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Impact structure

An impact structure is a geological feature formed by the hypervelocity collision of a meteoroid, asteroid, or comet with a planetary surface, resulting in a generally circular area of deformed bedrock or sediment characterized by shock metamorphism.^[1] These structures arise from impacts at velocities typically exceeding 11 km/s, generating extreme pressures (up to gigapascals) and temperatures (thousands of degrees Celsius) that vaporize or melt parts of the impactor and target materials.^[1] The formation of an impact structure occurs in three main stages: contact and compression, during which shock waves propagate through the target; excavation, where material is ejected to create a transient cavity; and modification, involving the collapse of this cavity to produce characteristic morphologies.^[1] On Earth, impact structures are classified as simple (bowl-shaped craters less than about 4 km in diameter with a depth-to-diameter ratio of 1:5 to 1:7) or complex (larger than 4 km, featuring central peaks or peak rings and shallower profiles with ratios of 1:10 to 1:20), depending on the impact energy and target properties.^[1] Due to billions of years of geological processes like erosion, sedimentation, and tectonics, most terrestrial examples are heavily modified and lack the pristine bowl-like appearance seen on airless bodies like the Moon.^[2] Impact structures are identified through diagnostic evidence of shock effects, including shatter cones (striated conical fractures in bedrock), planar deformation features in quartz, high-pressure minerals such as coesite and stishovite, and impact melt rocks or glasses enriched in siderophile elements from the impactor.^[2] Approximately 200 such structures have been confirmed worldwide, predominantly in stable continental interiors like the Canadian Shield, Australian cratons, and European platforms, with ages spanning from recent (e.g., ~50,000 years for Barringer Crater) to over 2 billion years old.^[3] The largest known is the Vredefort structure in South Africa, originally ~300 km across, formed ~2.02 billion years ago.^[1] These features not only record Earth's bombardment history but also host economic mineral deposits, such as the nickel-copper ores at Sudbury, Canada, and provide analogs for planetary exploration.^[1]

Definition and Formation

Definition

An impact structure is a surface or subsurface geological feature formed by the hypervelocity collision of an extraterrestrial body, such as a meteoroid, asteroid, or comet, with a planetary surface, resulting in a typically circular or elliptical deformation of the target rocks.^[1] These structures arise from the immense kinetic energy of the impacting body, which exceeds 10 km/s and converts into shock waves, intense heat, and mechanical deformation, producing distinctive shocked minerals and melt rocks not found in volcanic or tectonic formations.^[4] Unlike endogenic processes, which involve internal planetary forces, impact structures are exogenic in origin and exhibit radial symmetry due to the explosive nature of the event.^[1] The term "impact structure" was introduced in the early 1960s to describe highly eroded or modified craters that no longer retain their original topographic rims, broadening the recognition of ancient impact sites beyond well-preserved examples like Meteor Crater.^[5] This nomenclature, first systematically used by Eugene M. Shoemaker and Robert E. Eggleton in 1961, encompassed subsurface and degraded features identified through geological and geophysical evidence, distinguishing them from lunar-like fresh craters.^[5] Prior terms like "astrobleme," coined by Robert S. Dietz in 1961 for structures such as Vredefort, emphasized their meteoritic scars but were later supplemented by "impact structure" for a more general application to terrestrial analogs. Impact structures vary widely in scale, from small features a few meters in diameter—such as the Kaali craters in Estonia—to vast basins exceeding 300 km, like the Vredefort structure in South Africa, depending on the impactor's size, velocity, and the target's properties.^[6] This range highlights their role in planetary geology, where even small impacts can excavate deep into the crust, while larger ones influence global sedimentation and potentially climate.^[1]

Formation Process

Impact structures, also known as impact craters, form through hypervelocity impacts where extraterrestrial projectiles strike planetary surfaces at speeds exceeding 10 km/s, often around 11-70 km/s for Earth-impacting objects larger than 50 meters in diameter.^[7] This hypervelocity regime—far surpassing typical terrestrial explosions—converts the projectile's immense kinetic energy, given by E = \frac{1}{2} m v^2, into intense pressure waves that generate peak pressures over 100 GPa at the impact point, rapidly compressing and deforming both the projectile and target material.^[7] These conditions lead to widespread shock compression, melting, and vaporization within microseconds, distinguishing impact structures from volcanic or tectonic features.^[7] The formation process unfolds in three principal stages, occurring over seconds to minutes depending on crater size. In the initial contact and compression stage, the projectile decelerates abruptly within 1-2 times its diameter, generating converging shock waves that propagate outward at velocities exceeding 10 km/s, causing extreme heating and partial to complete vaporization of the impactor and near-surface target rocks.^[7] This phase lasts less than a second for kilometer-scale events and transforms kinetic energy into thermal and pressure effects, with pressures decaying exponentially from hundreds of GPa to 1-2 GPa near the forming rim.^[7] The excavation stage follows, where diverging shock waves and expanding vapor plumes drive the upward and outward movement of target material, forming a transient cavity and ejecting debris in a plume that extends 20-30 times the projectile's diameter.^[7] This bowl-shaped transient crater achieves a depth-to-diameter ratio of approximately 1:5, excavated in times ranging from 6 seconds for a 1 km crater to 90 seconds for a 200 km structure, with material from the cavity's full depth contributing to the ejecta.^[1]^[7] During the modification stage, the rebound of compressed rocks beneath the transient crater floor generates a central uplift, while overstressed cavity walls slump inward, reshaping the structure through collapse; further adjustments driven by gravity include infilling of the crater with ejecta and sediments, as well as long-term isostatic rebound, which can alter the structure over geological timescales.^[7] Gravity and target material properties play crucial roles in these dynamics, influencing the transition from transient to final morphology; higher gravity promotes greater collapse and shallower final depths, while stronger, less porous targets resist deformation and yield deeper initial cavities before modification.^[7] Overall energy partitioning directs about 90% of the impact's kinetic energy into heat and shock effects—resulting in melting and vaporization—while roughly 10% imparts kinetic energy to the ejecta, determining the extent of surface disruption.^[7]

Morphology and Classification

Morphological Features

Impact structures exhibit distinct morphological features that reflect the dynamics of hypervelocity impacts on planetary surfaces. The primary surface components include a raised rim formed by the upwelling of target material during the excavation stage, a central depression known as the crater floor that lies significantly below the surrounding terrain, and an ejecta blanket consisting of fragmented and shocked debris deposited around the crater. In larger structures, a central peak or ring may uplift from the floor due to rebound of the crustal material. These features are universal to impact craters, though their prominence varies; for instance, simple craters typically lack central uplifts, while complex ones possess them.^[8]^[9] The transient crater, formed immediately after excavation but before gravitational collapse, has a depth approximately one-third of its diameter, providing a baseline for the initial excavation scale. Following collapse, the final crater morphology adjusts, with the depth-to-diameter ratio typically around 1:5 for simple forms. Subsurface elements further characterize these structures, including a breccia lens—a layered deposit of fragmented rock filling the crater base—and an underlying melt sheet composed of shock-generated molten material that cools into a coherent layer. Additionally, the bedrock surrounding the crater is extensively fractured due to shock wave propagation, with damage zones extending laterally to about 1.5 times the crater radius from the center.^[10]^[11]^[7]^[12] Morphological variations arise from environmental conditions at the impact site. Submarine impacts, where the target includes water overlying sediment or bedrock, often lack prominent raised rims due to sediment slumping and water resurge, but they generate massive tsunamis from the rapid displacement of ocean water. On icy bodies such as satellites of the outer planets, craters display unique profiles, including shallower depths and more fluid-like relaxation features, owing to the ductile behavior of ice under impact stresses, which contrasts with the brittle response of rocky terrains.^[13]^[14]^[15]

Classification by Size and Type

Impact structures, also known as impact craters, are classified primarily by their size and morphological complexity, which reflect the dynamics of the impact process and the host planet's gravitational and lithospheric properties. On Earth, simple craters are typically smaller than 4 km in diameter and exhibit a bowl-shaped profile with raised rims and minimal structural collapse, while the transition to complex craters occurs around 2-4 km depending on target lithology—sedimentary targets at ~2 km and crystalline at ~4 km.^[6] Complex craters, exceeding these thresholds, feature terraced walls, flat floors, and central uplifts such as peaks or rings, resulting from significant post-impact modification.^[16] For even larger structures, peak-ring craters emerge with diameters of 50-100 km, characterized by an inner central peak surrounded by a ring of peaks, transitioning to multi-ring basins beyond ~100 km, which display multiple concentric rings and vast depressed interiors often exceeding 300 km in diameter.^[17]^[18] These classifications arise during the collapse stage of crater formation, where increasing impactor energy leads to more elaborate rebound and slumping dynamics. Simple craters lack extensive collapse, maintaining a parabolic cross-section, whereas complex types involve upward extrusion of deep material forming central features and inward sliding of walls to stabilize the structure.^[10] Peak-ring and multi-ring varieties represent further escalation, with ring formation attributed to interference patterns in the collapsing cavity and lithospheric response.^[16] Planetary differences significantly influence these size thresholds due to variations in surface gravity and crustal strength; lower gravity permits larger simple craters before transition to complexity. On the Moon, with gravity about one-sixth of Earth's, the simple-to-complex transition diameter is 15-20 km, allowing simple bowl-shaped craters up to these sizes, while complex craters begin around 20 km and multi-ring basins dominate at over 300 km.^[10]^[16] Venus, with gravity similar to Earth's (about 0.9g), exhibits comparable transition diameters of 2-4 km for simple to complex craters, but its thick, hot lithosphere and frequent volcanic resurfacing obscure smaller features; impact structures are primarily detected via radar imaging from missions like Magellan, revealing a population dominated by complex craters larger than 15 km with central peaks.^[19] These variations underscore how gravitational acceleration inversely scales the diameter at which morphological transitions occur across solar system bodies.^[20]

Identification and Recognition

Diagnostic Indicators

Diagnostic indicators of impact structures are specific geological and mineralogical features that unequivocally confirm an origin from hypervelocity meteoroid or asteroid impacts, distinguishing them from volcanic, tectonic, or other endogenic processes. These indicators arise from the extreme pressures and temperatures generated during the impact event, producing shock metamorphism and melting effects that are rare or absent in terrestrial settings outside of impacts. The most reliable criteria include shocked minerals, impact melt products, shatter cones, and distal ejecta such as tektites, often identified through field observations, petrographic analysis, and geochemical studies.^[21] Shocked quartz and other minerals exhibit planar deformation features (PDFs), which are sets of parallel lamellae within crystal grains formed under shock pressures of 5-35 GPa, making them a hallmark of impact metamorphism unique to such events. These features, visible under optical microscopy as thin, straight planes spaced 2-10 micrometers apart, occur in quartz and feldspar and are oriented along specific crystallographic planes, with common orientations like {0001} and {10-13} in quartz. PDFs are considered the most frequently used and reliable petrographic indicator for confirming terrestrial impact structures, as they cannot be produced by tectonic or volcanic processes alone.^[22]^[21] Impact melt rocks form through the fusion of target materials at temperatures exceeding 1000°C, resulting in high-temperature glasses, coherent melt sheets, or vein-like pseudotachylite injections that fill fractures in the bedrock. Pseudotachylite veins, dark and glassy with aphanitic textures, represent localized melting along fault planes during the shock compression and release, often containing shocked mineral clasts. These melts are chemically homogeneous and reflect the composition of the target lithologies, with possible enrichments in siderophile elements from the impactor, providing direct evidence of the impact's thermal regime.^[23]^[21] Shatter cones are distinctive conical fractures in bedrock, characterized by striated surfaces and radiating patterns that form under shock wave propagation, with their size and complexity scaling with the intensity of the shock pressures, typically 2-30 GPa. These features, often 1-10 cm in height, point toward the impact center and are best preserved in competent rocks like limestones or sandstones within central uplifts, such as those at the Vredefort structure. Shatter cones are a macroscopic diagnostic criterion, present in over half of confirmed impact sites, and their formation is attributed to interference of reflected shock waves.^[24]^[21] Tektites and spherules are small, glassy droplets ejected from the impact site, formed by the melting and aerodynamic shaping of target rock material during atmospheric passage, with compositions chemically linked to the local crustal sources. Tektites, typically 1-20 mm in size and found in strewn fields up to thousands of kilometers from the crater, exhibit low water content and high silica (>70 wt%), as seen in the Australasian tektite field associated with the ~0.79 Ma impact.^[25] A 2025 study identified a distinct subgroup of tektites in South Australia dated to ~10.8 Ma, suggesting an additional ancient impact event.^[26] Spherules, smaller (<1 mm) and often layered in distal deposits, represent quenched molten ejecta and confirm large-scale impacts when matched to proximal melt compositions.^[23]^[21]

Detection Methods

Detection of impact structures, particularly those obscured by erosion or sediment cover, relies on a suite of indirect geophysical and remote sensing techniques that reveal subsurface anomalies and surface morphological clues without direct exposure. These methods are essential for identifying candidates in regions where surface features are subtle or absent, allowing for targeted follow-up investigations.^[27] Geophysical surveys form the cornerstone of impact structure detection by mapping variations in physical properties induced by the cratering process. Gravity surveys often detect characteristic anomalies, including a central gravity low resulting from the fractured and less dense central uplift or collapse zone, surrounded by positive rim highs from denser, uplifted peripheral rocks in complex craters.^[27] Magnetic surveys complement gravity data by identifying signatures from impact melt sheets or disrupted magnetic minerals, typically showing low or random patterns in brecciated zones and stronger anomalies where melt or pre-impact magnetic units are preserved.^[27] Seismic refraction and reflection surveys probe subsurface structure, revealing velocity contrasts from shocked and fractured rock layers, central disruption, and preserved stratigraphic reflectors at depth, which help delineate the crater's buried morphology.^[27] Remote sensing techniques enable the identification of circular topographic or lithologic features from orbital platforms, particularly useful for large or eroded structures on Earth and other planets. Satellite optical imagery, such as from Landsat, highlights annular patterns in vegetation, drainage, or rock outcrops that suggest impact-related rings, even in vegetated or arid terrains.^[28] Synthetic aperture radar, as employed by the Magellan mission on Venus, penetrates atmospheric haze to map subtle crater rims and central peaks through backscatter variations, facilitating the cataloging of hundreds of impact features on that planet. On Earth, airborne LIDAR surveys excel at revealing faint topographic signatures, such as low-relief rims or depressions buried under soil or forest cover, by generating high-resolution digital elevation models that expose otherwise invisible circular landforms.^[29] Drilling and sampling provide definitive subsurface confirmation once geophysical or remote sensing data indicate a potential structure, targeting depths where impact effects are preserved. Core recovery from boreholes often yields impact melt rocks, suevite breccias, or fractured basement, with diagnostic features like shocked minerals serving as key identifiers when analyzed petrographically.^[30] These samples allow geochemical assays for elevated siderophile elements or isotopic anomalies tracing meteoritic input, verifying the hypervelocity impact origin.^[27] Numerical modeling supports detection by simulating crater formation and evolution, predicting geophysical signatures based on impactor size, velocity, target properties, and age-related erosion or isostatic rebound. Hydrodynamic codes model shock propagation and excavation, forecasting gravity and magnetic anomaly patterns for comparison with survey data, while long-term simulations account for post-impact relaxation to explain subdued features in ancient structures.^[31] These models refine interpretations of ambiguous geophysical data, aiding in the prioritization of drilling sites.^[32]

Distribution and Examples

Global Distribution on Earth

The Earth Impact Database, maintained by the Planetary and Space Science Centre at the University of Western Ontario, lists approximately 200 confirmed impact structures worldwide as of 2025, many of which are younger than 100 million years old due to extensive erosion, burial, and tectonic modification over geological time.^[1] These structures range in size from small craters less than 1 km in diameter to large complex basins exceeding 100 km, but preservation biases the record toward relatively recent events. Geographically, confirmed impact structures show a higher density in stable continental cratons, such as those in Canada, Australia, and parts of Africa and Europe, where minimal tectonic activity allows better preservation.^[1] In contrast, they are rare in tectonically active regions like subduction zones or mid-ocean ridges, where rapid geological processes obscure or destroy evidence of impacts.^[6] This distribution reflects the uneven survival of features on Earth's dynamic surface rather than any inherent targeting bias from meteoroid flux. The age distribution of these structures reveals peaks in the Precambrian era, particularly in ancient cratonic terrains, with the oldest confirmed examples dating back over 3.5 billion years, such as the Paleoarchaean crater in the Pilbara Craton, Australia, at approximately 3.47 billion years, and the Vredefort structure at approximately 2.023 billion years.^[33]^[34] Younger structures dominate the preserved record, however, with notable clusters in the Ordovician period; the youngest confirmed impact is the Jinlin crater in China, formed less than 11,700 years ago.^[35] Despite these discoveries, the terrestrial impact record remains incomplete, as many structures have been eroded away, buried under sediments, or submerged beneath oceans, with estimates suggesting 5-10 times more undiscovered craters of various sizes exist based on statistical models of preservation and discovery rates.^[36] Detection challenges, including remote sensing limitations in vegetated or ice-covered areas, further contribute to this incompleteness.^[37]

Notable Examples

One of the most well-preserved impact structures on Earth is Meteor Crater in Arizona, USA, a simple crater approximately 1.2 kilometers in diameter formed about 50,000 years ago by the impact of an iron-nickel meteorite roughly 50 meters across.^[38] Its bowl-shaped depression, 180 meters deep with a raised rim, has remained largely uneroded due to the arid climate, making it a key site for studying impact processes.^[39] This structure was the first on Earth widely recognized as an impact crater in the early 1900s, following investigations by Daniel Moreau Barringer who proposed its extraterrestrial origin in 1903.^[40] The Chicxulub impact structure, located on the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico, is a complex crater with an estimated diameter of 150 kilometers, formed approximately 66 million years ago by a 10-15 kilometer asteroid impact.^[41] It was discovered in the late 1970s through geophysical surveys and oil exploration drilling by Pemex, which revealed anomalous breccias and shocked minerals indicative of hypervelocity impact.^[42] The structure's multi-ring morphology includes a central peak ring buried under sediments, preserved due to its submarine location in the Gulf of Mexico.^[43] Vredefort, in South Africa, holds the distinction of the largest verified impact structure on Earth, with an original diameter of about 300 kilometers, dating to roughly 2.023 billion years ago and classified as a complex crater featuring a prominent central dome.^[44] The impact exposed deep crustal rocks in the Vredefort Dome, a 40-kilometer-wide uplift of granitic gneiss, which has been extensively eroded over time but retains shatter cones and pseudotachylite veins as diagnostic features. The Sudbury Basin in Ontario, Canada, represents another ancient complex impact structure, approximately 200 kilometers in original diameter, formed around 1.85 billion years ago by a bolide impact that created a vast melt sheet.^[45] This event led to the differentiation of impact melt into the Nickel Irruptive, a layered mafic intrusion rich in sulfides, which has been a major source of nickel, copper, and platinum-group elements through mining operations since the late 19th century.^[46]^[47] The Jinlin crater, discovered in 2025 in Zhaoqing, Guangdong Province, China, is a simple crater about 0.9 kilometers in diameter and less than 11,700 years old, making it the youngest confirmed impact structure on Earth.^[35] Its preservation in a subtropical environment provides insights into recent impact events and rapid post-impact modification.

Geological and Scientific Significance

Preservation and Evolution

Impact structures on Earth undergo significant modification following their formation, primarily through erosion, sedimentation, and tectonic processes that alter their morphology over geological timescales. Initial post-impact infilling occurs rapidly as sediments accumulate in the crater depression, often leading to partial or complete burial within tens of millions of years in tectonically active regions. For instance, average long-term erosion rates derived from the global crater inventory are approximately 78 meters per million years, though these rates can vary substantially based on local conditions.^[48] Tectonic activity further shapes preserved structures by inducing faulting, uplift, and distortion, which can either expose deeply buried features or complicate their recognition. Isostatic rebound, for example, may elevate central uplifts, while regional faulting segments and rotates crater rims, as observed in the Sudbury impact structure where post-impact tectonics preserved arcuate geometries despite deformation. These modifications often expose shock-metamorphosed rocks in central uplifts after the erosion of overlying ejecta and crater-fill deposits.^[6]^[49] The degradation of impact structures progresses through distinct stages, beginning with relatively fresh craters that retain topographic rims and central features, evolving into eroded astroblemes where much of the original morphology is subdued and shock features are diminished. Further degradation can reduce structures to subtle, circular anomalies with minimal relief, sometimes misidentified as cryptovolcanic features prior to confirmation via shock metamorphism evidence, such as in early interpretations of sites like the Vredefort structure. This progression reflects the loss of ejecta blankets, infill, and topographic expression, leaving only structural remnants like ring faults or uplifted cores.^[6]^[50] Several factors influence the longevity and preservation state of impact structures, including climate, vegetation cover, and surface exposure. Erosion rates increase up to fivefold from cold to tropical climates, with polar and arid regions exhibiting lower degradation due to reduced precipitation and mechanical weathering. Dense vegetation in temperate zones accelerates erosion through root wedging and organic acid production, whereas exposed, barren terrains in deserts or high latitudes allow better retention of subtle features. Target rock type and proximity to tectonic margins also play roles, with crystalline terrains resisting erosion longer than sedimentary ones in active settings. As of November 2025, a well-preserved 900-meter-wide Holocene impact crater was confirmed in southern China (Jinlin Crater), demonstrating effective preservation in granitic terrains under thick weathering crusts.^[48]^[6]^[35]

Broader Implications

Impact structures have profoundly influenced Earth's biological history, most notably through their association with mass extinction events. The Chicxulub impact, approximately 66 million years ago, is widely recognized as the primary trigger for the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary extinction, which eliminated about 76% of species, including non-avian dinosaurs.^[51] This event released vast quantities of sulfate aerosols, dust, and soot into the atmosphere, causing global cooling, prolonged darkness, and inhibition of photosynthesis that disrupted food chains worldwide.^[52] Additionally, the impact ignited widespread firestorms from ejected molten material, exacerbating environmental devastation through intense heat and atmospheric soot.^[53] These effects underscore how large impacts can rapidly alter global ecosystems, providing critical evidence for understanding catastrophic biotic crises.^[54] Beyond geological disruption, impact structures hold significant resource potential, particularly through post-impact hydrothermal systems and mineral enrichment. These systems arise from the intense heat and fracturing during impacts, circulating hot fluids that precipitate valuable minerals. For instance, the Vredefort impact structure in South Africa, formed about 2 billion years ago, is linked to the mobilization and concentration of gold in the nearby Witwatersrand Basin, the world's largest gold deposit, where impact-induced fluids may have remobilized placer gold deposits.^[55]^[56] Hydrothermal alteration in craters like Chicxulub has modified over 1.4 × 10^5 km³ of rock, creating deposits of clays, zeolites, and sulfates that could host economic minerals.^[57] Such features position impact sites as hotspots for mineral exploration, influencing modern mining strategies.^[58] In planetary science, impact structures offer key insights into the solar system's formation and evolution, revealing the flux of impactors and surface processes across planets. By analyzing crater morphologies and compositions on Earth, scientists infer bombardment histories that mirror those on the Moon, Mars, and other bodies, helping reconstruct the Late Heavy Bombardment period around 4 billion years ago.^[59]^[60] These studies also inform hazard assessment for future impacts; for example, asteroids larger than 1 km in diameter strike Earth approximately once every 500,000 years, potentially causing global climate disruptions.^[61]^[62] Such knowledge drives efforts in planetary defense, including NASA's monitoring programs. Impact structures also carry cultural significance, embedding themselves in human myths, folklore, and modern societal activities. The Kaali crater field in Estonia, formed about 4,000 years ago, features prominently in local folklore as a site of divine intervention or catastrophe, with legends describing fiery sky events and the crater lake as a resting place for the sun, influencing ancient rituals.^[63]^[64] Similar sacred associations appear at sites like India's Lonar crater, a holy landscape with temples that blend geological and spiritual narratives.^[65] Today, these features support tourism and education; for example, the Wetumpka crater in Alabama attracts visitors for guided tours exploring ancient impacts, while global sites like Arizona's Meteor Crater foster public understanding of cosmic hazards through exhibits and eco-tourism.^[66]^[67]

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[38]
Meteor Crater Sample Collection | U.S. Geological Survey - USGS.gov
Meteor Crater formed approximately 50,000 years ago by the impact of a 100,000-ton iron-nickel meteorite, ~30 m in diameter, which struck at an approximate ...
[39]
2007 June 23 - 3D Barringer Meteorite Crater - APOD
Jun 23, 2007 · Historically, this crater is the first recognized to be caused by an impact rather than a volcanic eruption. Modern research indicates that ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[40]
Deep Impact and the Mass Extinction of Species 65 Million Years Ago
With a diameter of approximately 200 km Chicxulub is one of the largest and best preserved craters on Earth. Chicxulub can thus serve as a proto-typical and ...
[41]
Discovering the Impact Site - Chicxulub Impact Event
A black circle outlines the ~180 kilometer diameter crater. The original petroleum exploration borehole locations (C1, S1, and Y6) are shown where intermittent ...Missing: oil | Show results with:oil
[42]
New links between the Chicxulub impact structure and the ...
The 200-km-diameter Chicxulub structure1–3 in northern Yucatan, Mexico has emerged as the prime candidate for the Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary impact ...
[43]
Vredefort Crater - NASA Earth Observatory
Aug 31, 2018 · Vredefort Crater measured somewhere between 180 and 300 kilometers wide. But more than 2 billion years of erosion has made the exact size hard to pin down.Missing: complex | Show results with:complex
[44]
Original Size and Shape of the Sudbury Structure
Jan 1, 1997 · Current opinion is almost unanimous that the structure is a multiring basin with an original diameter of about 200 km and a circular shape that ...
[45]
Sudbury Impact Structure - NASA Earth Observatory
Sep 19, 2021 · Few craters are as large, or as old, as this impact structure in southeastern Ontario, Canada.
[46]
[PDF] Occurrence model for magmatic sulfide-rich nickel-copper-(platinum ...
tailings pile at the Nickel Rim mine in the Sudbury district. Copper (3.5 mg/L) and Co (2.5 mg/L) also were important constituents. Similarly, for ...
[47]
Long-term erosion rates as a function of climate derived from ... - ESurf
May 23, 2019 · In this study we derive estimates of average erosion rates on the timescale of some tens of millions of years from the terrestrial impact crater inventory.
[48]
Morphology and tectonic modification of the Sudbury impact crater
Results indicate that deformation of the North Range was limited to fault block segmentation and rotation. The arcuate geometry of the North Range is a primary ...
[49]
Earth's Impact Events Through Geologic Time: A List of ...
This article presents a current (as of September 2019) list of recommended ages for proven terrestrial impact structures (n = 200) and deposits (n = 46)<|control11|><|separator|>
[50]
Organic matter from the Chicxulub crater exacerbated the K–Pg ...
Sep 28, 2020 · Target rock-derived soot immediately contributed to global cooling and darkening that curtailed photosynthesis and caused widespread extinction.
[51]
Organic matter from the Chicxulub crater exacerbated the K-Pg ...
Oct 13, 2020 · The impact hit a carbonate platform and released sulfate aerosols and dust into Earth's upper atmosphere, which cooled and darkened the planet-a ...
[52]
Global Effects - Chicxulub Impact Event
The discovery of the Chicxulub crater dramatically enhanced the community's ability to evaluate the environmental effects of an impact at the KT boundary.
[53]
[PDF] REVIEW - The Chicxulub Asteroid Impact and Mass Extinction at the ...
Mar 5, 2010 · Additionally, the assertion that the Chicxulub impact preceded the K-Pg mass extinction by ~300 thousand years predicts that the PGE anomaly at ...<|separator|>
[54]
[PDF] The Origin of Gold in South Africa
They are part of the Vredefort dome, which was produced by the impact of a large meteor about two billion years ago.
[55]
Gold mineralization within the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa
Aug 5, 2025 · The world class gold mining basin of Witwatersrand in South Africa is probably the result of hot fluid circulation linked to the Vedrefort ...
[56]
Probing the hydrothermal system of the Chicxulub impact crater
May 29, 2020 · The recovered core shows the crater hosted a spatially extensive hydrothermal system that chemically and mineralogically modified ~1.4 × 105 km3 ...
[57]
[PDF] Meteorite impact craters as hotspots for mineral resources and ...
Apr 1, 2022 · Since impact craters are now recognized as potential hosts for valuable mineral deposits, they are becoming hot targets for mineral exploration ...
[58]
Why study impact craters? | AMNH
Impact craters allow scientists to study a planet's geological history—even when the records are buried beneath the surface. During an impact, buried ...
[59]
The origin of planetary impactors in the inner solar system - PubMed
Insights into the history of the inner solar system can be derived from the impact cratering record of the Moon, Mars, Venus, and Mercury.
[60]
How often do asteroids strike Earth? - Catalina Sky Survey
A 1-kilometer asteroid or comet impacts Earth, on average every 500,000 years. Asteroids or comets larger than 10-kilometers (6-miles) are potentially ...
[61]
[PDF] Earth Objects to Smaller Limiting Diameters - NASA
We estimate a population of about 1100 near-Earth objects larger than 1 km, leading to an impact frequency of about one in half a million years.
[62]
[PDF] ECHOES OF ANCIENT CATACLYSMS IN THE BALTIC SEA
Since the Kaali meteorite left small granules of iron around some smaller craters, this could be still another echo of the ancient catastrophe in folk tales.
[63]
Kaali crater - Osiliana
Apr 14, 2025 · Even though the lake of Kaali is nowadays thought of mostly as an ancient holy site, it was not known as such in local folklore until the ...
[64]
Geological Wonder as a Sacred Landscape: The Case of Lonar Crater
Lonar, one of the world's largest terrestrial impact craters, is considered a holy site and is the locus of several temples.
[65]
Discover the Impact Crater - Wetumpka, AL
Known as "America's best-preserved marine impact crater," Wetumpka's crater offers visitors a unique opportunity to explore Earth's ancient past. Through guided ...
[66]
Space Tourism: Craters You Can Actually See - Forbes
Dec 19, 2019 · Hike around impact craters like Meteor Crater in Arizona or swim in a cenote near Chicxulub Crater in Mexico. Learn about volcanic craters like ...