Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Iridium anomaly

The iridium anomaly is a distinctive geochemical signature characterized by elevated concentrations of the rare element iridium (Ir) in a thin sedimentary layer precisely at the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) boundary, dated to approximately 66 million years ago, which demarcates the mass extinction event that eliminated roughly 75% of Earth's species, including all non-avian dinosaurs.^[1]^[2] This boundary layer, often a reddish clay or marl 2–5 mm thick in distal marine and terrestrial sites, records a global enrichment of iridium by factors of 20 to 160 times background levels, far exceeding typical crustal abundances where iridium is scarce (about 0.02 parts per billion).^[1]^[3] The anomaly was first identified in 1978 during neutron activation analyses of limestone samples from the Bottaccione Gorge near Gubbio, Italy, by physicist Luis Alvarez, geologist Walter Alvarez, and colleagues Frank Asaro and Helen Michel, who measured iridium concentrations up to 30 times background in the boundary clay.^[1] Subsequent sampling confirmed the feature at over 350 sites worldwide, including Denmark (160-fold enrichment) and New Zealand (20-fold), demonstrating its global distribution and synchronicity with the extinction horizon.^[1]^[2] The layer's composition, including associated platinum-group elements like osmium and platinum, aligns with extraterrestrial material rather than volcanic or terrestrial sources, as Earth's crust is depleted in these siderophile elements compared to chondritic meteorites.^[1] This iridium spike is widely interpreted as fallout from the vaporized remains of a ~10–15 km diameter asteroid that struck the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, forming the 150-km-wide Chicxulub crater.^[2]^[3] The impact ejected ~10^15 to 10^17 grams of iridium-rich dust into the stratosphere, blocking sunlight for months to years, disrupting photosynthesis, and triggering ecological collapse across marine and terrestrial realms.^[1]^[2] Supporting evidence includes shocked quartz, tektites, and nickel-rich spinels in the boundary layer, which match Chicxulub's target rocks (carbonate and evaporite sediments overlying basement), and radiometric dating that precisely aligns the crater's formation with the K–Pg boundary at 66.04 ± 0.05 Ma.^[2]^[3] While Deccan Traps volcanism contributed to environmental stress, the iridium anomaly and associated impact proxies establish the Chicxulub event as the primary driver of the abrupt K–Pg mass extinction.^[2]

Definition and Overview

The Cretaceous–Paleogene Boundary

The Cretaceous–Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary serves as the Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) that delineates the division between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras in the geologic timescale, marking the transition from the Late Cretaceous Maastrichtian stage to the Paleogene Danian stage.^[4] This boundary is formally defined at the El Kef section in Tunisia, where it coincides with the base of a distinctive clay layer, and is dated to approximately 66.0 million years ago based on high-precision U-Pb zircon geochronology. The event represents a pivotal moment in Earth history, separating the age dominated by non-avian dinosaurs and other Mesozoic fauna from the rise of mammalian and avian lineages in the Cenozoic.^[5] At the K-Pg boundary, a catastrophic mass extinction event occurred, eliminating approximately 75% of Earth's species across marine and terrestrial ecosystems.^[6] This extinction profoundly impacted diverse groups, including the complete eradication of non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and marine reptiles such as mosasaurs and plesiosaurs, as well as ammonites and numerous marine invertebrates.^[5] On land, large herbivorous and carnivorous dinosaurs vanished, while in the oceans, about 90% of planktic foraminiferal species and many calcareous nannoplankton disappeared, reshaping global biodiversity and paving the way for rapid evolutionary radiations in the Paleogene.^[7] The abrupt nature of these losses underscores the boundary's role as one of the five major mass extinction episodes in the Phanerozoic Eon.^[6] Primary evidence for recognizing the K-Pg boundary derives from multiple stratigraphic disciplines, providing robust correlation across global sections. Biostratigraphy relies on the abrupt disappearance of Cretaceous marker fossils, such as the last occurrences of planktic foraminifera (e.g., Guembelitria cretacea) and calcareous nannofossils (e.g., Micula prinsii), immediately below the boundary, signaling the base of the Danian stage.^[4] Magnetostratigraphy places the boundary within the reversed polarity chron C29r of the geomagnetic polarity timescale, offering a consistent temporal framework independent of biological signals.^[8] Chemostratigraphy complements these by identifying a negative excursion in carbon-13 isotopes (δ¹³C) and an iridium enrichment layer as chemical markers within the boundary sediments.^[2] The boundary is often manifested as a thin clay layer, typically 1–10 cm thick, composed of clay-rich, ferruginous sediments that separate underlying Cretaceous marine limestones or terrestrial deposits from overlying Paleogene strata. In marine sections, this layer frequently appears as a reddish or grayish claystone enriched in iron oxides, reflecting low-energy depositional environments during a period of reduced sedimentation rates post-extinction.^[9] Variations in thickness occur regionally, with thinner expressions (e.g., 3–5 mm) in distal ocean basins and thicker accumulations (up to several cm) in nearshore or continental settings, but the layer consistently acts as a hiatus or condensed interval preserving the transition.^[3]

Nature of the Iridium Enrichment

Iridium (Ir) is a siderophile element, meaning it has a strong affinity for iron and is preferentially incorporated into metallic cores during planetary differentiation. As a result, it is exceptionally depleted in the Earth's crust, with an average abundance of approximately 0.02–0.05 parts per billion (ppb). This rarity makes iridium a powerful geochemical tracer for extraterrestrial material, as meteorites and asteroids retain higher concentrations of siderophile elements closer to cosmic abundances.^[10]^[9] At the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary, iridium exhibits a pronounced enrichment, with peak concentrations in boundary sediments ranging from ~1 to ~100 ppb across global sites, representing enrichments of 20 to 160 times (and up to several thousand times) the crustal average.^[1]^[3] This anomaly is characterized by a sharp vertical spike confined to a thin clay layer, typically 1–3 cm thick, often displaying symmetric concentration profiles that suggest deposition from a singular, rapid event such as atmospheric fallout. In deep-sea cores, this layer frequently appears as a distinctive red clay enriched in iron oxides, accompanied by impact-related features including microspherules (small, spherical droplets of quenched melt) and soot from widespread wildfires. Despite local variations in thickness and exact composition due to sedimentation rates and environmental conditions, the enrichment factor and stratigraphic position remain globally consistent, underscoring its role as a reliable stratigraphic marker.^[1]^[3]^[11] The iridium spike is closely correlated with enrichments in other platinum-group elements (PGEs), including osmium (Os), ruthenium (Ru), and platinum (Pt), which show similar patterns of elevated concentrations within the same boundary layer. For instance, near-chondritic ratios of Os/Ir (around 1.1) and co-occurring peaks in Ru and Pt abundances indicate a common extraterrestrial source, as these elements are also siderophiles depleted in the crust but abundant in chondritic meteorites. This PGE suite provides a robust geochemical fingerprint, distinguishing the anomaly from terrestrial processes and reinforcing its utility as evidence of a large-scale extraterrestrial influx.^[3]^[12]^[13]

Discovery and Historical Context

Initial Observations in the 1970s–1980s

In the late 1970s, geologist Walter Alvarez, collaborating with his father, physicist Luis W. Alvarez, nuclear chemists Frank Asaro and Helen V. Michel, began investigating the Cretaceous–Tertiary (K–T) boundary through neutron activation analysis of clay samples from the Bottaccione Gorge at Gubbio, Italy.^[14]^[15] This work, initiated in 1977 to examine trace elements in the thin clay layer marking the boundary, unexpectedly revealed elevated iridium concentrations in 1978, prompting the hypothesis of an extraterrestrial source given iridium's rarity in Earth's crust (typically around 0.02 parts per billion).^[14]^[1] The team's seminal findings were published in June 1980 in Science under the title "Extraterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction," reporting an iridium enrichment of approximately 30 times the background level (concentrations of ~3-9 parts per billion) in the Gubbio boundary clay, alongside similar enrichments at Stevns Klint in Denmark (160 times background).^[1] They attributed this anomaly to the impact of a roughly 10-kilometer asteroid around 66 million years ago, which would have dispersed iridium-rich material globally and triggered the mass extinction by blocking sunlight and disrupting photosynthesis.^[1] Early measurements faced challenges due to iridium's low natural abundance, necessitating highly sensitive neutron activation techniques to detect concentrations in the parts-per-billion range across these terrestrial and marine boundary sections.^[1] The 1980 publication sparked immediate controversy, with skeptics questioning the anomaly's validity based on limited sites and potential terrestrial sources like volcanism, though the extraterrestrial signature was supported by iridium's chondritic ratios.^[16] By 1981, independent replications at various sites, including the Raton Basin in the United States (terrestrial) and marine sediment cores from Deep Sea Drilling Project sites, confirmed the iridium enrichment precisely at the K–T boundary, bolstering the impact hypothesis despite ongoing debates.^[17]

Global Confirmation and Expansion

Following the initial observations reported by Alvarez et al. in 1980, the iridium anomaly was rapidly verified at additional sites during the 1980s, with Alvarez et al. documenting its presence at more than 50 locations worldwide by 1984, including both marine and continental sections.^[18] This expansion continued into the 1990s, leading to identifications at over 350 Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary sections globally, with iridium enrichments confirmed in approximately 85 of them across diverse depositional environments.^[19] Key examples include Ocean Drilling Program cores from the South Atlantic (e.g., Deep Sea Drilling Project Leg 73) and Pacific Ocean (e.g., Shatsky Rise), which revealed consistent iridium spikes in deep-sea sediments, as well as terrestrial exposures in the Hell Creek Formation of Wyoming and Montana, and non-marine sequences in China's Nanxiong Basin and India's Um Sohryngkew River section.^[20]^[21]^[22]^[23] Significant milestones in this period included the 1984 Deep Sea Drilling Project results, which demonstrated the anomaly's uniformity in oceanic settings across multiple legs, supporting its synchronous global deposition.^[18] By the 1990s, research integrated the iridium signature with evidence from the Chicxulub impact structure, first proposed as the source crater in 1991, through correlations of iridium-rich layers with impact ejecta in boundary clays worldwide. Iridium enrichments exhibit environmental variations, with typically higher concentrations (up to several parts per billion) in marine sites compared to terrestrial ones, attributable to slower sedimentation rates in ocean basins that concentrate the extraterrestrial fallout into thinner, more pronounced layers.^[24] For instance, Pacific deep-sea cores show sharper spikes than continental sections in North America, where higher sediment accumulation dilutes the signal.^[25] Post-2000 investigations extended confirmations to polar regions, including detailed profiles from Seymour Island in Antarctica, which affirm the anomaly's near-global reach despite low-sedimentation polar settings.^[26] As of 2025, advanced high-resolution analyses using synchrotron X-ray fluorescence have revealed sub-millimeter-scale iridium spikes in boundary layers, such as those in Chicxulub spherules, demonstrating the element's occurrence in stable nanoparticles and excluding post-depositional diagenetic mobility as an explanatory factor.^[27]^[28]

Scientific Characteristics

Stratigraphic and Compositional Features

The iridium anomaly at the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) boundary is typically manifested as a thin claystone layer, often 2–5 mm thick in distal marine and terrestrial sections, with the peak iridium concentration occurring at or near the base. This layer frequently includes Ni-rich spinels, authigenic minerals such as pyrite and zeolites formed post-depositionally, and carbon-rich soots or charcoal fragments that provide evidence of widespread wildfires triggered by the event.^[29]^[30] Layer thickness generally decreases with increasing distance from the Chicxulub impact site, transitioning from thicker proximal deposits (e.g., >10 cm spherule-rich beds at 500–1000 km) to thinner distal clays (e.g., 2–5 mm at >5000 km). Associated with the iridium enrichment are several impact proxies that characterize the layer's composition. Shocked quartz grains exhibiting planar deformation features are ubiquitous, with grain sizes and abundance diminishing distally from the impact site. Tektites and microkrystites, often in the form of altered spherules, occur within the layer, particularly in intermediate-distance sites. Platinum-group element (PGE) ratios, such as Pt/Ir approximately 1–2 (Ir/Pt ≈ 0.5), closely match those of carbonaceous chondrites, supporting an extraterrestrial source for the enrichment.^[31] Site-specific compositions reflect environmental differences across the boundary. In marine sections, the clay layer often overlies a foraminiferal hiatus, marking the abrupt disappearance of Cretaceous planktonic foraminifera and a shift to Paleogene assemblages. Terrestrial sections, by contrast, may incorporate coaly or carbonaceous layers with elevated fern spores, indicating rapid post-impact vegetation recovery amid soot deposition. Osmium isotope ratios (¹⁸⁷Os/¹⁸⁸Os) within the layer itself show no significant variations, typically ranging 0.2–0.3, consistent with minimal diagenetic alteration.^[3] Quantitative aspects of the anomaly highlight its scale and uniformity. Enrichment factors, defined as the ratio of iridium concentration in the boundary layer to background levels (typically 0.01–0.1 ppb), typically range from 20 to 160 times globally, with site-specific values of ~20× in New Zealand and ~160× in Denmark. These factors correlate with layer thickness and iridium fluence, which decreases exponentially with distance from Chicxulub, averaging ~55 ng/cm² distally.

Measurement and Analytical Methods

The detection and quantification of the iridium anomaly in stratigraphic layers at the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) boundary have evolved through successive analytical techniques, each improving sensitivity, precision, and spatial resolution. Early efforts in the 1970s and 1980s primarily utilized neutron activation analysis (NAA) on bulk samples, a method that irradiates geological material with thermal neutrons to induce radioactivity in iridium, producing the isotope iridium-192 with a 74-day half-life, which is then measured via high-resolution gamma-ray spectroscopy. This approach achieved detection limits as low as 0.01 parts per billion (ppb), allowing identification of iridium enrichments up to 30–160 times background levels in boundary clays, though it required milligram-scale samples and multi-week irradiation and decay periods to minimize interferences from other elements like cobalt or gold. Advancements in the 1990s and 2000s shifted toward inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), which ionizes digested samples in a high-temperature plasma and measures iridium isotopes (e.g., 191Ir and 193Ir) at mass-to-charge ratios with sub-ppb sensitivity, enabling analysis of microgram-scale samples and concurrent determination of other platinum-group elements (PGEs). Often preceded by fire assay preconcentration to separate PGEs from the matrix, ICP-MS provided high-precision isotope ratios, such as 187Os/188Os, to distinguish extraterrestrial signatures from crustal sources, with typical reproducibilities of 1–5% for iridium concentrations above 0.1 ppb. This method supplanted NAA for routine PGE profiling due to faster turnaround times (days instead of weeks) and reduced susceptibility to neutron-induced artifacts, though it necessitates rigorous acid digestion to avoid incomplete dissolution of refractory iridium phases.^[32]^[3] Contemporary techniques since the 2010s emphasize in-situ and non-destructive approaches for high-resolution profiling across thin boundary layers. Laser ablation ICP-MS (LA-ICP-MS) ablates micrometer-scale spots or lines on polished sections with a UV laser, transporting the aerosol to the ICP for real-time mass spectrometric analysis, achieving spatial resolutions of 10–50 μm and depth profiles revealing iridium spikes within millimeters of the boundary, with error margins under 5% for concentrations exceeding 1 ppb. Complementing this, X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry, including portable and micro-XRF variants, scans cores or sections non-destructively by exciting atoms with X-rays and detecting fluorescent emissions, providing semi-quantitative iridium maps at 100–500 μm resolution suitable for initial screening, though it requires matrix-matched standards for accuracy below 10 ppb. These methods facilitate rapid, minimally invasive assessment of multiple elements, enhancing correlation across global sites.^[33]^[34] Key challenges in these measurements include risks of sample contamination from laboratory equipment or reagents, particularly in NAA and ICP-MS where trace iridium in acids or vials can introduce blanks up to 0.05 ppb, necessitating ultra-clean protocols and procedural blanks. Background subtraction is essential, typically achieved by averaging iridium concentrations in pre-boundary sediments (often 0.01–0.05 ppb in carbonates) to isolate the anomaly, while post-analysis corrections account for cosmic ray contributions in gamma spectroscopy or polyatomic interferences (e.g., 177Hf16O on 193Ir) in ICP-MS. Calibration relies on international standards such as NIST SRM 2702 marine sediment for trace element validation, ensuring traceability and inter-laboratory consistency with overall uncertainties reduced to 2–10% through repeated analyses and isotope dilution.^[3]^[35]

Explanatory Theories

Asteroid Impact Hypothesis

The asteroid impact hypothesis posits that the iridium anomaly at the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) boundary resulted from the collision of a approximately 10-kilometer-diameter asteroid with Earth approximately 66 million years ago, leading to the vaporization of the impactor and the global distribution of its iridium-rich ejecta.^[1] This event released an immense amount of energy, estimated at 10^{23} to 10^{24} joules, sufficient to excavate a large crater and propel material into the atmosphere and beyond, where it subsequently settled as a thin, iridium-enriched layer. The hypothesis, first proposed based on the anomalously high iridium concentrations observed in boundary clays, attributes the enrichment to the extraterrestrial origin of the material, as iridium is exceedingly rare in Earth's crust but abundant in certain meteoritic compositions.^[1] Central to this theory is the identification of the Chicxulub crater in the Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico, as the impact site, with its formation dated precisely to 66.04 ± 0.05 million years ago using argon-argon (^{40}Ar/^{39}Ar) and uranium-lead (U–Pb) geochronology on impact melt rock and shocked minerals. The crater's size, approximately 180 kilometers in diameter, aligns with the scale required for a 10-kilometer impactor, and its ejecta displays platinum-group element (PGE) patterns, including iridium, that closely match those of CI carbonaceous chondrites, which contain about 500 parts per billion (ppb) iridium. These geochemical signatures, combined with the presence of shocked quartz and other impact diagnostics in distal K–Pg sections, provide direct linkage between the crater and the global iridium layer. The proposed mechanisms involve ballistic ejection of molten and vaporized material from the impact, forming tektites and spherules that were distributed globally within hours to days, followed by atmospheric injection of fine dust and aerosols that created a widespread veil leading to rapid global cooling.^[36] Hydrocode simulations of the Chicxulub event demonstrate that high-velocity ejecta reached escape velocities, with subsequent re-entry and fallout of iridium-bearing particles occurring within weeks, producing the observed thin, uniform boundary layer. This process efficiently dispersed the extraterrestrial material, explaining the anomaly's stratigraphic sharpness and global consistency without requiring prolonged deposition.^[3] Quantitatively, the total iridium budget in the K–Pg boundary layer, estimated at 3 to 5 × 10^7 kilograms based on measured fluences and global surface integration, is consistent with the amount derivable from a single CI chondrite-like impactor after accounting for vaporization and incomplete deposition efficiency.^[1] This scale matches the modeled mass of the vaporized portion of a 10-kilometer asteroid and lacks equivalents in the broader Phanerozoic record, underscoring the event's uniqueness.

Alternative Explanations

One alternative explanation for the iridium enrichment at the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) boundary posits a volcanic origin linked to the massive Deccan Traps eruptions, which occurred approximately 66–65 million years ago and involved the release of mantle-derived iridium through flood basalt volcanism.^[37] Proponents suggest that the enormous volume of erupted material—estimated at around 1–2 million cubic kilometers—could have supplied sufficient iridium to account for the global anomaly, with calculations indicating a total iridium release on the order of 2.5 × 10^6 kg from the Deccan basalts.^[38] However, direct measurements of iridium in Deccan Traps samples reveal concentrations below 0.1 ppb, far lower than expected for a primary source, suggesting most iridium may have been lost via outgassing or dilution during emplacement.^[38] Furthermore, osmium isotope ratios (high 187Os/188Os values around 0.18–0.20) in late Maastrichtian marine sediments associated with Deccan activity indicate a radiogenic, continental weathering signature rather than the low 187Os/188Os (~0.13) characteristic of chondritic extraterrestrial material, creating a mismatch with the boundary's iridium signature.^[39] Another proposed mechanism involves a nearby supernova or gamma-ray burst that could have enriched Earth's surface with siderophile elements like iridium through cosmic ray spallation or direct dust deposition.^[1] This theory predicts a uniform global iridium spike due to widespread stellar debris influx, potentially consistent with the boundary's thin clay layer distribution.^[40] However, quantitative models from the 1990s demonstrate that even a supernova at 10–20 parsecs would produce iridium yields several orders of magnitude below the observed ~10–100 ng/cm² at the boundary, insufficient to explain the enrichment.^[40] Additionally, no associated short-lived radionuclides, such as excess 60Fe or plutonium-244, have been detected in K–Pg sediments, which would be expected from recent stellar nucleosynthesis and persist for millions of years; their absence rules out a nearby supernova event within the last few million years.^[41] Terrestrial sources, including enhanced cosmic dust accretion or hydrothermal venting, have also been considered as potential contributors to the iridium layer without requiring an extraterrestrial bolide. Steady-state cosmic dust influx, primarily from micrometeorites, delivers an estimated 10–40 kilograms of iridium annually to Earth's surface, based on deep-sea sediment analyses showing background concentrations of 0.06–0.4 ppb.^[42] Hydrothermal vents along mid-ocean ridges could concentrate iridium through seawater interaction with mantle rocks, but such processes typically yield localized enrichments rather than the synchronous, global 100–1000× spike observed at the K–Pg boundary.^[42] These mechanisms fail to account for the anomaly's sharpness and lack of associated stratigraphic disruption, as prolonged dust accumulation or venting would produce gradual rather than abrupt deposition over thousands of years.^[3] As of 2025, the scientific consensus holds that the asteroid impact hypothesis remains the primary explanation for the iridium anomaly, with volcanism from the Deccan Traps serving as a synergistic environmental stressor rather than the dominant source. Recent Re-Os dating studies in the 2020s, including high-resolution marine records, confirm distinct chemical fingerprints: pre-boundary Os shifts reflect Deccan weathering, while the boundary itself shows chondritic Os ratios aligned with an extraterrestrial influx, favoring impact dominance over volcanic contributions.^[39] U-Pb geochronology further supports this by indicating that the main phase of Deccan eruptions began ~250 kyr before the K-Pg boundary and continued ~50 kyr after, limiting their role in the initial iridium deposition.^[43]

Significance and Implications

Link to Mass Extinction Events

The iridium anomaly at the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary is strongly linked to the end-Cretaceous mass extinction, which resulted in the loss of approximately 76% of Earth's species, including non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and marine reptiles.^[6] This event exhibited selective survival patterns, with small mammals and birds (avian dinosaurs) among the groups that endured, likely due to their adaptability to disrupted environments such as burrowing habits or dietary flexibility.^[44] In marine ecosystems, the collapse was particularly severe, with over 90% of planktonic foraminifera species and all ammonites going extinct abruptly at the boundary, preceding or coinciding with broader terrestrial die-offs.^[45] The causal mechanisms connecting the iridium-rich impact layer to this biotic crisis involve a chain of environmental perturbations triggered by the Chicxulub asteroid impact. The collision generated massive tsunamis that devastated coastal habitats, while widespread wildfires produced soot layers that contributed to atmospheric darkening.^[46] Most critically, sulfate aerosols lofted into the stratosphere created an "impact winter" by blocking sunlight for 1–10 years, severely inhibiting photosynthesis and collapsing primary productivity across global food webs.^[47] This disruption cascaded through ecosystems, leading to starvation among herbivores and subsequent trophic collapse. The iridium spike precisely aligns with the extinction horizon at the K-Pg boundary, dated to approximately 66 million years ago, with stratigraphic correlations showing synchrony within ±100 kyr across global sites.^[48] Unlike the end-Cretaceous event, other major mass extinctions, such as the Permian-Triassic boundary ~252 million years ago, lack comparable iridium anomalies, underscoring the unique role of bolide impact in the K-Pg crisis.^[49] Modern analogies to the impact winter include volcanic episodes like the Toba supereruption ~74,000 years ago, which caused regional cooling, and nuclear winter simulations that predict global temperature drops of 5–10°C from aerosol-induced sunlight reduction.^[46] These models highlight how short-term climatic shocks can amplify extinction risks by mirroring the photosynthetic shutdown observed in the fossil record.^[47]

Broader Impacts on Geology and Paleontology

The discovery of the iridium anomaly at the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary fundamentally shifted paradigms in geology and paleontology, establishing asteroid impacts as a credible mechanism for driving mass extinctions and prompting reevaluation of earlier events like the Triassic-Jurassic extinction. This evidence, linking the global iridium enrichment to the Chicxulub impact, demonstrated how extraterrestrial events could trigger rapid environmental catastrophes, influencing models that now incorporate impact-related disruptions—such as atmospheric dusting and acid rain—for boundaries predating the K-Pg, including iridium spikes observed at the end-Triassic.^[50] The International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) formalized this recognition by defining the K-Pg boundary at the El Kef section in Tunisia, precisely at the iridium-rich horizon marking the meteorite impact moment, solidifying it as the "impact boundary" in global chronostratigraphy.^[51] Methodologically, the iridium anomaly legacy includes the widespread adoption of platinum-group element (PGE) chemostratigraphy for delineating stratigraphic boundaries, enabling high-resolution correlation of global perturbations through extraterrestrial signatures like iridium spikes. This approach, initially honed on K-Pg sections, now routinely aids in identifying event horizons in diverse lithologies, from marine clays to terrestrial sediments, enhancing the precision of geological timelines.^[52] Additionally, the anomaly catalyzed the systematic cataloging of impact structures, leading to the expansion of the Earth Impact Database, which originated in the 1950s but grew significantly post-1980 to include over 200 confirmed sites by documenting morphological and geochemical evidence of impacts. In contemporary research as of 2025, K-Pg iridium studies extend to exoplanet habitability assessments, where simulations of impact-induced climate disruptions—such as global cooling from sulfate aerosols—inform models evaluating life resilience on worlds prone to bolide collisions.^[53] These insights also bolster asteroid defense efforts; analyses of Chicxulub ejecta patterns and iridium distribution have guided NASA's Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) mission by clarifying kinetic impact outcomes and debris trajectories. Furthermore, interdisciplinary applications to climate modeling integrate K-Pg data to simulate long-term atmospheric recovery, while recent advancements in Re-Os geochronology—leveraging PGE enrichments in organic-rich sediments—refine dating of geological intervals. In August 2024, ruthenium isotope analysis of K–Pg boundary samples confirmed that the Chicxulub impactor was a carbonaceous-type asteroid that formed beyond Jupiter's orbit, aligning with the chondritic meteorite composition responsible for the global iridium enrichment.^[12]

References

[1]
Extraterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction - Science
Alvarez et al. ,. Extraterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction. ... PDF format. Download this article as a PDF file. Download PDF. Figures ...
[2]
[PDF] REVIEW - The Chicxulub Asteroid Impact and Mass Extinction at the ...
Mar 5, 2010 · Thirty years ago, the discovery of an anomalously high abundance of iridium and other platinum group elements (PGEs) in the K-Pg boundary clay ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[3]
Globally distributed iridium layer preserved within the Chicxulub ...
Feb 24, 2021 · The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) mass extinction is marked globally by elevated concentrations of iridium, emplaced by a hypervelocity impact ...
[4]
The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point for the base of ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/Pg) boundary was defined at the base of the boundary clay at a ...
[5]
Understanding the KT Boundary - Lunar and Planetary Institute
The K-T boundary separates the Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, marked by a mass extinction, and is associated with a high iridium concentration.
[6]
Mass Extinctions Through Geologic Time - National Park Service
Feb 28, 2025 · This extinction impacted both life on land and in the sea, with 76% of species, 40% of genera, and 17% of taxonomic families dying out.The End- ...
[7]
Rapid Recovery of Life at Ground Zero of the End Cretaceous Mass ...
The Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) mass extinction eradicated 76% of species on Earth. It was caused by the impact of an asteroid on the Yucatán carbonate platform ...
[8]
Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/Pg) boundary at the ...
Jan 18, 2023 · The Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/Pg) boundary is marked by one of the largest mass extinctions in Earth's history, with geological evidence for this ...
[9]
Globally distributed iridium layer preserved within the Chicxulub ...
Feb 24, 2021 · The preservation of the iridium-rich layer within the Chicxulub crater captures the timing of the K-Pg boundary events.
[10]
[PDF] THE COMPOSITION OF- THE EARTH'S CRUST
Relative abundance of the elements in the earth's crust .................................................... . Masses of the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and ...
[11]
Mechanisms and models of iridium anomaly shape across the ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The interpretation of the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) iridium anomaly – and other impact ejecta – as the result of a single, large asteroid ...<|separator|>
[12]
Ruthenium isotopes show the Chicxulub impactor was a ... - Science
Aug 15, 2024 · Samples taken from the K-Pg boundary layers have elevated concentrations of platinum-group elements (PGE)—iridium, ruthenium, osmium, rhodium, ...
[13]
Fingerprinting the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary impact with Zn ...
Jul 5, 2021 · We present Zn isotope data for sedimentary rock layers of the K-Pg boundary, which display heavier Zn isotope compositions and lower Zn concentrations.
[14]
Alvarez Theory on Dinosaur Die-Out Upheld: Experts Find Asteroid ...
Mar 9, 2010 · An international panel of experts has ruled in favor of the theory proposed in 1980 by the late Berkeley Lab physicist Luis Alvarez and his ...
[15]
[PDF] The serendipitous discovery of an extraterrestrial iridium anomaly at ...
Apr 30, 2019 · It was in June 1978 when Frank Asaro called the Alvarez' announcing that he just obtained an unexpected (and inexplicable) result from his ...
[16]
Asteroids and dinosaurs - → A storm front - Understanding Science
Alvarez's team published their hypothesis linking the iridium anomaly and the dinosaur extinction in the journal Science and ignited a firestorm of debate and ...Missing: initial reception 1981
[17]
https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.211.4548.1042
[18]
[PDF] Iridium anomaly and extraterrestrial component in the clays ... - LNEG
In the original paper Alvarez et al. (1980) have first reported anomalously high Ir concentrations in the Cretaceous-Paleogene. (KPB) boundary clays at ...
[19]
[PDF] Deep Sea Drilling Project Initial Reports Volume 73
An iridium spike that may mark the instant of an extraterrestrial impact is present at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary (see the chapter on the terminal ...
[20]
Unraveling the record of a tropical continental Cretaceous ...
The 66-million-year-old Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary (K-Pg boundary) event is one of the most catastrophic episodes in Earth's history. It was produced by ...
[21]
Geochemical environmental changes and dinosaur extinction during ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Multiple distinct iridium anomalies have been observed in dinosaur eggshells in the K/T boundary sections of the Nanxiong Basin, Guangdong ...
[22]
Chemostratigraphy Across the Cretaceous‐Paleogene (K‐Pg ...
Nov 19, 2018 · Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary, iridium anomaly and foraminifer break in the Um Sohryngkew River section. Current Science 59, 570–575. Web of ...
[23]
Widespread elevated iridium in Upper Triassic–Lower Jurassic ...
Nov 11, 2020 · We report new data on concentrations of iridium in continental strata of the Fundy, Deerfield, Hartford and Newark basins, both above and below the oldest CAMP ...
[24]
Mechanisms and models of iridium anomaly shape across the ...
Jan 3, 2011 · We find that sediment mixing of a single impact event provides the most parsimonious mechanism for iridium profile shape in open ocean oxic sediments.
[25]
Late Cretaceous winter sea ice in Antarctica? - GeoScienceWorld
Dec 1, 2013 · Biostratigraphic evidence and an iridium anomaly at the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary support this age model (Elliot et al., 1994 ...
[26]
Nanoparticles of iridium and other platinum group elements ...
The Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) boundary marks the extinction that took place 66.05 million (Renne et al., 2018) years ago, resulting in the demise of ∼75 % of ...
[27]
[PDF] What happened after the meteoroid impact at the end of ... - SPring-8
The K–Pg boundary clay contains high concentrations of chalcophile elements, which preferentially concentrate in sulfides, as well as siderophile elements. As ...
[28]
The stratigraphic distribution of Ni-rich spinels in Cretaceous ...
The Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) boundary clay layer is now widely accepted to result from the global deposition of melted and crushed rock ejected during ...
[29]
Timing and causes of forest fire at the K–Pg boundary - Nature
Jul 29, 2022 · 4E, and lagenids) and an iridium anomaly (1.2 ppb Ir, cf. Units B—0.3 ppb, and D—0.5 ppb; Fig. 5) comparable to K–Pg boundary interval deposits ...<|separator|>
[30]
Reevaluation of siderophile element abundances and ratios across ...
Highly elevated Ir and other siderophile element abundances in roughly chondritic ratios are considered strong indicators for the presence of a meteoritic ...
[31]
The Chicxulub ejecta deposit at Demerara Rise (western Atlantic)
Mar 1, 2011 · Trace-element abundances in the K-Pg layer were determined by LA-ICP-MS along the 7500-μm-long profile 1 across the upper part (Table DR1 in the ...
[32]
Application of laser ablation-ICP-MS to determine high-resolution ...
A high-resolution analysis of the distribution of major and trace elements across a Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary (KPgB) was done using Laser Ablation- ...
[33]
Disentangling Impact Ejecta Dynamics Using Micro–X‐Ray ...
Aug 12, 2025 · These data were collected from an iridium-rich claystone interval from the expanded Tanis K-Pg boundary site in North Dakota. The measured grain ...
[34]
[PDF] SRM 2702 - Certificate of Analysis
This Standard Reference Material (SRM) is marine sediment collected at the mouth of the Baltimore Harbor, Baltimore, MD and is intended for use in evaluating ...Missing: iridium | Show results with:iridium
[35]
Trajectories and distribution of material ejected from the Chicxulub ...
Aug 30, 2002 · The trajectories of low- and high-energy ejecta from the Chicxulub impact crater have been computed using a numerical code and compared with analyses of debris ...
[36]
On impact and volcanism across the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary
Jan 17, 2020 · Impact markers at hundreds of sites globally co-occur with the deposition of the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K/Pg) boundary clay and include elevated ...
[37]
[PDF] A search for iridium in the deccan traps and inter-traps - HAL
Feb 1, 2022 · The discovery of anomalous concentrations of iridium (Ir) in the clay layer which marks the Cretaceous-Tertiary.Missing: supernova | Show results with:supernova
[38]
A high-resolution marine 187Os/188Os record for the late ...
Aug 6, 2025 · These records reconfirmed that 187 Os/ 188 Os can be used to somehow constrain the onset of Deccan volcanism, but they could not disentangle the ...
[39]
The KPg boundary Chicxulub impact-extinction hypothesis: The ...
Jun 21, 2022 · But the iridium anomaly, from precisely the same lamina (Alvarez et al., 1979), is hard to explain otherwise. Eventually, both approaches ...
[40]
Another false start - Understanding Science
... iridium at the KT boundary. Excited about the possibility of the ... If a supernova occurred at the K/T boundary you would expect to see plutonium.
[41]
Accretion rate of cosmic matter from iridium and osmium contents of ...
Iridium and osmium concentrations were measured in dated deep-sea sediments by neutron activation analysis to attempt to set limits on the influx rate of ...
[42]
Asteroid impact, not volcanism, caused the end-Cretaceous ... - PNAS
The Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/Pg) mass extinction coincided with two major global environmental perturbations: heightened volcanism associated with the Deccan ...Missing: Os | Show results with:Os
[43]
[PDF] Dinosaur Extinction: Changing Views - SDSU Biology
2 This mass extinction wiped out the dominant land vertebrates and opened the evolutionary way for mammals that until that time were no larger than a small cat.
[44]
Severity of ocean acidification following the end-Cretaceous ... - NIH
Ammonites went extinct at the time of the end-Cretaceous asteroid impact, as did more than 90% of species of calcium carbonate-shelled plankton ...Results · Sulfate Aerosols Due To... · Breakdown Of Ocean...
[45]
Asteroid impact, not volcanism, caused the end-Cretaceous ...
Jun 29, 2020 · We demonstrate a substantial detrimental effect on dinosaur habitats caused by an impact winter scenario triggered by the Chicxulub asteroid.
[46]
Dinosaur-killing asteroid could have thrust Earth into 2 years of ...
Aug 21, 2017 · Tremendous amounts of soot following a massive asteroid strike 66 million years ago would have plunged Earth into darkness for nearly two ...
[47]
[PDF] Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous/Paleogene (K/Pg) boundary at
Immediately overlying the K/Pg boundary is a 50-cm-thick dark grey clay layer. 122 containing very few specimens of Cretaceous species (Smit, 1982; Keller ...
[48]
Did an Impact Trigger the Permian-Triassic Extinction? | News
May 17, 2004 · Some other evidence of an impact at the PT boundary has been found, but so far no significant iridium anomalies such as those that first ...
[49]
Ascent of dinosaurs linked to an iridium anomaly at the Triassic ...
This extraordinary turnover is associated with an iridium anomaly (up to 285 parts per trillion, with an average maximum of 141 parts per trillion) and a fern ...
[50]
The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point for the base of ...
Dec 1, 2006 · This event coincides with the GSSP, allowing us to propose that the K/Pg boundary is marked exactly by the moment of the meteorite impact ...Missing: recognition | Show results with:recognition
[51]
Developments in analytical techniques for chemostratigraphy ...
Chemostratigraphy or chemical stratigraphy is used as a tool to identify some significant and abrupt changes or a systematic variation of chemical composition ...
[52]
Full article: Exoplanet interiors and habitability
Impact simulation studies indicate that the interior temperature increases by several thousands of degrees for a planet like the Earth [Citation32].
[53]
Re-Os, Sr-Nd isotopic and PGE elemental constraints for the ...
Nov 1, 2023 · Here, we present Re-Os, Sr-Nd isotopic and PGE elemental data for ironstones from the ∼1.7 Ga Yunmengshan (YMS) Formation in south margin of the North China ...