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Indusium griseum

The indusium griseum (IG) is a thin, bilateral cortical structure consisting of gray matter that overlies the superior surface of the corpus callosum along its anterior-posterior extent, forming a narrow, stripe-like lamina approximately 2 cm wide in adults.^[1]^[2] It is bordered laterally by the medial and lateral longitudinal striae, which are myelinated fiber bundles embedded within or adjacent to its tissue, and it connects posteriorly to the fasciola cinerea near the hippocampal formation.^[3]^[4] Embryologically, the IG originates as a dorsal remnant of the archicortex from the hippocampal formation and fornix, developing as a distinct subfield during postnatal stages with a trilaminar organization featuring pyramidal, molecular, and polymorph layers, though neuronal density decreases from anterior to posterior regions in maturity.^[1]^[3] Structurally, the IG is hypocellular and primarily glial in composition, containing a sparse population of neurons and lacking direct hippocampal connections, and it features fibers oriented perpendicular to the corpus callosum, covered by a thin pia mater.^[2]^[5] It receives neurochemical innervation from cholinergic, dopaminergic, noradrenergic, serotonergic, and GABAergic neurons, integrating it into broader limbic system pathways.^[3] During fetal development, the IG exhibits a transient lamination pattern with a hydrated extracellular matrix, appearing as hyperintense spots on T2-weighted MRI and peaking in visibility between 25 and 30 gestational weeks before reorganizing and becoming less prominent by the third trimester.^[4] Functionally, the IG may contribute to corpus callosum morphogenesis through associated astrocytes and serve as a relay in prenatal limbic and olfactory circuits, potentially influencing social memory processes, though its exact roles remain under investigation due to its vestigial nature. Recent studies as of 2025 have highlighted its involvement in noncanonical hippocampal circuits and potential relevance to epilepsy and psychostimulant responses.^[1]^[6]^[7] Clinically, it shows resistance to neurodegenerative changes in Alzheimer's disease and low vulnerability to general neurodegeneration; its transection during callosotomy procedures is unlikely to impair memory, and fetal IG visibility on advanced MRI can serve as a biomarker for assessing the regularity of brain midline development.^[1]^[2]^[4] High-field MRI and diffusion tensor imaging have enabled modern visualization and study of the IG and its striae, highlighting their subtle anatomical features.^[3]

Anatomy

Gross anatomy

The indusium griseum is a thin, bilateral layer of grey matter that overlies the superior surface of the corpus callosum, extending from its genu anteriorly to the splenium posteriorly.^[8] This structure forms a narrow, stripe-like covering along the dorsal aspect of the corpus callosum, situated in the subcingulate region between the corpus callosum and the cingulate gyrus, with which it is continuous laterally.^[9] Grossly, it appears as a delicate, translucent sheet of tissue, often spanning approximately 5-7 cm in anteroposterior length along the corpus callosum body in adults, with a thickness of about 1-2 mm.^[2] Anteriorly, the indusium griseum continues around the genu and rostrum of the corpus callosum, merging with the paraterminal gyrus and subcallosal gyrus.^[9] Posteriorly, it curves around the splenium to form the fasciolar gyrus, which connects to the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation.^[9] These extensions highlight its continuity with limbic structures, though its primary gross feature is its adherence to the corpus callosum's dorsal surface. The surface of the indusium griseum is marked by prominent ridges corresponding to the medial and lateral longitudinal striae, which are paired bundles of myelinated fibers running parallel along its length. These striae create a subtly textured appearance visible during surgical exposure or dissection. In neuroimaging, the indusium griseum is variably visible on high-resolution MRI, often appearing as a thin, symmetric or asymmetric strip of grey matter signal intensity along the corpus callosum, particularly on T2-weighted or high-field sequences.^[10]

Microscopic anatomy

The indusium griseum consists of allocortical grey matter organized as a thin lamina of neurons and glia overlying the corpus callosum.^[1] This structure includes pyramidal cells in its intermediate layer, along with granule-like cells in regions resembling the dentate gyrus, and supportive astrocytes that contribute to tissue integrity.^[11]^[12] Recent studies in humans have identified sparse neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS)-positive neurons throughout the indusium griseum, often associated with pial arterioles and potentially involved in neurovascular regulation.^[5] Its cytoarchitecture features a trilaminar organization similar to the hippocampal dentate gyrus, with a superficial molecular layer containing dendritic arborizations, a central pyramidal cell layer dominated by projection neurons, and a deeper polymorphic layer housing diverse interneurons and fibers.^[1] Within this tissue, myelinated fibers from the medial and lateral longitudinal striae—bundles originating largely from hippocampal and septal regions—embed longitudinally, forming ridges that traverse the grey matter and influence its overall topography.^[13] Neuronal populations exhibit specific neurochemical markers, including calbindin expression in pyramidal cells during early postnatal stages that diminishes in adulthood, parvalbumin in GABAergic fibers providing inhibitory innervation, and reelin in Cajal-Retzius neurons within the marginal zone.^[1]^[14]^[12] The glial elements, particularly the indusium griseum glia derived from radial progenitors, play a specialized role in midline structural support by guiding axonal pathways across the corpus callosum via repellent cues like Slit2, distinguishing them from typical cortical glia through their unique positional and molecular profile.^[15]

Connections

The connections of the indusium griseum in humans remain poorly understood, with the structure considered largely vestigial and lacking significant direct neural projections. In animal models, afferents and efferents to limbic structures such as the hippocampus and cingulate cortex have been described, but these have not been confirmed in humans.^[2]^[16] The indusium griseum integrates closely with the longitudinal striae of the corpus callosum, which are embedded within its gray matter as paired myelinated fiber bundles.^[13] The medial longitudinal striae carry fibers from the septal nuclei to the hippocampus, facilitating septohippocampal modulation, while the lateral striae contribute to similar limbic pathways.^[13] Commissural connections in the indusium griseum include fibers that cross the midline of the corpus callosum to innervate the contralateral indusium griseum, observable in coronal sections of the mouse brain and indicative of interhemispheric coordination.^[17] Vascular supply to the indusium griseum arises from branches of the anterior cerebral artery, particularly the pericallosal artery, which provides oxygenation to this supracallosal structure and may support neurovascular regulation in limbic circuits.^[18]

Development

Embryonic origins

The indusium griseum originates as a dorsal extension of the hippocampal primordium during early human gestation, as part of the developing hippocampal formation from the medial pallium of the telencephalon, where neuroblasts proliferate in the ventricular zone and migrate radially to form the layers of the rudimentary hippocampal formation, including its rostral continuation that will become the indusium griseum.^[19] During fetal development, the indusium griseum plays a critical role in midline organization through its associated glial populations, including the glial wedge, indusium griseum glia, and glial sling, which collectively guide the crossing of corpus callosum axons at the corticoseptal boundary. These midline glia form around embryonic day 14.5 in analogous rodent models, corresponding to human gestational weeks 6-7, and act as permissive scaffolds that attract and direct pioneering callosal fibers across the interhemispheric fissure while repelling ectopic projections via molecules like Slit-2. Disruptions in these glial structures lead to commissural axon pathfinding errors, highlighting their essential function in establishing interhemispheric connectivity.^[20]^[21] Genetic regulation of indusium griseum formation involves fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) signaling, which drives the translocation of radial glia and the differentiation of midline glial populations necessary for proper commissural development. FGFR1 expression in the telencephalic midline supports somal translocation of astroglia to the indusium griseum region, with mutations resulting in agenesis of the structure and associated commissures by mid-gestation (equivalent to human weeks 8-10). Other pathways, such as those involving NFIA transcription factors, further coordinate glial wedge and indusium griseum glia specification, ensuring axonal guidance; deficiencies here are linked to callosal hypoplasia or absence.^[21]^[22] In human fetuses, the indusium griseum becomes visible on T2-weighted MRI from approximately 20 gestational weeks onward, appearing as paired paramedial hyperintense bands overlying the corpus callosum due to its high extracellular matrix content. This visibility peaks between 25 and 30 weeks and serves as a reliable biomarker for midline brain regularity and commissural formation, with consistent detection indicating normal progression of interhemispheric pathways; absent or irregular signals may signal developmental anomalies.^[4]^[23]

Postnatal maturation

The postnatal maturation of the indusium griseum in humans continues beyond the fetal period, with histological evidence indicating no signs of regression or cell death in early postnatal stages, supporting its persistence as a functional structure into adulthood.^[24] This ongoing differentiation aligns with broader hippocampal formation development, where neuronal maturation and connectivity refinement occur primarily in the first year of life. In rodent models, which provide insight into potential human patterns due to conserved allocortical features, the indusium griseum exhibits significant linear growth during early postnatal life. Specifically, its length increases from approximately 1.1 mm at birth to 2.4 mm by 25 days postnatal and stabilizes at around 2.5 mm by 140 days (roughly 4-5 months), reflecting elongation concurrent with corpus callosum expansion.^[25] Although direct human measurements are limited, MRI studies suggest similar proportional scaling in the supracallosal region during infancy, with stabilization by adolescence. Gene expression profiling in postnatal mice reveals a distinct molecular identity for the indusium griseum, with strong and sustained expression of markers such as Necab2 from birth through adulthood, alongside dynamic changes in calcium-binding proteins like calbindin (decreasing) and secretagogin (increasing).^[26] These profiles classify it as a unique subfield of the hippocampal formation, distinct from adjacent neocortical or other allocortical areas, despite its position overlying the corpus callosum; absence of Prox1 expression further differentiates it from granule cell layers in the dentate gyrus.^[26] While human-specific postnatal transcriptomic data remain sparse, fetal studies imply continuity of this hippocampal-like signature into early life, though further research is needed to confirm these patterns in humans as of 2021.^[26] Synaptogenesis and myelination in the indusium griseum peak during the first postnatal year, mirroring hippocampal trends, with initial overproduction of synapses followed by refinement of connections to the hippocampus proper and cingulate cortex.^[26] In rodents, this process supports the establishment of longitudinal striae projections, essential for limbic integration.^[25] In aging, the indusium griseum shows relative resilience, with no significant neuronal loss observed in rodent models up to 31 months; however, glial populations, including astrocytes and microglia, increase between 18 and 22 months, indicating potential gliosis or reactive changes in the elderly human brain, though this remains understudied.^[27]^[28]

Function

Role in limbic system

The indusium griseum (IG) is classified as a vestigial continuation of the hippocampal formation, forming a thin layer of gray matter that overlies the superior surface of the corpus callosum and integrates into the limbic lobe alongside structures such as the cingulate and parahippocampal gyri.^[9] As a dorsal extension of the hippocampus and dentate gyrus, it represents a rudimentary component of the allocortex within the broader limbic network, embryologically derived from the archicortex.^[29] This positioning underscores its role as a transitional element between the hippocampal proper and supracallosal regions, contributing to the structural framework of the limbic system.^[3] Due to its continuity with the hippocampal formation, the IG holds potential involvement in memory consolidation and emotional processing through integration with hippocampal circuits. Neurochemical innervation by acetylcholine, dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, and GABA neurons further suggests modulatory influences on these processes, though its precise contributions remain under investigation.^[3] In the limbic circuitry, the IG associates with the fornix—via its dorsal pathway that runs alongside the structure—and indirectly with the mammillothalamic tract through connections to the mammillary bodies and anterior thalamic nuclei, facilitating relays within the emotion-memory network.^[30] As a remnant structure, the IG is notably reduced in humans compared to lower mammals, where it is more prominent and serves as a key relay for olfactory-hippocampal pathways, receiving direct inputs from the main olfactory bulb to support olfaction-linked behaviors. In humans, its role in olfactory function remains uncertain.^[30] Evolutionarily, its derivation from the archicortex reflects an ancient cortical layer conserved across vertebrates but diminished in primates, reflecting adaptations in neocortical expansion and reduced reliance on direct olfactory processing.^[3] This phylogenetic reduction highlights the IG's status as a vestigial element, with conserved laminar organization observed in species like the hedgehog tenrec, indicating persistent, albeit subtle, roles in the limbic framework.^[31]

Neural activity and projections

The indusium griseum exhibits prenatal neural activation in response to psychostimulants such as amphetamine, nicotine, and caffeine, which induce c-Fos expression in fetal mouse brains at embryonic day 15.5, as detected through genetic activity mapping and light-sheet microscopy.^[32] This activation preferentially targets glutamatergic neurons in the ventromedial region, highlighting the structure's vulnerability to pharmacological influences during development.^[32] Projection mapping reveals dense inputs to the indusium griseum from the main olfactory bulb, lateral and medial entorhinal cortex, and piriform cortex.^[15] Outputs from the indusium griseum include projections to the olfactory bulb and diencephalon through its continuity as a hippocampal rudiment.^[33] Additionally, the structure receives direct GABAergic projections from hippocampal CA1 interneurons.^[34] Hippocampal interneurons projecting to the indusium griseum contribute to feedback modulation of hippocampal theta rhythms, firing rhythmically at high rates during theta oscillations (6–11 Hz) without increasing activity during ripples.^[34] This suggests a role in synchronizing limbic oscillations, though direct causal links remain under investigation. The neurotransmitter profile of the indusium griseum includes GABAergic interneurons that receive projections from the hippocampus and influence local excitability.^[34] Cholinergic afferents from septal nuclei also innervate the structure, modulating its activity in concert with broader hippocampal inputs.^[33] Imaging evidence for indusium griseum activation is sparse, with limited functional MRI data indicating potential involvement during memory tasks due to its limbic integration, but high-resolution studies are needed for confirmation.^[15]

Clinical significance

Surgical implications

During neurosurgical procedures such as corpus callosotomy for intractable epilepsy, the indusium griseum (IG) is often visible as a thin, translucent layer directly overlying the corpus callosum, typically measuring about 2 cm in width over its body and genu.^[2] This positioning places it at risk of inadvertent damage during sectioning of the callosal fibers, particularly given its intimate adherence to the underlying white matter. Although some early observations linked IG transection to memory deficits in post-callosotomy patients—based on its hypothesized role as a hippocampal remnant—histological examinations reveal it as a hypocellular glial membrane lacking neuronal elements or direct hippocampal connections, indicating that such damage is unlikely to be the primary cause of these impairments.^[2] In interhemispheric approaches to midline structures, such as those targeting ventricular lesions or tumors adjacent to the corpus callosum, careful preservation of the IG is essential to maintain the integrity of adjacent limbic pathways.^[35] Surgeons retract the cingulate gyri bilaterally while noting the IG's position on the callosal surface, using microsurgical techniques to avoid disrupting its relations with the longitudinal striae and potential relays to hippocampal formations. Anatomic dissections highlight its variable thickness and occasional discontinuities, which guide precise dissection planes and minimize risks to surrounding vasculature and neural tissues.^[2] Intraoperative identification of the IG can be facilitated by high-field MRI, where it appears as a subtle band of gray matter on the superior aspect of the corpus callosum, aiding navigation in complex midline surgeries.^[10] Post-callosotomy outcomes, including elements of split-brain syndrome such as disconnection symptoms, underscore the need for meticulous handling of midline structures like the IG, though its specific contribution remains minimal based on current evidence.^[2]

Developmental and pathological associations

The indusium griseum (IG) is frequently absent or hypoplastic in cases of corpus callosum (CC) agenesis, resulting from disrupted migration of the glial sling during early forebrain development. This glial structure, which includes IG glia, provides essential guidance for CC axons; mutations such as in the Nfia gene lead to reduced or absent IG glia, preventing proper midline crossing and commissural formation.^[36] Similarly, in models of midline defects like Nf2 loss, upregulation of repulsive cues like Slit2 further impairs IG-associated guideposts, contributing to complete CC agenesis.^[37] These associations highlight the IG's role as a developmental scaffold, where its failure correlates with broader commissural anomalies. In fetal neuroimaging, the IG serves as a biomarker for midline brain development regularity, with irregular visibility on 3T MRI indicating potential disruptions such as in holoprosencephaly.^[4] For instance, in lobar holoprosencephaly, the IG appears fused into a single midline strip overlying a hypoplastic CC, reflecting incomplete hemispheric separation.^[38] High-resolution MRI assessment of IG continuity thus aids prenatal diagnosis of such malformations, distinguishing normal vestigial features from pathological fusion or absence. Pathologically, the IG exhibits resistance to neurodegenerative changes in Alzheimer's disease (AD), unlike the hippocampus, with absence of beta-amyloid plaques, rare neurofibrillary tangles, and no significant neuronal loss or reactive gliosis observed in histopathological studies.^[39]^[40] This suggests the IG may be protected from typical AD mechanisms affecting allocortical structures. High-resolution MRI plays a key diagnostic role in identifying the IG amid midline pathologies, differentiating its thin gray matter layer from perivascular spaces or aberrant fibers that may mimic lesions. At 3T field strength, the IG appears as paired bands superior to the CC, aiding in the exclusion of tumoral or vascular mimics in conditions like thickened CC or heterotopic bundles.^[10] This visualization is crucial for accurate assessment in developmental anomalies or subtle pathologies.

History

Early descriptions

The indusium griseum was first described by the Italian physician Giovanni Maria Lancisi in 1712, in his treatise Dissertatio de sede cogitantis animae, where he identified it as a thin layer of neural tissue overlying the corpus callosum, along with the associated longitudinal striae that he termed "nerves of Lancisi."^[41] Lancisi theorized that this midline, unpaired structure represented the seat of the soul, owing to its central position bridging the cerebral hemispheres and its potential role in unifying cognitive functions.^[41] These descriptions positioned the structure as a vestigial extension of the hippocampus, preserving ancient neural pathways amid the evolutionary expansion of the neocortex.^[41] These foundational observations influenced the conceptualization of the limbic system, particularly through Paul Broca's 1878 delineation of the "great limbic lobe" as a phylogenetically conserved ring of medial cortical tissue encompassing the cingulate gyrus, hippocampal gyrus, and the indusium griseum itself. This concept was further developed by James Papez in 1937, who incorporated related limbic structures into a circuit for emotion, influencing later views of the indusium griseum's vestigial role.^[41]^[42] Broca viewed this lobe, including the indusium griseum, as primarily olfactory in function across mammals, laying groundwork for later interpretations of its role in emotion and memory.^[41]

Nomenclature evolution

The term "indusium griseum" originates from Latin, with "indusium" denoting a "tunic" or "covering" and "griseum" indicating "gray," reflecting its appearance as a thin layer of gray matter over the corpus callosum.^[43] The structure was first described in the early 18th century by Italian anatomist Giovanni Maria Lancisi (1654–1720), who noted its relation to the longitudinal striae, though the term "indusium griseum" was adopted in later anatomical literature.^[3] Alternative historical names include "supracallosal gyrus," introduced by Theodor Meynert in 1872 to emphasize its position above the corpus callosum, and "dorsal hippocampal rudiment," highlighting its presumed developmental ties to the hippocampus.^[44] Over time, classification evolved from viewing it primarily as a hippocampal remnant in early 20th-century texts, such as those positing it as a vestigial structure from hippocampal inversion, to recognition as an allocortical component of the hippocampal formation in modern neuroanatomy. In Gray's Anatomy, the 1918 edition (20th edition) described it as a "thin layer of gray substance" synonymous with the supracallosal gyrus, treating it as a membranous covering without extensive developmental context.^[45] Later editions, such as the 39th (2005), incorporated updated developmental notes, classifying it within the limbic system and noting its allocortical nature alongside connections to the hippocampal rudiments.^[46] Current terminology standardized "indusium griseum" in the Nomina Anatomica, with the 5th edition (1983) adopting it as the official Latin term for this supracommissural hippocampal extension, superseding earlier synonyms in international anatomical nomenclature.^[47]

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