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Indian python

The Indian python (Python molurus), also known as the Indian rock python, is a large, non-venomous constrictor snake belonging to the family Pythonidae, characterized by its robust body, rectangular mosaic pattern of brown and tan blotches, and ability to grow up to 6.4 meters in length and weigh over 90 kilograms. Currently recognized as monotypic with no widely accepted subspecies (though some sources include P. m. peguensis), it is native to the Indian subcontinent—including countries such as India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka—and thrives in diverse habitats ranging from tropical rainforests and river valleys to scrublands, grassy marshes, semi-arid grasslands, mangroves, and rocky foothills near permanent water sources.^[1]^[2]^[3] As a semi-arboreal and primarily terrestrial ambush predator, the Indian python exhibits solitary behavior, excellent swimming and climbing abilities, and a diet consisting of small to medium-sized mammals (such as rodents and monkeys), birds, reptiles, and occasionally amphibians, which it subdues through constriction after detecting prey via heat-sensing pits and chemical cues.^[1]^[2] Females reach sexual maturity at 2–3 years and lay clutches of up to 100 eggs, which they incubate by coiling around them and using muscular contractions to maintain temperature for 2–3 months, with hatchlings measuring about 60–70 cm at birth.^[1] The species hibernates or aestivates during extreme seasonal conditions, showing unimodal activity in cooler months and bimodal patterns in warmer periods.^[2] Conservation efforts are critical for the Indian python, which is classified as Near Threatened by the IUCN Red List due to ongoing population declines estimated at close to 30% over the past decade (as of 2019), driven by habitat fragmentation, poaching for skins and meat, human-wildlife conflicts near settlements, and incidental threats like road mortality and mining activities.^[4]^[2] The species is protected under CITES Appendix I, prohibiting international trade, while the nominate form is listed as Endangered under the U.S. Endangered Species Act; in India, it receives Schedule I protection under the Wildlife Protection Act, emphasizing the need for habitat restoration and anti-poaching measures in key reserves like the Mudumalai and Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserves.^[1]^[2] Despite these challenges, the snake's adaptability to varied ecosystems underscores its ecological role as an apex predator in maintaining biodiversity.^[2]

Taxonomy

Classification and nomenclature

The Indian python is classified in the family Pythonidae, order Squamata, class Reptilia, phylum Chordata, and kingdom Animalia.^[5] Its binomial name is Python molurus (Linnaeus, 1758), with the type locality designated as "Indiis" (India) and the holotype preserved as NRM (NHRM) 5.^[6] Originally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 as Coluber molurus in Systema Naturae, the species was subsequently reassigned to the genus Python by François Marie Daudin in 1803, making it the type species of that genus based on illustrations from Patrick Russell's 1796 work.^[6] Historical synonyms include Boa ordinata Schneider 1801, Python bora Daudin 1803, Python tigris Daudin 1803, and Python jamesonii Gray 1842, among others documented in taxonomic revisions such as Kluge 1993.^[6] Key taxonomic revisions include the 2009 elevation of the Burmese python from subspecies status as Python molurus bivittatus Kuhl 1820 to a full species, Python bivittatus, by Jacobs et al., based on differences in genetics, morphology, and coloration that distinguish it from P. molurus.^[7] This separation resolved prior uncertainties in the Python molurus complex, emphasizing the Indian python's distinct evolutionary lineage.^[8] Recent genetic analyses, such as a 2018 study on invasive Burmese pythons in Florida, detected cytonuclear discordance indicative of possible hybridization with P. molurus in non-native populations, likely from historical captive breeding mixes.^[9] Despite this evidence of limited gene flow, P. molurus and P. bivittatus are upheld as distinct species due to consistent morphological and genetic divergence in their native ranges.^[9]

Subspecies

The Indian python (Python molurus) is currently regarded as monotypic, with no formally recognized subspecies under prevailing taxonomic classifications such as those in The Reptile Database.^[10] This reflects a consolidation of historical variants into the nominate form, amid ongoing debates in herpetological literature. Historically, the species included two proposed subspecies: the nominate Python molurus molurus (Linnaeus, 1758), which inhabits the Indian subcontinent including Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh, and Python molurus pimbura Deraniyagala, 1945, endemic to Sri Lanka.^[11] The latter was described based on specimens from Sri Lanka and is now often treated as a synonym of the nominate subspecies due to insufficient diagnostic distinctions, though some authorities maintain its validity as a subspecies inquirenda.^[11]^[12] The P. m. pimbura form is characterized by subtle morphological differences from the nominate, including lower subcaudal scale counts (typically 60–70 versus 70–85 in P. m. molurus) and more irregular, asymmetrical lateral blotch patterns along the body.^[11] These traits were originally noted in the type description but have not been consistently upheld in modern revisions, leading to its merged status in many databases.^[10] A third historical subspecies, Python molurus bivittatus Kuhl, 1820, was once included but was elevated to full species rank as Python bivittatus (Burmese python) in 2009 based on molecular and morphological evidence distinguishing it from the Indian python; it is now primarily distributed in Southeast Asia, including Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.^[10] The IUCN Red List assessment for P. molurus aligns with the monotypic view, encompassing populations across the Indian subcontinent and Sri Lanka without subdividing into subspecies.^[13]

Physical description

Size and appearance

The Indian python (Python molurus) is a robust, heavy-bodied constrictor characterized by its muscular build and smooth dorsal scales arranged in a regular pattern. The head is distinctly triangular and slightly wider than the neck, with a prominent snout and heat-sensing labial pits located on the upper and lower lips, enabling infrared detection of warm-blooded prey. These anatomical features support its role as an ambush predator, with the body tapering to a relatively short tail.^[1] Adults typically attain an average length of 2.5–3 meters (8–10 ft), though exceptional specimens can exceed this substantially. The maximum recorded length for the nominate subspecies is 6.4 meters (21 ft), accompanied by weights reaching up to 91 kg (200 lb), establishing it as one of the larger python species, albeit with some size overlap with the closely related Burmese python (P. bivittatus).^[1] Sexual dimorphism is pronounced, with females generally larger and heavier than males; this disparity aids in accommodating larger clutches during reproduction.^[1] In the wild, Indian pythons exhibit a lifespan of 20–30 years, influenced by factors such as predation, habitat quality, and food availability, while individuals in captivity can survive up to 34 years under optimal conditions.^[14]^[15]

Coloration and patterns

The Indian python, Python molurus, displays a characteristic coloration featuring a pale yellowish or creamy white base, accented by irregular tan to dark brown blotches bordered in black.^[1] These blotches form a mosaic-like pattern along the dorsal surface, with rectangular or squarish shapes that provide a distinctive, disruptive appearance.^[1] On the head, a partial arrow-shaped marking is typically present, pointing forward, while the tail features blotches that often merge into narrow bands.^[1] Coloration exhibits notable variation across individuals and regions, influenced by local terrain and habitat conditions. In forested or densely vegetated areas, specimens tend to have darker, more subdued tan and brown tones for enhanced blending with shaded environments, whereas those in open grasslands or rocky terrains appear lighter with more pronounced yellowish hues. Juveniles generally resemble adults in pattern but may show slightly more vivid contrasts in their blotches before colors mellow with age. This polymorphic patterning serves a primary adaptive function in camouflage, allowing the python to conceal itself effectively against rocky outcrops, leaf litter, or grassy substrates in its varied habitats across the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.^[1] The black outlines around blotches further disrupt the snake's outline, reducing visibility to prey and predators during ambush hunting or evasion.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The Indian python (Python molurus) is native to the Indian subcontinent, occurring primarily in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. Within India, it is distributed across diverse regions including the states of Assam, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Odisha, often in proximity to water bodies and forested areas.^[16] In Pakistan, populations are restricted to the northeastern regions near the Indus River valley, while in Nepal, it inhabits southern lowlands up to elevations of about 1,500 m.^[1] Bangladesh hosts subpopulations in the southeastern hill tracts and coastal areas, and in Sri Lanka, it is found throughout the island, though records are sporadic in the central highlands.^[17] Historically, the species was more continuously distributed across much of its range, extending from the western Indus Valley to the eastern edges of the Indian subcontinent, but current distribution is fragmented due to habitat conversion and other pressures.^[1] It is notably absent from large portions of central India, where it was once present in deciduous forests and grasslands.^[18] Post-2009 taxonomic revisions separating the Burmese python (Python bivittatus), the Indian python's range in Southeast Asia has been excluded, with no confirmed occurrences in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and southern China based on genetic and morphological distinctions.^[16] The extent of occurrence for P. molurus is estimated at approximately 3,758,561 km², reflecting its broad but patchy presence across the subcontinent.^[18] Population estimates are rough, but the species is assessed as Near Threatened by the IUCN, with an inferred decline of at least 30% over the past three generations (approximately 45 years) driven by ongoing fragmentation.^[19] Subpopulations in Pakistan and Sri Lanka show particular declines, with densities as low as 3 individuals per km² in surveyed areas of Pakistan's Azad Jammu and Kashmir.^[20] Introduced populations are not established outside the native range; however, occasional escapes from the pet trade have been reported in non-native areas such as the United States, where individuals have been sighted but failed to reproduce or persist.^[1]

Preferred habitats

The Indian python (Python molurus) inhabits a variety of tropical and subtropical environments, including subtropical and tropical dry forests, swamp forests, moist montane forests, dry grasslands, permanent rivers and streams, and freshwater marshes.^[18] These habitats provide the necessary cover and proximity to water sources essential for the snake's survival.^[1] Additionally, individuals are occasionally recorded in semi-evergreen forests, rocky hillsides, and mangrove ecosystems up to elevations of 2,000 meters above sea level.^[18]^[21] Within these broader habitat types, Indian pythons exhibit a strong preference for microhabitats offering shelter and ambush opportunities, such as wet rocky areas near streams or pools, large rotting logs, burrows, caves, crevices, and dense vegetation like bushes or reeds.^[18]^[22] They frequently utilize areas adjacent to water bodies, including swamps and riverine zones, where they can remain submerged for extended periods.^[1] Dry and green bushes are particularly favored for concealment during resting or hunting.^[22] The species demonstrates notable adaptations to its preferred environments, including semi-aquatic tendencies that enable expert swimming and submersion for up to 30 minutes, as well as proficient climbing abilities to access tree hollows or branches for refuge.^[1]^[22] These traits allow tolerance for diverse microhabitats, from arid scrub to humid wetlands, and even edges of human-modified landscapes like agricultural fields.^[2] Their mottled brown and yellow coloration aids in camouflage within grassy, forested, or rocky settings.^[1] Indian pythons require warm, humid climatic conditions typical of subtropical and tropical regions, avoiding extreme aridity and high altitudes beyond their elevational limit.^[18] They thrive in damp terrains but enter brumation during cooler months (October to February) in sheltered sites to regulate body temperature.^[1]

Behavior and ecology

Activity patterns and locomotion

The Indian rock python (Python molurus) exhibits primarily nocturnal and crepuscular activity patterns, particularly during warmer months to avoid excessive daytime heat, with peaks in movement observed between 1600–1800 hours and ingress/egress around dawn and dusk.^[23] During cooler periods, such as winter in semi-arid regions, individuals shift toward more diurnal behaviors centered on basking, with activity peaking between 1200–1400 hours to thermoregulate by absorbing solar radiation.^[23] Overall activity levels decline seasonally in cooler months, potentially entering periods of reduced movement akin to brumation in response to lower temperatures, though migration is rare and adults tend to remain within established home ranges.^[24] Locomotion in the Indian rock python is adapted to its robust body form, favoring slower, deliberate movements over rapid undulation. On level ground, it employs rectilinear locomotion, a straight-line progression where ventral scales and underlying muscles propel the body forward in a caterpillar-like manner, suitable for its heavy build and energy-efficient traversal of open terrain.^[25] For navigating rough or irregular surfaces, including during climbing on rocks or trees, it utilizes concertina locomotion, anchoring portions of the body while extending others in an accordion-style fold to gain purchase and ascend lethargically.^[26] On loose substrates like sand, sidewinding may occur, lifting the body into lateral loops that contact the ground at discrete points to minimize slippage and facilitate progress across unstable environments.^[27] The species is also a proficient swimmer, using lateral undulations of the body and tail to propel through water, often crossing rivers or foraging in aquatic margins.^[28] Sensory adaptations enhance the Indian rock python's effectiveness in low-light conditions aligned with its activity rhythms. It possesses labial pit organs on the upper and lower jaws that function as infrared heat sensors, detecting thermal radiation from warm-blooded prey to enable precise targeting even in complete darkness.^[29] These pits integrate with visual input in the brain, compensating for the species' relatively poor eyesight, which is limited to motion detection and basic shape recognition.^[30] Additionally, the python relies on a keen sense of vibration, detected through its body scales and jawbones, to localize ground-borne disturbances from approaching prey or threats, augmenting its chemosensory capabilities via the forked tongue and Jacobson's organ.^[31] Juveniles exhibit dispersal behaviors post-hatching, moving away from natal sites to establish independence, though specific distances vary; adults show limited mobility, with rare long-distance shifts tied to habitat availability rather than seasonal migration.^[32]

Feeding habits

The Indian python (Python molurus) is an opportunistic carnivore, preying primarily on small to large mammals such as rodents, monkeys, and deer, as well as birds, reptiles (including other snakes), and amphibians; it occasionally consumes aquatic prey like fish when hunting near water bodies.^[33]^[1] Juveniles target smaller items, including lizards and small rodents, to support rapid growth, while adults shift to larger vertebrates that can constitute a substantial portion of their diet.^[1] As an ambush predator, the Indian python relies on stealth to strike suddenly, using its sharp, backward-curving teeth to seize live prey before coiling its muscular body around the victim.^[1] It constricts with increasing pressure in response to the prey's heartbeat, ultimately causing cardiac arrest rather than simple suffocation, which allows for efficient subduing of struggling animals. The snake then swallows the prey whole, typically head-first to align limbs and facilitate passage, with prey size reaching up to approximately 50% of the python's body mass in adults.^[1] It employs heat-sensing pits along its upper lip to detect warm-blooded prey in low-light conditions, enhancing its nocturnal hunting success.^[1] Feeding occurs infrequently in the wild, every 2–4 weeks, reflecting the snake's low metabolic rate and ability to survive extended fasts.^[34] Digestion in the Indian python is a rapid but energy-intensive process, with powerful enzymes and acids breaking down the entire prey—including bones and fur—over 10–14 days, depending on meal size and environmental temperature.^[35] Under stress, such as from handling or suboptimal temperatures, the snake may regurgitate undigested prey to reduce weight and escape threats more easily.^[36] This adaptive physiology allows the python to capitalize on sporadic large meals while minimizing foraging risks.^[35]

Reproduction and life cycle

The Indian python (Python molurus) exhibits seasonal reproduction, with mating typically occurring in northern populations from February to early April, coinciding with the end of the cooler dry season. Males locate receptive females through pheromonal cues and engage in courtship involving body entwining, tongue flicking, and stimulation with cloacal spurs; copulation durations range from 30 minutes to several hours. Male-male competition is common, manifesting as ritualized combat where rivals coil around each other, attempting to overpower and pin the opponent to establish dominance and access to females. Pythons are promiscuous, with individuals participating in multiple matings per season, as observed in both wild and captive settings.^[37]^[38]^[39] Following mating, gravid females seek out humid, sheltered sites such as burrows, rock crevices, or hollow logs to deposit their clutch approximately 3-4 months later, often in April or May in northern India. Clutch sizes vary with female body size, ranging from 8 to 100 eggs, though wild reports commonly document 20-50 eggs per clutch. The female coils protectively around the eggs in a tight mass, employing shivering thermogenesis—rapid muscular contractions—to maintain an optimal incubation temperature of about 31-33°C, rarely leaving the nest except to adjust position. This maternal brooding lasts 60-74 days, during which the female abstains from feeding and may lose up to 50% of her body mass.^[1]^[37]^[38] Hatchlings emerge synchronously, measuring 45–65 cm in length and weighing around 100-200 g, fully formed with precocial traits including functional fangs and hunting instincts; they are independent immediately upon emergence and disperse from the nest.^[40]^[41] Sexual maturity is attained at 2–3 years of age, depending on growth conditions and reaching a minimum snout-vent length of approximately 180–220 cm, with females requiring slightly larger sizes than males.^[1]^[38] Juvenile growth is rapid in the first few years, with individuals potentially doubling in length annually under favorable conditions, though overall lifespan in the wild averages 20-30 years. High juvenile mortality, often exceeding 80% in the first year, results primarily from predation by birds of prey, mammals, and other snakes.^[38]^[37]

Conservation

Status and threats

The Indian python (Python molurus) is classified as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List due to ongoing population declines driven by habitat loss and exploitation.^[42] The assessment, conducted in 2019 and published in 2021, estimates a decline of at least 30% over the last three generations (approximately 40 years), primarily from over-exploitation and habitat degradation.^[42] Global population size remains unknown, though it is inferred to be decreasing across the species' range, with fragmented subpopulations in protected areas showing varying densities.^[42] Primary anthropogenic threats include habitat fragmentation and loss from agricultural expansion and deforestation, which restrict the python's access to suitable rocky and forested habitats.^[42] Poaching for skins, meat, and use in traditional medicine persists despite legal protections, fueling illegal trade networks.^[42] Human-python conflicts arise frequently from livestock predation, leading to retaliatory killings, while roadkill poses an increasing risk as linear infrastructure encroaches on habitats.^[42]^[2] A 2023 radio-telemetry study in the Sathyamangalam and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves of southern India tracked 14 adult pythons, revealing mean home ranges of 3.7–4.2 km² (95% confidence interval: 1.7–8.5 km²), with individual ranges varying from 1.4 to 8.1 km² for residents and up to 21.7 km² for translocated individuals.^[2] These findings highlight the species' vulnerability to linear infrastructure like roads and railways, as pythons often traverse human-modified landscapes, exacerbating mortality from vehicle collisions and conflicts.^[2] Natural threats primarily affect juveniles, which face predation from birds such as eagles and mammals including mongooses and wild boars.^[43] Diseases, including bacterial infections like Corynebacterium septicaemia and viral conditions such as inclusion body disease, also contribute to mortality, particularly in stressed or captive populations, though wild impacts are less documented.^[44]^[45] Parasitic infestations, such as ticks and mites leading to dysecdysis, further weaken juveniles in degraded habitats.^[46]

Protection and efforts

The Indian rock python (Python molurus) receives stringent legal protection in India under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which prohibits hunting, trade, and possession of the species to safeguard it from exploitation.^[47] Internationally, the nominate subspecies (P. m. molurus) has been listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) since July 1, 1975, while the Burmese subspecies (P. m. bivittatus) is listed in Appendix II, with the former prohibiting international commercial trade in wild specimens across signatory countries.^[48] Conservation efforts emphasize habitat preservation within protected areas, such as Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh, where the python plays a key role in the ecosystem as a non-venomous constrictor preying on local mammals and birds.^[49] Similarly, the Mudumalai Tiger Reserve in Tamil Nadu serves as a critical refuge, particularly in the Moyar Valley region, where the species has shown signs of population stability amid surrounding tiger reserves.^[50] To mitigate human-python conflicts, initiatives include community education programs that promote awareness of the species' ecological benefits and safe coexistence practices, reducing retaliatory killings in rural areas.^[51] Captive breeding programs in facilities like Chennai Snake Park have successfully produced offspring for reintroduction into protected habitats such as Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, supporting population recovery without relying solely on wild captures.^[52] Ongoing research since 2020 has advanced understanding of the python's ecology through methods like radio-telemetry, with a 2023 study tracking 14 individuals in Sathyamangalam and Mudumalai Tiger Reserves to map home ranges and movement patterns across forests, villages, and agricultural lands.^[53] This work highlights the species' adaptability but underscores the need for targeted monitoring; camera traps are increasingly deployed in Indian reserves to non-invasively document python occurrences and behaviors, aiding long-term population assessments.^[2] Despite these measures, challenges persist, including enforcement gaps in rural regions where illegal activities undermine protections against poaching and habitat loss.^[54] Additionally, the fragmentation of habitats necessitates the development of wildlife corridors to facilitate safe movement and genetic exchange among python populations.^[55]

Cultural significance

In mythology and folklore

In Hindu mythology, the Indian python (Python molurus), known as ajagara in Sanskrit, is associated with the Nagas, a class of semi-divine serpent beings revered as guardians of treasures, water sources, and the underworld. These serpents symbolize fertility, protection, and the cyclical nature of life and death, often depicted as multi-headed entities like Shesha, the cosmic serpent supporting the universe. The python's large, non-venomous form embodies the benevolent aspects of Naga lore, contrasting with more fearsome venomous snakes, and appears in ancient texts as a symbol of primal power and earth-bound divinity. The Mahabharata features a prominent reference to the Indian python in the Ajagara Parva (Chapter of the Python), where King Nahusha, cursed by Sage Agastya for his arrogance, is transformed into a massive ajagara that coils around the Pandavas during their exile. Yudhishthira frees the python—revealed as Nahusha—by answering its philosophical questions on dharma, caste, and human conduct, after which the serpent sheds its form and ascends to heaven.^[56] This episode underscores the python's role as a teacher and guardian spirit, embodying cursed royalty and moral wisdom in epic narratives.^[57] Among indigenous tribes of the Indian subcontinent, such as the Bhils and Garasias in Rajasthan, the Indian python holds protective significance in folklore, often viewed as a rain-bringer and ancestral spirit.^[58] These communities conserve the species, believing its presence near water sources ensures rainfall and prosperity, while stories depict it as a reincarnated elder or guardian of hidden treasures and family lineages. A notable example is the "Ajgar Baba" myth in Madhya Pradesh temples, where pythons are revered as the souls of deceased priests, slithering as eternal protectors of sacred sites. Taboos against harming the Indian python are widespread in these traditions, particularly in Rajasthan, where killing it is thought to provoke drought and calamity, reinforcing its sacred status.^[58] In Sri Lankan folklore, influenced by Naga worship integrated into Sinhalese culture since ancient times, pythons and serpents symbolize rain, fertility, and healing, with rituals invoking them to avert famines or cure ailments through offerings at anthills and water bodies.^[59] These beliefs trace to pre-Buddhist Naga cults, where serpents guard natural abundance and ancestral fertility.

In modern media

The Indian python has been prominently featured in modern literature through its depiction as Kaa, a wise and formidable rock python in Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book (1894), though the character's influence extends through 20th- and 21st-century adaptations that emphasize its hypnotic and constricting traits.^[60] In these portrayals, Kaa serves as a mentor to the protagonist Mowgli in the original stories, showcasing the snake's intelligence and physical prowess, which has inspired educational narratives in wildlife literature and documentaries highlighting real python behaviors.^[61] In film and television, the Indian python gained widespread recognition via Disney's animated The Jungle Book (1967), where Kaa is reimagined as a sly antagonist voiced by Sterling Holloway, using hypnosis to pursue Mowgli, and further in the 2016 live-action remake directed by Jon Favreau, with Scarlett Johansson providing the voice for a seductive, larger-than-life version of the character.^[60] Indian cinema has also incorporated serpentine figures into supernatural thrillers, such as Nagin (1976), a Bollywood classic starring Reena Roy as a shape-shifting serpent woman seeking revenge, blending folklore with dramatic visuals. Beyond traditional media, educational content has further amplified its visibility through National Geographic specials, such as episodes of Snakes in the City (Season 9, 2023) featuring rescues of the species in urban India, and viral clips like "Indian Python vs. Pig" (2016, with ongoing reruns), which demonstrate its predatory prowess to promote conservation awareness.^[62]^[63] In recent years, post-2020 portrayals have shifted toward eco-conscious narratives, with the Indian python appearing in social media campaigns and news-driven awareness efforts, such as viral rescue videos from Mumbai and Bengaluru shared on platforms like Instagram, highlighting human-wildlife coexistence amid urbanization.^[64] These digital stories, often tied to conservation NGOs, portray the snake as a resilient symbol in eco-thrillers and documentaries addressing habitat loss, fostering public empathy without sensationalism.^[65]

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Geographic Range: Found across India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka. · Preferred Habitat: Grasslands, swamps, forests, and rocky foothills.
[33]
Adaptive regulation of digestive performance in the genus Python
Jan 15, 2007 · Python molurus has been found to complete digestion within 10-14 days after feeding(Secor and Diamond, 1995). All individual snakes used in this ...
[34]
Effects of temperature on the metabolic response to feeding in ...
Pythons habitually ingest very large meals (Wall, 1912, Shine et al., 2001) and while the effects of prey size ... Python molurus. 2003, Journal of ...
[35]
Breeding biology of Python molurus molurus in Keoladeo National ...
For two females, the incubation period was 74 days, with a hatching success of 95%. ... Particularly, no data on the minimal size for male sexual maturity exist ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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(PDF) Breeding data on captive Indian Rock Python ... - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · ... Female Indian pythons usually lay eggs in march-April, and 50-60-cm long hatchlings emerge after a two-month incubation period (Vyas 2002; ...Missing: life | Show results with:life
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Social Behavior in a Captive Group of Indian Pythons, Python ... - jstor
male combat in Python molurus. Dominant snake is above subordinate. See text. flicking accompanied these behaviors. On three occasions, the males were ...
[38]
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
**Summary:**
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Python molurus (Indian Rock Python). Predation - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · Avian depredation has long been hypothesized as a threat to young pythons in southern Florida, as avian predators have been recorded to take ...
[40]
Septicaemia secondary to infection by Corynebacterium macginleyi ...
A seven-year-old female Indian python (Python molurus) weighing about 35 kg was euthanased after several clinical episodes of stomatitis, pneumonia, ...
[41]
[PDF] Inclusion Body Disease, A Worldwide Infectious ... - Diagnostic Labs
Abstract. A disease called inclusion body disease (IBD) is seen worldwide in snakes that are members of the families Boidae and Pythonidae.
[42]
[PDF] Seasonal Variation in Ecdysis Process and Parasitic Prevalence in ...
Sep 17, 2020 · Two more Indian pythons showed dysecdysis due to the impact of ticks and mites as these ectoparasites caused skin infections to these Indian.
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Reptiles & Others - Wildlife SOS
Principal threats to this species involve loss of habitat, water pollution and dumping of industrial effluents in water bodies, conflict situations and road ...Civet Cat · Nilgai · Common Krait<|separator|>
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[PDF] List of CITES species - PDF - DBCA Library
pythons. II. The entire genus is listed. Please see below for subspecies included in. Appendix I. 1 Jul 1975. Python molurus molurus. Indian (Rock) or Tiger.
[45]
Facts about Indian Pythons in Kanha National Park
Apr 5, 2024 · Referred to as the Black-tailed python, Indian rock python, and Asian rock python, it exhibits a coloration ranging from whitish to yellowish, ...
[46]
Indian Rock Python: A Conservation Spotlight in Moyar Valley - Prepp
Moyar Valley, nestled between Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (MTR), Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve (STR), and Bandipur Tiger Reserve, has become a safe haven for the ...
[47]
Living with Pythons | The Story Of Foundation - thestoryof.org
The species found in India commonly, the Indian Rock python has a high mortality rate due to human reptile conflict and habitat loss. 'Living with Pythons' aims ...Living With Pythons · Partners And Supporters · We Thank You For Your...
[48]
[PDF] Role of zoos in the conservation of reptiles in India
few Indian pythons bred at Chennai Snake Park have been reintroduced in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Tamil Nadu). The Vadodara Zoo is reparing for release ...
[49]
Pythons return home, slowly but surely, finds a new study
Dec 6, 2023 · A recent telemetry study on 14 Indian rock pythons (Python molurus) in two South Indian tiger reserves has shed light on various aspects about the species.
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Current wildlife crime (Indian scenario): major challenges and ...
Mar 20, 2023 · The constant depletion of wild flora and fauna in India due to uncontrolled human activities, natural habitat destruction and covert poaching activities is ...
[51]
The Curious Case of India's Wildlife Corridors
Jul 5, 2021 · But, protecting and managing wildlife corridors in India is a challenge of behemoth proportions in the face of complex threats and issues – ...Schrödinger's Cat Paradox... · Corridors Under Threat · Greater One-Horned Rhinos...
[52]
Sacred groves and serpent‐gods moderate human–snake relations
Nov 24, 2019 · ... Indian rock python (Python molurus) is listed under CITES Appendix I. ... Indian serpent-lore: or, The Nāgas in Hindu legend and art. New ...1 Introduction · 3 Results · 4 Discussion
[53]
Mahabharata: The Ajagara Episode - Anandatirtha Prathishtana
Feb 23, 2011 · The curse to become a snake was because Nahusha keeps shouting “Sarpa” while kicking the sages. Sarpa in sanskrit also means “move fast ...
[54]
Mahabharat: Ajagara Parva - Gomangala
Apr 14, 2023 · Ajagara Parva is the thirty sixth upa parva included in the third maha parva, named as Vana parva or Aranyaka parva in the epic Mahabharata.What Was The Route Traced By... · What Conclusion Had Been... · Why The Old King Nahusha Had...
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Snakelore and indigenous snakebite remedies practiced by some ...
Aug 7, 2025 · are also discussed. Keywords: Snakelore, Folk medicine, Bhil ... Bhil and Garasia tribes also. conserve the snake Python molurus as they think ...
[56]
Of Ancient Serpent Worshippers And Auspicious Times
Apr 14, 2017 · By the 9th century A.D. the Naga people had integrated with the Sinhalese and Tamil culture. The word Naga literally means 'snake' or 'serpent ...
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Snakes, goddesses, and anthills: Modern challenges and women's ...
This dissertation is an ethnographic study of contemporary Hindu snake (naga) traditions and the worship of snake goddesses (nagattamman) in the south ...
[58]
My Issue With Kaa In 'The Jungle Book' - Bustle
Apr 18, 2016 · In Kipling's original tales, Kaa, a male Indian python, is actually one of the protagonists. He's a trusted friend to Bagheera and Baloo, and he ...
[59]
'The Jungle Book' - Nine Film Adaptations - h2g2
May 22, 2020 · A Sloth Bear who teaches wolves the law, his name is from the Hindi Bhālū for bear. Kaa, an old and wise Indian Rock Python who can hypnotise ...
[60]
Snakes in the City Season 9
Simon and Sioux are in India, there are snakes everywhere and they're loving every minute of it! In this episode Simon goes diving in a tank without knowing ...
[61]
Indian Python vs. Pig | The Jungle King - YouTube
Apr 8, 2016 · ➡ Subscribe: https://on.natgeo.com/41A7tf0 About National Geographic Animals: National Geographic ... documentaries, series, and specials ...
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10-ft-long Indian rock python rescued after causing panic in Mumbai ...
Aug 21, 2025 · Trending News: A 10-foot Indian Rock Python triggered panic in a Mumbai residential area after monsoon rains displaced it from its habitat.Missing: 2020 | Show results with:2020
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22 Indian Rock Pythons Hatch in Rehab and Return to ... - Instagram
Jul 5, 2025 · 15K likes, 140 comments - thebetterindia on July 5, 2025: "They didn't hatch under trees or in burrows, but beneath concrete, inside a city ...