significant drawback of relying on a working hypothesis is the risk of premature commitment, where even a provisional assumption can subtly evolve into a dominant framework that biases data interpretation and collection toward confirmation rather than falsification. This degeneration often occurs imperceptibly, fostering an unconscious desire to prove the hypothesis despite emerging contrary evidence, thereby undermining scientific objectivity.^[37] The narrow focus inherent in a working hypothesis can limit its scope, potentially causing researchers to overlook broader contextual factors or alternative explanations that fall outside the initial frame.^[38] For instance, by prioritizing specific variables or pathways, investigators may inadvertently ignore interdisciplinary influences or emergent patterns, leading to incomplete analyses.^[24] Working hypotheses are particularly vulnerable to dependency on initial assumptions; if these are poorly grounded in preliminary data or prior knowledge, they can steer research down flawed paths, resulting in wasted resources on unproductive experiments or observations.^[39] When employing multiple working hypotheses to mitigate single-hypothesis biases, researchers face added challenges in management, as juggling several provisional ideas can increase cognitive load and complicate study design.^[37] This complexity may lead to vacillation among options or the generation of untestable propositions, potentially stalling progress despite the approach's overall advantages in promoting open inquiry.^[37] In social sciences, cultural biases embedded in the formulation of working hypotheses can exacerbate these issues, often leading to skewed results that fail to generalize beyond Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) populations. For example, hypotheses assuming universal cognitive processes may overlook sociocultural variations, perpetuating ethnocentric interpretations in fields like psychology and anthropology.^[40]

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