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Intellectualism

Intellectualism is the devotion to the exercise of the intellect and to intellectual pursuits, often involving a strong emphasis on reason, critical analysis, and the pursuit of knowledge as central to human life and decision-making.^[1] This concept manifests in various domains, including philosophy, where it denotes doctrines asserting that knowledge—particularly propositional or rational knowledge—governs action and morality, and in broader cultural contexts, where it highlights the influence of intellectuals in shaping societal values and policies.^[2]^[3] In ancient philosophy, intellectualism is prominently associated with Socrates, as depicted in Plato's early dialogues, where it holds that virtue is knowledge and that no one errs willingly, since wrongdoing stems from ignorance rather than moral weakness (akrasia).^[4] This Socratic intellectualism posits that all virtues are forms of wisdom, reducing ethical behavior to intellectual states and denying the possibility of acting against one's better judgment.^[4] Later philosophical traditions, such as rationalism, extended this by claiming that knowledge derives primarily from pure reason rather than sensory experience, with thinkers like Descartes and Leibniz viewing the intellect as the supreme faculty for grasping truth.^[2]^[5] A modern debate within analytic philosophy centers on "know-how" intellectualism, which argues that practical knowledge (e.g., knowing how to perform a skill) is reducible to propositional knowledge (knowing that certain facts obtain).^[6] This view, revived by Jason Stanley and Timothy Williamson in 2001 through semantic arguments, contrasts with Gilbert Ryle's earlier anti-intellectualist critique in The Concept of Mind (1949), which distinguished non-propositional abilities from theoretical understanding.^[6] Cognitive science has further challenged strict intellectualism by highlighting procedural memory and embodied skills that operate independently of explicit propositions, as noted in works by Alva Noë and Michael Devitt.^[6] Beyond philosophy, intellectualism has cultural and political dimensions, often critiqued in discussions of anti-intellectualism, as explored by Richard Hofstadter in his 1963 Pulitzer Prize-winning book Anti-Intellectualism in American Life.^[7] There, intellectualism is portrayed as a creative, nonconformist intelligence that intellectuals apply to public affairs, though it faces resistance from egalitarian, religious, and business-oriented strains in society.^[7]^[8] This tension underscores intellectualism's role in fostering skepticism, nuance, and rational discourse amid broader anti-elitist sentiments.

Overview

Definition

Intellectualism is a philosophical doctrine that posits the intellect as superior to the will, positioning it as the primary source of knowledge, virtue, and human conduct. In this view, rational understanding guides moral and practical actions, with the intellect serving as the fundamental faculty for apprehending reality and directing behavior. This emphasis on reason over emotion or volition underscores intellectualism's role in ethical and epistemological theories, where true goodness and wisdom arise from intellectual insight rather than arbitrary choice or affective impulse.^[9]^[10] The term "intellectualism" derives etymologically from the modern coinage in 1818, based on German Intellektualismus by Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, rooted in Late Latin intellectualis meaning "relating to understanding." Conceptually, it traces to ancient Greek notions of nous (intellect or mind), which highlights reason's capacity to grasp eternal truths and the structure of reality beyond sensory experience. This Greek foundation emphasizes the intellect's intuitive and rational apprehension as essential for philosophical inquiry and human flourishing.^[11]^[12] A key distinction of intellectualism is its assertion that all human actions originate from rational beliefs, rejecting non-rational motivations such as unreflective desires or blind impulses as insufficient for genuine agency. This contrasts with voluntarist perspectives, where the will operates independently or even predominates over intellect in decision-making. Intellectualism thus maintains that errors in conduct stem from intellectual deficiencies, not willful defiance of known good.^[9]^[13] Representative examples include the principle that virtue equates to knowledge, implying that moral excellence is achieved through rational comprehension rather than habit or sentiment. Similarly, the doctrine holds that no one errs knowingly, as wrongdoing arises solely from ignorance of the true good, a paradox that illustrates intellectualism's commitment to reason as the arbiter of action. Another instance is the pursuit of knowledge derived purely from reason, independent of sensory input, affirming the intellect's autonomy in accessing universal truths.^[14]^[10]

Core Principles

Intellectualism encompasses several doctrinal variants that emphasize the primacy of the intellect in human action, cognition, and the structure of reality. These principles underscore the intellect's role in guiding ethical conduct, theological understanding, and the acquisition of knowledge, positioning it as the foundational element across diverse philosophical domains.^[10] Moral intellectualism asserts that virtue is equivalent to knowledge, such that ethical excellence arises solely from rational understanding of the good. Under this view, wrongdoing stems exclusively from ignorance rather than any inherent weakness of will, rendering akrasia—acting against one's better judgment—conceptually impossible, as all actions align with what the agent perceives as beneficial.^[14] This principle implies that moral education, through intellectual cultivation, suffices to eliminate vice, as no individual knowingly chooses harm when fully apprised of the true good.^[14] Theological intellectualism posits that the intellect directs the will, encapsulated in the maxim voluntas intellectum sequitur (the will follows the intellect), applying to both divine and human agency. Here, rational apprehension of the good—whether God's perfect goodness or created goods—motivates all volitional acts, with the intellect serving as the superior faculty that orders desires toward rational ends.^[15] In this framework, divine action originates from intellectual contemplation of truth, while human flourishing depends on aligning the will with intellectual insight into moral and spiritual realities.^[16] Epistemological intellectualism defines knowledge as justified true belief attained primarily through the intellect, favoring a priori reasoning over sensory experience as the reliable path to certainty. This approach elevates abstract intellectual faculties above empirical inputs, contending that genuine understanding derives from rational deduction and innate conceptual structures rather than probabilistic observation.^[17] It aligns closely with rationalist traditions, where the intellect's capacity for universal truths underpins all epistemic justification.^[17] At its core, intellectualism holds that the intellect constitutes the basic factor in the universe, shaping cosmological order, ethical norms, and metaphysical foundations by prioritizing rational principles over volitional or experiential alternatives.^[10] This tenet integrates the doctrinal variants, affirming the intellect's explanatory power across ethics, theology, and epistemology.

Ancient Intellectualism

Socratic Moral Intellectualism

Socratic moral intellectualism posits that virtue is identical to knowledge, such that moral wrongdoing stems solely from ignorance rather than any deliberate choice or weakness of will. In Plato's Protagoras, Socrates articulates the core thesis that "no one does wrong willingly," arguing that individuals who commit base or evil acts do so unwillingly, compelled by a lack of understanding of the good.^[18] This view equates all evil with intellectual deficiency, as true knowledge of what benefits the soul would invariably guide one toward virtuous action.^[4] Central to this doctrine are two interrelated paradoxes: "no one errs knowingly" and the rejection of akrasia (weakness of will). The first paradox asserts that if one possesses genuine knowledge of the good, one cannot choose otherwise, rendering intentional moral error impossible.^[4] The second denies the possibility of acting against one's better judgment due to passion or impulse, insisting instead that apparent cases of akrasia reflect incomplete or false beliefs rather than a conflict between reason and desire.^[19] In the Meno, Socrates reinforces this by linking virtue to the knowledge of honorable and good things, implying that ignorance misleads individuals into pursuing apparent rather than true benefits.^[20] Socrates employs the dialectic method, known as elenchus, to achieve intellectual purification and thereby cultivate virtue. This involves rigorous questioning to expose inconsistencies in an interlocutor's beliefs, revealing underlying ignorance and prompting a reevaluation toward coherent knowledge of the good.^[21] By dismantling false assumptions through cross-examination, elenchus serves as a therapeutic tool for the soul, guiding individuals from moral confusion to rational clarity.^[4] This intellectualist framework laid the foundation for eudaimonism in ancient ethics, where happiness (eudaimonia) arises from rational self-knowledge and virtuous living, as the possession of wisdom ensures alignment with one's true good.^[19] Socrates' emphasis on knowledge as the sole path to virtue influenced subsequent philosophical developments, particularly in Plato's theory of Forms.^[4]

Platonic and Aristotelian Extensions

Plato extended Socratic moral intellectualism by integrating it into a metaphysical framework centered on the eternal Forms, which are grasped exclusively through the intellect (noesis). In the Phaedo, he argues that true knowledge arises from the soul's recollection (anamnesis) of these Forms, as the soul possesses innate rational understanding prior to embodiment, triggered by sensory experiences of imperfect particulars.^[22] This process underscores intellectualism's emphasis on reason over perception, positing that moral action stems from recollecting rational truths about justice, beauty, and the good, rather than from empirical habit or desire. In the Republic, Plato further develops this by linking virtue to the philosopher's intellectual ascent to the Form of the Good, where noesis enables a vision that harmonizes the soul and guides ethical conduct, making knowledge the sole guarantor of right action.^[22] Aristotle, while building on Platonic intellectualism, critiqued its purity by introducing practical dimensions in the Nicomachean Ethics, where intellect (nous) serves as the active principle for grasping first principles but requires integration with habituated virtues. Nous enables theoretical wisdom (sophia), yet moral excellence demands practical wisdom (phronesis), a deliberative intellect shaped by repeated ethical actions to navigate contingent situations.^[23] Unlike Socrates' view that virtue is identical to knowledge alone, Aristotle tempers this rationalism by asserting that emotions and habits must be trained alongside intellect, as "moral virtue comes about as a result of habit."^[23] Phronesis thus bridges theoretical insight and action, allowing the virtuous person to choose the mean in specific contexts, extending intellectualism beyond abstract contemplation to embodied practice. A key distinction in Aristotle's approach is the incorporation of non-intellectual elements like habituation, which moderates Socratic and Platonic rationalism by recognizing that intellect alone cannot produce virtue without character formation. Cosmologically, Aristotle elevates intellect as the divine Unmoved Mover in the Metaphysics, an eternal, self-thinking entity that rationally orders the universe through its contemplative activity, inspiring human intellectual pursuits as the highest form of life.^[23] This framework influenced later traditions, such as the Stoics, who adapted intellectualist ethics to emphasize rational control over passions.^[23]

Medieval Intellectualism

Theological Intellectualism

Theological intellectualism in medieval Christian theology posits that the will follows the intellect (voluntas sequitur intellectum), establishing the intellect as the guiding faculty for both human and divine choices through rational contemplation of truth. This doctrine holds that the will, as a rational appetite, is moved by the intellect's apprehension of the good, rendering volition dependent on cognitive judgment rather than independent self-determination. In human psychology, the intellect presents objects as desirable ends, actualizing the will's potency in alignment with Aristotelian act-potency dynamics, while in divine theology, God's will conforms perfectly to His intellect, ensuring that divine actions are eternally rational and good.^[24] Key developments in this framework involved the fusion of Aristotelian conceptions of intellect with Christian revelation, particularly through scholastic thinkers who viewed the beatific vision as the ultimate intellectual union with God. The beatific vision represents the soul's direct, intuitive knowledge of the divine essence in the afterlife, where perfect cognition of God as the supreme good necessitates the will's unswerving orientation toward beatitude, yet preserves freedom by eliminating defective deliberation. This synthesis elevated intellectual contemplation as the path to salvation, integrating pagan philosophical tools like Aristotle's De Anima with scriptural truths to affirm that true faith involves rational assent to revealed doctrines.^[24] Emerging as a response to the integration of Aristotelian philosophy into Christian thought following its translation in the 12th century, theological intellectualism shaped scholasticism by insisting that faith must be informed by reason, allowing theology to employ dialectical methods without subordinating revelation to philosophy. This approach addressed concerns over pagan influences by subordinating reason to faith while using it to elucidate mysteries like the Trinity and Incarnation. Consequently, sin was reconceived not as mere volitional rebellion but as an intellectual error, arising from flawed cognition that misapprehends the true good, thus leading the will astray through defective practical judgments. Thomas Aquinas' comprehensive synthesis of these elements in works like the Summa Theologiae further solidified this framework, emphasizing conditional necessitation by the intellect to reconcile freedom with divine order.^[24]^[25]

Intellectualism versus Voluntarism

In medieval philosophy, the debate between intellectualism and voluntarism centered on the relative primacy of the intellect and the will in guiding human and divine action, particularly in moral psychology and ethics. Intellectualism, as articulated by Thomas Aquinas, posits that the intellect apprehends the good through reason before the will moves toward it, ensuring that free choice aligns with rational necessity.^[9] In contrast, voluntarism elevates the will as the primary force, independent of or superior to the intellect, allowing for freedom that transcends rational determination.^[9] A pivotal example of voluntarism appears in the thought of John Duns Scotus, who argued that goodness is not inherently derived from rational principles but is established by God's free will, such that divine commands define moral obligations independently of intellectual apprehension.^[26] This view contrasts sharply with Aquinas's intellectualist framework, where God's intellect grounds eternal law, and the human will is directed by rational insight into the good, preventing arbitrary moral decisions.^[27] Voluntarists like Scotus and later William of Ockham prioritized the will's autonomy to safeguard genuine freedom, asserting that the will can choose against rational judgment without diminishing moral responsibility.^[9] The tension between these positions emerged prominently in the 13th and 14th centuries, fueled by Aristotelian influences and ecclesiastical interventions, such as the 1277 Condemnation in Paris, which curtailed overly deterministic views of intellect and bolstered discussions of will's independence.^[9] This debate extended to divine action, where intellectualists saw God's will as eternally conformed to his intellect, while voluntarists emphasized God's absolute power to will contingently, influencing theological understandings of creation and morality.^[26] The historical friction persisted into the Reformation, where figures like Martin Luther echoed voluntarist themes by prioritizing faith and divine will over rational works in salvation.^[9] Intellectualism initially dominated early scholasticism through Aquinas's synthesis, shaping moral theology with its emphasis on reason's guiding role.^[27] However, voluntarism gained significant traction in the late medieval period, particularly through Scotus and Ockham, whose ideas on willful freedom laid groundwork for later discussions of free will in modern philosophy, balancing autonomy against rational constraints.^[9] This shift highlighted ongoing concerns about moral arbitrariness, prompting later thinkers to integrate elements of both views.^[27]

Modern Intellectualism

Rationalist Intellectualism

Rationalist intellectualism, emerging in the 17th century, posits that genuine knowledge arises primarily from the a priori operations of the intellect rather than sensory experience, emphasizing innate ideas and deductive reasoning as the foundations of certainty.^[5] This tradition, often termed Continental Rationalism, holds that the mind possesses inherent capacities to grasp universal truths through pure reason, independent of empirical input.^[5] René Descartes exemplified this by employing methodical doubt to strip away unreliable sensory beliefs, arriving at the indubitable "cogito ergo sum"—"I think, therefore I am"—as a foundational certainty known through clear and distinct intellectual perception.^[28] In his Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes argued that such clear ideas, including innate notions of God and the self, provide the bedrock for all knowledge, prioritizing intellectual intuition over sensory deception.^[28] Baruch Spinoza extended this intellectualist framework in his Ethics, presenting a comprehensive system via a geometric method modeled on Euclidean demonstrations, where definitions, axioms, and propositions deduce the nature of reality from the intellect alone.^[29] Spinoza's approach culminates in the "intellectual love of God" (amor intellectualis Dei), an active rational affection born from understanding the universe's necessity sub specie aeternitatis, or under the aspect of eternity, thereby achieving human blessedness through pure reason.^[29] Similarly, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz maintained that truths of reason, such as those in mathematics and metaphysics, are innate dispositions within the mind, not derived from experience, as elaborated in his New Essays on Human Understanding.^[30] Leibniz's monadology posits simple, mind-like substances (monads) that reflect the entire universe in a pre-established harmony ordered by divine intellect, rendering all phenomena rationally comprehensible through logical necessity.^[30] In the ethical domain, rationalist intellectualism treats moral truths as demonstrable with the same rigor as geometric proofs, accessible via reason's discernment of necessary relations.^[31] Descartes viewed virtue as the rational direction of the will toward the good, grounded in metaphysical certainties that parallel mathematical demonstrations.^[31] Spinoza's Ethics geometrically derives moral precepts from God's infinite nature, equating virtue with rational self-preservation and understanding.^[29] Leibniz, likewise, conceived ethics as a science of eternal truths, where justice and the good imitate divine perfection through intellectual insight, independent of arbitrary will.^[32] Cosmologically, rationalists saw the universe as fully intelligible to the intellect, structured by logical principles that preclude contingency or chaos.^[5] Descartes' dualism of res cogitans (thinking substance) and res extensa (extended substance) unfolds deductively from innate ideas, ensuring the world's rational order.^[28] Spinoza's pantheistic substance monism portrays reality as a single, necessary whole knowable only through reason's eternal truths.^[29] For Leibniz, the Principle of Sufficient Reason governs all existence, with monads harmonized in a divinely rational cosmos that the human intellect can mirror.^[30] These views faced challenges from empiricists like John Locke, who insisted knowledge stems from sensory experience, though rationalists maintained the primacy of a priori intellect.^[5]

Empiricist Critiques and Adaptations

Empiricists fundamentally challenged the intellectualist emphasis on innate ideas and pure reason by asserting that all knowledge originates from sensory experience. John Locke, in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, rejected the notion of innate ideas, proposing instead the concept of the mind as a tabula rasa—a blank slate—at birth, upon which experiences imprint simple ideas that the mind combines into complex ones.^[33] Similarly, David Hume extended this critique through his empiricist framework, arguing that the mind is merely a "bundle" of perceptions or impressions derived solely from sensory input, with no underlying substantial self or innate principles.^[34] These views directly undermined rationalist intellectualism by denying any a priori knowledge independent of empirical foundations.^[5] While empiricists critiqued strict intellectualism, they adapted elements of it in hybrid forms that integrated sensory data with intellectual structuring. Immanuel Kant's transcendental idealism sought to reconcile empiricism and rationalism by positing that while sensory experience provides the raw material of knowledge, the intellect imposes innate categories of understanding—such as causality and substance—on that experience to make it intelligible.^[35] This adaptation preserved a role for the intellect in organizing phenomena, though subordinate to empirical content, marking a partial retention of intellectualist principles within an empiricist paradigm.^[36] In ethics, empiricists further critiqued intellectualist reliance on reason alone for moral knowledge, emphasizing sentiment while allowing rational reflection a supporting role. Hume contended that moral distinctions arise from moral sentiments or feelings of approval and disapproval, rather than from reason, which he described as the "slave of the passions" incapable of motivating action on its own.^[37] Nonetheless, Hume acknowledged that reason aids in informing judgments by clarifying factual relations, thus tempering pure sentimentalism with intellectual input.^[38] This empiricist turn during the Enlightenment represented a broader historical shift from medieval theological intellectualism, rooted in divine reason, toward scientific empiricism grounded in observation and experimentation. Enlightenment thinkers prioritized empirical methods to advance knowledge, diminishing the authority of innate or revealed truths in favor of verifiable experience, thereby moderating intellectualism's dominance.^[39] Kant's synthesis, in particular, served as a bridge to later philosophical developments by balancing empirical critique with structured intellect.^[40]

Contemporary Intellectualism

Intellectualism in Philosophy of Action

In the philosophy of action, intellectualism maintains that intentional actions require a form of practical knowledge, whereby agents know what they are doing under a specific description without observational evidence. This doctrine, prominently articulated by G. E. M. Anscombe, posits that for an action to be intentional, the agent must possess non-inferential knowledge of its execution, distinguishing it from mere bodily movements or unintended consequences. Anscombe critiques causal theories of action, arguing that intentions are not prior mental states causing behavior but are instead expressed in the agent's practical understanding during the action itself.^[41] In contrast, philosophers such as Donald Davidson have developed causal theories of action, explaining intentional actions as events caused by primary reasons consisting of beliefs and pro-attitudes (desires) that rationalize the behavior. Davidson's approach integrates psychological states into a nomological framework, where beliefs about the world and desires for outcomes jointly produce actions, thereby preserving the explanatory role of reasons through causation rather than non-inferential knowledge. Anti-intellectualists, drawing on influences like Gilbert Ryle, emphasize a non-propositional form of knowing-how, which cannot be fully captured by belief-desire pairs, as it involves direct, practical mastery rather than theoretical propositions. This debate highlights tensions between causal explanations and the immediacy of agency.^[42] Developments in post-1950s analytic philosophy have linked these views to epistemological distinctions between knowledge-that (propositional) and knowledge-how (practical abilities). Jason Stanley and Timothy Williamson defend an intellectualist reduction, arguing that knowing how to perform an action is equivalent to knowing that certain propositions hold about how to do it, often under embedded question constructions. This position revives elements of Socratic intellectualism by tying action to cognitive states. Anti-intellectualists, drawing on Gilbert Ryle's earlier work, maintain that abilities resist such reduction, as they involve skills not exhausted by declarative knowledge.^[43] These debates have implications for understanding akrasia, or weakness of will, where agents act against their better judgment. Intellectualism challenges traditional accounts of akrasia by suggesting that if actions stem from integrated beliefs and desires, apparent irrationality may reflect incomplete knowledge rather than conflict, complicating explanations of self-deception or motivational failure. In cognitive science and AI, intellectualist models facilitate rational agency simulations, as propositional representations enable computational prediction of behavior, whereas anti-intellectualist views highlight embodied skills that resist purely symbolic modeling. Recent work as of 2025 has explored mind-technology problems for anti-intellectualism, examining how extended cognition and AI integration challenge non-propositional accounts of know-how in self-regulating abilities.^[6]^[44]

Cultural and Political Dimensions

In modern culture, intellectualism has often been portrayed as an elevation of scholarly pursuits over practical or emotional concerns, leading to the "ivory tower" critique that emerged prominently in the 20th century. This metaphor depicts intellectuals as secluded in academic enclaves, detached from everyday realities and societal needs, fostering perceptions of elitism and irrelevance. For instance, historian Richard Hofstadter's analysis in Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (1963) highlights how such isolation into specialized jargon and pursuits alienated the public, exacerbating tensions between intellectual elites and broader society.^[45] This cultural framing positions intellectualism as a potential barrier to empathetic engagement, prioritizing abstract reasoning at the expense of communal values.^[46] Politically, intellectualism has been associated with liberal ideologies emphasizing expertise and rational governance, yet it has faced sharp backlash, particularly in critiques of totalitarianism and rising populism. Hannah Arendt, in The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), examined how intellectuals contributed to the ideological underpinnings of 20th-century regimes like Nazism and Stalinism by abstracting political thought from human realities, enabling mass manipulation.^[47] In the post-2010s era, populist movements have amplified anti-intellectualism, portraying experts as out-of-touch elites undermining democratic will, as seen in the U.S. with distrust toward scientific and academic institutions during events like the COVID-19 pandemic and reinforced by Donald Trump's 2024 reelection victory, which highlighted anti-elitist rhetoric, alongside the early 2025 nomination of Robert F. Kennedy Jr. to lead Health and Human Services amid ongoing skepticism of scientific expertise.^[48]^[49] This trend, evidenced in surveys showing rural identities correlating with rejection of expert consensus, reflects a broader erosion of faith in intellectual authority amid economic anxieties.^[50] Contemporary debates underscore intellectualism's relevance in education policy, where emphasis on critical thinking serves as a counter to anti-intellectual currents. Policies in various nations promote curricula that foster analytical skills to combat misinformation, viewing intellectual rigor as essential for informed citizenship, though implementation faces resistance from standardized testing priorities.^[51] In public discourse, the proliferation of "fake news" is often framed as an intellectual failure, stemming from cognitive laziness or partisan biases that hinder discernment of truth.^[52] This perspective highlights how diminished critical engagement enables epistemic wrongs, such as credibility dissonances where false narratives persist despite evidence.^[53] Globally, intellectualism manifests differently, as in Confucian traditions that prioritize scholarly governance for harmonious rule. In modern China, neo-Confucian thought revives the ideal of meritocratic administration by educated elites, blending historical emphasis on moral scholarship with contemporary state needs, as promoted in political theory to legitimize expert-led policies.^[54] This approach contrasts with Western critiques by integrating intellectual authority into ethical statecraft, influencing education and bureaucracy to value scholarly wisdom over pure populism.^[55]

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Mar 10, 2020 · In The Origins of Totalitarianism Arendt argued that Nazism and Stalinism constituted a radical break with the political history of the Occident ...
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https://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/is-anti-intellectualism-ever-good-for-democracy/
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Rural Identity as a Contributing Factor to Anti-Intellectualism in the U.S
Feb 2, 2022 · Anti-intellectualism drives support for phenomena such as populism, a rejection of scientific consensus, and health and science misinformation ...
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Mar 26, 2020 · The historian Richard Hofstadter argued that popular suspicions of and hostility toward intellectuals grew out of the laudable egalitarian commitments of ...
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Why Do People Fall for Fake News? Are they blinded by their political passions? Or are they just intellectually lazy? Jan. 19, 2019. Credit.
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Jun 11, 2021 · When fake news compels us, we fail our epistemic prerogative to find the truth. Further, fake news leads to credibility dissonances, a gap ...
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Aug 20, 2018 · The Confucians hope to replace a moribund Marxist ideology, still taught in schools, with a political theory that is more authentically Chinese.
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The intellectual-state relationship and academic freedom in China
Mar 29, 2024 · In this article we seek to provide a reappraisal of the intellectual-state relationship both in Confucian thought and in the present day.