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Iwan

An iwan is a rectangular, vaulted architectural space in Islamic design, typically walled on three sides with one end fully open to a courtyard or exterior, serving as a monumental entrance, hall, or audience chamber.^[1] Originating in pre-Islamic Iran during the Parthian and Sasanian periods, the iwan evolved from earlier Mesopotamian and Central Asian forms, featuring barrel vaults and often a projecting portal known as a pishtaq.^[2]^[3] The iwan's design emphasized grandeur and symbolism, functioning as a transitional space that blended interior and exterior environments, particularly in religious complexes like mosques and madrasas.^[4] By the Seljuq era (11th–12th centuries), it became central to the four-iwan plan, where iwans projected from all four sides of a square courtyard, as seen in the Masjid-i Jām in Afghanistan and the Masjid-i Jomeh in Isfahan, Iran—transformative examples of hypostyle mosques adapting to this layout.^[4] This innovation spread across the Islamic world, influencing Timurid and Mughal structures, such as the iwans at Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, where they framed pishtaqs on multiple facades for axial symmetry and visual impact.^[5] Pre-Islamic prototypes, like the Taq Kisra (Arch of Ctesiphon) in Iraq from the Sasanian period (3rd–7th centuries CE), demonstrate the iwan's early use as a throne hall in palaces, with its massive brick vault spanning over 25 meters.^[6] In Islamic contexts, iwans symbolized spiritual hierarchy and communal gathering, often decorated with muqarnas vaulting, geometric tiles, and calligraphy to enhance their aesthetic and ritual roles.^[2] The form's persistence into modern Iranian architecture underscores its enduring cultural significance in defining spatial hierarchy and environmental integration.^[7]

Terminology

Etymology

The term "iwan" originates from the Persian word ayvān, denoting a palace, veranda, balcony, or portico, and was widely adopted in architectural contexts across Persianate cultures.^[8] This Persian term entered Arabic as īwān (also spelled līwān) during the early Islamic period, reflecting the integration of pre-Islamic Iranian architectural vocabulary into Islamic building traditions.^[8] Scholars have proposed that ayvān derives from Old Persian apadāna, the name for the grand audience halls in Achaemenid palaces, which connoted an enclosed or protected space, though this etymology is not securely established.^[9] The evolution of the word traces back to Indo-Iranian linguistic roots, potentially linked to concepts of enclosure and safeguarding, though direct Avestan precursors remain debated in etymological studies.^[10] In Middle Persian texts, the term appears in forms associated with covered halls or porticos, emphasizing semi-open structures integral to palatial designs.^[2] By the Islamic era, īwān became a standard term in Arabic architectural descriptions. This usage highlights the term's transition from Sasanian imperial architecture to broader Islamic applications, where it described both functional spaces and symbolic elements. Linguistic variations proliferated with cultural exchanges: in Turkish, it evolved into eyvan, retaining the sense of an open-fronted hall, while in Uzbek, it manifests as iwon, adapted to Central Asian vernacular architecture.^[3] These adaptations underscore the term's enduring influence on nomenclature in Iran and Central Asia, where "iwan" or its cognates continue to designate similar vaulted features in contemporary and historical buildings, preserving pre-Islamic terminological heritage.^[8]

Definition and Characteristics

An iwan is a rectangular architectural space, typically vaulted and enclosed on three sides, with the fourth side entirely open to a courtyard or exterior area, serving as a hallmark element in Persian and Islamic architecture.^[2]^[11] This open facade often features a monumental arch or portal known as a pishtaq, which emphasizes verticality and grandeur.^[9] Key characteristics include a barrel-vaulted ceiling that creates a sense of depth and height, with proportions designed to draw the eye upward and inward, fostering a dramatic spatial experience.^[2] Traditional construction employs materials such as fired brick for structural integrity, stucco for decorative surfacing, and glazed tiles for ornamental facades, allowing for intricate geometric and vegetal motifs.^[11] The iwan functions primarily as a transitional zone between enclosed interiors and open exteriors, facilitating movement while providing shelter and a focal point for visual emphasis.^[9] In terms of use, iwans accommodate communal activities such as gatherings, prayer, or ceremonial receptions, often positioned to frame views or align with axial symmetries in larger complexes.^[2] Unlike a portico, which is typically a columnar porch fully open to the sides, or a hypostyle hall supported by multiple columns under a flat roof, the iwan's vaulted, semi-enclosed design creates a more intimate yet monumental enclosure.^[11] The term "iwan" itself originates from Middle Persian roots denoting a similar vaulted form, though its architectural application evolved distinctly in built contexts.^[2]

Historical Development

Origins in Pre-Islamic Persia

The origins of the iwan can be traced to conceptual precursors in Achaemenid architecture, particularly the columned halls known as apadanas, which featured expansive open facades designed for royal audiences and ceremonial gatherings. At Persepolis, constructed around 500 BCE under Darius I, the Apadana hall exemplified this form with its hypostyle structure of 72 columns supporting a flat roof and a portico open to a grand staircase, creating a semi-enclosed space that emphasized hierarchy and visibility—key elements later refined in the iwan's vaulted, three-walled design.^[12] The Old Persian term apadāna, meaning "unprotected" or "exposed," underscores this openness, suggesting an early architectural intent to blend interior shelter with exterior exposure, a hallmark of proto-iwan functionality.^[12] Mesopotamian influences, especially from Assyrian palace architecture, contributed foundational vaulting techniques that influenced Persian adaptations. In the palaces of Nineveh, dating to the 7th century BCE under rulers like Sennacherib, vaulted porticos and barrel-vaulted passages served as transitional spaces for processions and elite assemblies, employing mudbrick arches to span wide openings while maintaining structural integrity.^[12] These elements, observed in excavations of the Southwest Palace, demonstrated early mastery of curvilinear roofing that Persians later incorporated into more monumental forms, bridging Mesopotamian engineering with Iranian spatial traditions.^[12] Theoretical foundations for the iwan also draw from nomadic and ritualistic precedents in pre-Islamic Iranian culture. Scholars propose links to portable tent structures used by ancient pastoralists, where draped enclosures provided shaded, open-fronted areas for communal and protective gatherings, evolving into fixed architectural expressions of shelter and transition.^[12] Similarly, Zoroastrian fire temples from the Achaemenid era emphasized semi-open spaces for ritual purity and exposure to natural elements, as seen in baldachin-like coverings that symbolized cosmic order and sheltered sacred flames without full enclosure.^[12] Archaeological evidence for pre-Parthian development remains sparse but points to gradual evolution in Elamite sites, where hypogeum vaults and related structures foreshadowed the iwan's form. In the 15th–13th centuries BCE, Elamite tombs and chambers at locations like Haft Tepe featured barrel vaults constructed from baked bricks set in gypsum mortar, creating underground or semi-subterranean spaces with arched openings that supported ritual and burial functions.^[13] At Susa, 2nd-millennium BCE private houses included vaulted reception rooms open to central courtyards, divided by pilasters and spanning up to 5 meters in width, resembling the iwan's emphasis on courtyard-facing, vaulted accessibility for social interaction.^[13] These examples illustrate a progressive integration of vaulting with open facades in the Iranian plateau, setting the stage for later refinements.

Parthian Iwans

The Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE) introduced the iwan as a monumental architectural feature, emerging as an innovation that responded to the Hellenistic traditions of the Seleucid era and indigenous Iranian building practices. This development represented a shift toward grand, vaulted spaces that emphasized axial grandeur and spatial hierarchy in imperial complexes. The iwan's debut during this period transformed open halls into prominent elements of palace design, distinguishing Parthian architecture from earlier columnar Hellenistic styles.^[14]^[15]^[16] Prominent early examples appear at the palace in Assur, dating to the 1st century CE, where vaulted iwans form part of an innovative four-iwan courtyard arrangement, marking the first known monumental use of this form. At the Nisa fortress in present-day Turkmenistan, constructed around the 2nd century BCE, rudimentary open halls served as precursors, featuring enclosed spaces with broad openings that foreshadowed the iwan's evolution. These sites highlight the Parthians' adaptation of architecture across their vast territory, from Mesopotamian settlements to Central Asian strongholds.^[2]^[17]^[16] Design innovations in Parthian iwans centered on the use of barrel vaults to cover expansive spans, enabling tall, rectangular halls that projected authority without internal supports. These vaults often integrated with circular domes in adjacent chambers, supported by flanking corridors to counter structural thrust, while the open facade remained column-free, creating a dramatic, unframed entrance. Primarily functioning as royal audience halls, iwans facilitated ceremonial interactions, enhancing the ruler's visibility and the space's hierarchical flow.^[16]^[2] Culturally, Parthian iwans symbolized the empire's imperial might, fusing Iranian spatial traditions—such as deep, enclosed enclosures—with Greco-Roman motifs like blind arcades and geometric ornamentation. This synthesis reflected the Parthians' role as intermediaries between Eastern and Western worlds, establishing the iwan as a hallmark of power that influenced subsequent architectural traditions. Building briefly on conceptual precursors from Achaemenid forms, the Parthians elevated the iwan to a defining element of monumental design.^[16]^[2]

Sasanian Iwans

The Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE) emphasized monumental architecture to reflect its imperial grandeur and Zoroastrian piety, with iwans serving as central elements in both palatial complexes and fire temples across Eranshahr.^[18] These structures symbolized the empire's divine order, integrating iwans into grand layouts that underscored the shahanshah's authority and the sacred fire's centrality.^[18] Building on Parthian precursors, Sasanian architects refined iwans into larger, more imposing vaults, often exceeding 25 meters in width and 35 meters in height, as seen in royal halls designed for ceremonial audiences.^[18] Sasanian iwans featured advanced structural designs, including barrel vaults constructed from baked bricks laid in mortar for enhanced durability against environmental stresses, a key advancement over earlier mud-brick traditions.^[19] These open-fronted halls integrated squinch transitions to support domes over square plans, creating seamless axial alignments that directed movement toward focal points like throne areas or fire altars.^[20] Elaborate stucco decorations adorned the interiors, featuring molded motifs of foliage, figures, and geometric patterns, often complemented by wall paintings and mosaics to evoke opulence and cosmic harmony.^[18] In palaces, iwans functioned as throne rooms where the king's seat was positioned centrally beneath a suspended crown, embodying divine kingship and facilitating diplomatic spectacles with representatives from realms like Rome and China.^[18] Fire temples employed iwans as entry portals or anterooms, axially linking profane exteriors to sacred chambers while maintaining ritual purity.^[20] The fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 CE did not erase its architectural legacy; surviving iwans in Mesopotamian and Iranian sites directly influenced early Islamic caliphal constructions, such as Umayyad palaces, where similar vaulted halls adopted baked-brick techniques and stucco ornamentation for audience chambers.^[18] This continuity bridged pre-Islamic Persian traditions with Abbasid-era developments, preserving the iwan's role as a symbol of authority in the emerging Islamic world.^[18]

Adoption in Islamic Architecture

The adoption of the iwan in Islamic architecture began in the Umayyad (661–750 CE) and Abbasid (750–1258 CE) periods, where it was incorporated into palatial and ceremonial structures, drawing from pre-Islamic Persian traditions. In the Abbasid capital of Samarra (Iraq), established in 836 CE, iwans featured prominently in palaces such as the Bab al-Amma (836–837 CE), serving as grand entrance halls and audience spaces with monumental vaults and stucco decorations like vine scrolls and rosettes to symbolize caliphal authority.^[21] Similarly, the palace of Jawsaq al-Khaqani (ca. 836 CE onward) utilized iwans to create expansive, open-ended halls that facilitated public gatherings and royal processions, adapting the form for the new Islamic imperial context.^[22] In religious architecture, iwans were integrated into mosques during the Abbasid era and became standardized elements by the Seljuk period (11th century CE), often aligning with the mihrab to enhance prayer halls. Abbasid mosques like al-Mutawakkil (848–849 CE) in Samarra employed T-shaped plans with iwans perpendicular to the qibla wall, providing covered spaces for communal prayer while accommodating large congregations.^[21] By the Seljuk era, iwans evolved into multi-functional prayer and teaching areas within mosques, as seen in designs that positioned domed iwans directly in front of the mihrab to emphasize the direction of prayer and create hierarchical spatial focus.^[23] Iwans also found extensive use in educational and civic buildings, particularly madrasas and caravanserais, where they functioned as versatile communal and instructional spaces. In Seljuk madrasas, iwans served as open teaching halls, accommodating lectures, student lodging, and libraries, thereby supporting the era's emphasis on scholarly dissemination.^[23] Caravanserais similarly incorporated iwans as sheltered entryways and gathering areas for travelers, promoting trade and social interaction along key routes.^[23] The iwan's dissemination across the Islamic world accelerated through trade networks and cultural exchanges, with stylistic innovations like muqarnas vaulting emerging in the 12th century to decorate iwan ceilings and transitions. Originating in Iraq or Iran during the 9th–10th centuries, muqarnas—stacked, honeycomb-like forms—spread rapidly to regions from Spain to India via itinerant artisans, enhancing the iwan's aesthetic depth and structural transitions in mosques and madrasas by the late 12th century, as exemplified in Baghdad's Turba Zumurrud Khatun.^[24]

Architectural Features

Structural Design

The structural design of iwans relies heavily on advanced vaulting techniques that evolved over centuries to support expansive, open spaces while maintaining stability. Early examples, particularly from the Parthian and Sasanian periods, featured barrel vaults constructed over thick, load-bearing walls to span wide openings, as seen in the monumental Taq-e Kisra at Ctesiphon, where an unreinforced brick barrel vault achieved a span of approximately 25 meters.^[25] These vaults were often supported by engaged columns or pilasters embedded in the side walls to distribute lateral thrusts effectively. Over time, transitions to domes or higher vaults incorporated squinches—triangular sections filling the corners of square bases—or pendentives to create smooth geometric shifts, enabling the integration of iwans with domed chambers.^[25] By the Islamic era, vaulting evolved further with the introduction of muqarnas, a honeycomb-like stalactite ornamentation that not only provided structural reinforcement through layered cellular forms but also facilitated complex transitions from rectangular iwans to hemispherical domes, enhancing both aesthetics and load transfer.^[26] Construction methods in iwan architecture predominantly utilized sun-dried or fired bricks as the primary material, bonded with lime or gypsum mortar for durability in arid climates.^[27] Bricks were laid in patterns such as the "roomi" technique (courses parallel to the vault's length) to minimize material use while maximizing strength, with later additions of glazed tiles for weather resistance and decoration on exposed surfaces.^[28] Load distribution was achieved through robust side walls reinforced by pilasters or half-columns that transferred the weight of the vault to the foundations, preventing outward collapse.^[25] These techniques allowed for the construction of tall, vertically emphatic iwans without extensive centering, as masons employed temporary lightweight supports during the rapid-setting mortar application. Proportional systems in iwan design emphasized stability and visual harmony.^[29] These proportions not only optimized load paths but also aligned with aesthetic principles rooted in modular units like the "gaz" (a traditional Iranian measure), promoting modular construction across periods.^[30] Iwans faced significant engineering challenges, particularly in seismically active regions like Iran, where solutions included flexible joints and material layering to absorb shocks. Techniques such as "khesht-e-abmal" (adobe keyways with scratched surfaces for enhanced shear strength) and interrupted brick courses in walls provided ductility, allowing structures to sway without catastrophic failure during earthquakes.^[28] Additionally, the vaulted forms and deep recesses of iwans contributed to favorable acoustic properties, with barrel vaults and muqarnas enhancing sound projection for large gatherings in mosques, as evidenced by studies showing reduced reverberation times and improved speech intelligibility in iwan-type spaces.^[31] These adaptations underscore the ingenuity of iwan engineering in balancing form, function, and environmental resilience.

The Four-Iwan Plan

The four-iwan plan emerged in the 11th century as a defining feature of Islamic architecture, particularly in Seljuk madrasas across regions like Khurasan and Transoxiana, where structures incorporated one iwan facing each cardinal direction around a central courtyard. This layout marked a shift from earlier single-iwan or hypostyle designs, adapting the iwan—a vaulted hall open on one side—for multi-directional spatial organization in educational and religious buildings. Early examples include madrasas built between 1080 and 1092 in Khurasan, demonstrating the plan's initial application in institutional contexts.^[32] Architecturally, the plan centered on a rectangular courtyard serving as the axis mundi, symbolizing a sacred core that connected earthly and divine realms, with iwans projecting from its four sides to facilitate movement and hierarchy. In mosques, the southern iwan aligned with the qibla direction toward Mecca, often enlarged to emphasize the prayer space and enhance acoustic and visual focus during congregational rituals. This configuration promoted symmetry, allowing light and air to penetrate the courtyard while directing circulation toward key functional areas, thus optimizing both practical use and aesthetic balance.^[4] The plan reached its peak during the Ilkhanid (13th–14th centuries) and Timurid (14th–15th centuries) periods, becoming widespread in mosques, madrasas, and mausolea across Persia, Central Asia, and Anatolia, with integrations of towering minarets at corners and central domes over the courtyard for added verticality and grandeur. Ilkhanid examples, such as those at Varamin and Kirman, refined the layout with muqarnas vaulting and tilework.^[33] Timurid structures like the Goharshad Mosque in Mashhad expanded the scale, incorporating expansive pishtaq portals and intricate geometric patterns.^[34] These developments elevated the plan's role in monumental complexes, blending functionality with elaborate ornamentation. For symbolic meaning, the layout represented cosmic order, with the four iwans evoking the four directions, elements, or quadrants of the universe, and the central courtyard as paradise's archetype, often with the dominant southern iwan underscoring hierarchical focus on the divine qibla. This interpretation drew from pre-Islamic Iranian cosmology but aligned with Islamic notions of unity and symmetry, reinforcing the building's role as a microcosm of the ordered world.^[35]^[3]

Regional Variations and Influence

In Central Asia and Anatolia

In Central Asia, the iwan evolved significantly during the Timurid period in the 15th century, particularly in Samarkand, where structures adopted larger scales to reflect imperial grandeur. The Bibi Khanum Mosque, constructed between 1398 and 1405 under Timur, exemplifies this with its four-iwan plan surrounding a vast courtyard, featuring monumental entrance portals and double-shell domes on high cylindrical drums, including a prominent ultramarine-tiled main dome and ribbed blue side domes.^[36] These iwans, often executed in baked brick with mosaic and haft-rangi tile revetments, emphasized symmetry and axiality, drawing from Ilkhanid influences to symbolize divine and royal authority.^[37] Later Uzbek madrasas, such as the Kukeldash Madrasa in Bukhara (16th century), further emphasized colorful tilework in their iwans, incorporating vibrant geometric patterns and glazed ceramics to enhance decorative facades while maintaining the semi-open vaulted halls for educational and communal functions.^[38] In Anatolia, the iwan—locally termed eyvan—appeared in Seljuk architecture from the 12th to 14th centuries, adapting to local contexts in structures like those in Konya, where it formed integral parts of madrasas and tombs. Seljuk eyvans often combined with domes to create organic spatial units, as seen in funerary complexes featuring rectangular chambers with huge pointed arches opening to courtyards, facilitating both ritual and social use.^[39] Ottoman developments in Bursa during the 14th and early 15th centuries blended these eyvans with Byzantine elements, notably through the reuse of spolia such as Corinthian and composite capitals in columned supports, as in the Green Mosque (1413–1419), where longitudinal eyvan-like spaces led to prayer halls, symbolizing continuity and conquest.^[40] The transmission of the iwan along the Silk Road facilitated its spread from Central Asia to Anatolia, influencing diverse building types including khanqahs (Sufi lodges) and bazaars (caravanserais) by the 13th century. In khanqahs like the Erzurum Çifte Minareli Madrasa, iwans served as central connectors between courtyards and domed chambers, supporting mystical gatherings, while in bazaar-related structures, they provided shaded entry portals for trade congregations.^[12] Climatic adaptations were key, with deeper vaults and semi-open designs offering shade and ventilation in the hot-arid regions of both areas, as evidenced in Anatolian houses and Central Asian madrasas where iwans mitigated solar exposure through strategic orientation and height.^[3] By the post-16th century, iwan usage declined in Ottoman monumental architecture, shifting toward domed and arcaded forms in mosques and imperial complexes, as vaults gave way to centralized plans under architects like Sinan.^[3] However, the form persisted in vernacular builds, such as Ottoman civil houses and baths with single or quadruple iwan arrangements, maintaining its role in everyday thermal comfort and spatial organization into the late period.^[3]

Symbolic and Functional Roles

In pre-Islamic Persian architecture, the iwan embodied royal symbolism, serving as a grand audience hall that underscored the absolutist authority of kings and facilitated ceremonial interactions between ruler and subjects.^[41] This palatial function highlighted the iwan's role in projecting power and hierarchy, with its open facade allowing visibility and accessibility while maintaining an imposing presence.^[8] With the adoption of the iwan in Islamic architecture, its symbolic significance deepened, positioning it as a threshold between the earthly realm and the divine, often evoking the transition from profane to sacred spaces in religious complexes.^[10] This liminal quality aligned with Islamic eschatology, where iwans, particularly those opening onto courtyards with water features, mirrored the paradisiacal gardens of the afterlife, symbolizing the four rivers of paradise and spiritual renewal through associations with holy mountains and life-giving waters.^[10] In the four-iwan plan, this symbolism extended cosmically, representing the universe's cardinal directions and divine order. The vaulted design further amplified ritualistic effects, with acoustics aiding Quranic recitations and diffused lighting creating an ethereal ambiance that heightened devotional experiences.^[4] Functionally, the iwan evolved from exclusive royal audience chambers to versatile spaces in Islamic buildings, incorporating prayer niches (mihrabs) in mosques for communal worship, open forums for scholarly discourse in madrasas, and communal areas for social interaction.^[42] In educational settings like madrasas, iwans served as spaces for religious instruction and scholarly activities.^[43] Additionally, in hot climates, iwans promoted seasonal ventilation by channeling breezes into interiors during summer while offering shaded respite in winter, reducing solar heat gain and enhancing thermal comfort without mechanical aids.^[44] Today, the iwan informs sustainable architectural practices, prized for its passive cooling mechanisms—such as shading that can lower energy demands by up to 32% in humid climates—and promotion of open, adaptable spaces that align with eco-friendly design principles in modern constructions.^[44]

Notable Examples

Iwan of Khosrau

The Iwan of Khosrau, commonly known as Taq Kisra or the Arch of Ctesiphon, stands as the most renowned surviving example of Sasanian monumental architecture, located in the ancient city of Ctesiphon near modern Salman Pak, approximately 35 kilometers southeast of Baghdad, Iraq. Constructed around 540 CE during the reign of Khosrau I Anushirvan (r. 531–579 CE), it formed a central component of the grand palace complex in Ctesiphon, the Sasanian Empire's winter capital on the eastern bank of the Tigris River. This attribution to Khosrau I reflects traditional historical accounts linking the structure to his era of cultural and architectural patronage, though some scholarly debate persists regarding earlier possible origins under predecessors like Shapur I. The iwan served as an imposing audience hall, symbolizing imperial authority within the empire's administrative heart. Physically, the iwan exemplifies Sasanian mastery of large-scale brick construction, featuring a monumental barrel vault rising to about 37 meters in height and spanning 25.5 meters in width, with an overall depth of approximately 43.5 meters.^[45] The vault is supported by massive piers up to 7 meters thick at the base, constructed from baked bricks without the use of wooden centering, a testament to advanced engineering techniques involving tapered arches and interlocking brick patterns for stability. The facade, oriented toward the river, presents a striking composition with engaged columns, blind arcades arranged in six horizontal registers, and decorative elements including stucco reliefs depicting floral motifs and geometric designs, though much of the original ornamentation has been lost to time and environmental damage. Historically, the iwan functioned as a throne room for royal audiences and ceremonial receptions, where Sasanian kings received dignitaries and conducted state affairs, underscoring its role in the empire's courtly rituals. It endured the Arab Muslim conquest of Ctesiphon in 637 CE during the Battle of Madain, after which it was repurposed briefly as a mosque before falling into disuse amid the city's decline. Subsequent damage from Tigris River floods, notably in the 19th century and partial collapses in 2019 and 2020, has threatened its integrity, prompting international conservation efforts. As of October 2025, restoration efforts continue with international collaboration, including talks between Iraq and Iran, though the site remains closed to visitors since June 2024.^[46] Today, it is recognized as a tentative UNESCO World Heritage site, highlighting its cultural importance despite ongoing restoration challenges led by Iraqi authorities and international partners. The Iwan of Khosrau's significance lies in its representation of the zenith of Sasanian architectural innovation, particularly in the development of the iwan form as a vaulted rectangular space open on one side, which demonstrated unprecedented span capabilities using local materials like mud brick and gypsum mortar. This engineering feat not only conveyed the grandeur of Sasanian power but also exerted a profound influence on subsequent Islamic architecture, especially under the Abbasids, whose palace designs at Samarra and Baghdad incorporated similar vaulted iwans and audience halls inspired by Sasanian models. As a lone survivor of Ctesiphon's vast palace ensemble, it remains a key artifact for understanding the transition from late antique Persian traditions to early medieval Islamic built environments.

Madrasa of Ulugh Beg

The Madrasa of Ulugh Beg, located in Registan Square in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, was founded between 1417 and 1420 CE by Ulugh Beg, the Timurid ruler and renowned astronomer who served as governor of the city.^[47] Constructed as a major center for theological and scientific education, it exemplified the Timurid commitment to scholarship, housing up to 50 student cells arranged in a double-story gallery around a central courtyard.^[47] This institution integrated Islamic learning with astronomical pursuits, reflecting Ulugh Beg's broader patronage of science, including his separate but contemporaneous observatory nearby.^[48] Architecturally, the madrasa adheres to the four-iwan plan, with monumental iwans marking the center of each facade and opening onto the courtyard, as detailed in broader discussions of Islamic layouts.^[47] The southern facade features a prominent pishtaq—a towering portal twice the height of the building—adorned with intricate muqarnas vaulting, while the overall structure includes cruciform domed chambers at the corners and minarets at each of the four corners for visual emphasis and structural support.^[47] Decorative elements comprise hazarbaf brickwork, haft-rangi polychrome tiles, and mosaic faience in cobalt blue and turquoise, set above marble dados, creating a harmonious interplay of glazed and unglazed surfaces that highlight geometric and calligraphic motifs.^[47] Historically, the madrasa served as a vibrant hub for Islamic scholarship, attracting scholars from across the region and fostering advancements in astronomy, mathematics, and theology until its decline in the late 17th century, after which it was repurposed for grain storage before restoration efforts in the early 20th century.^[47] Its association with Ulugh Beg's observatory underscored its role in producing seminal works like the Zij-i Sultani star catalog, which mapped over 1,000 stars with unprecedented precision.^[48] The complex has endured as the sole surviving element of Ulugh Beg's original urban project, part of the Registan ensemble inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001 for its outstanding universal value in Islamic architecture and cultural exchange.^[49]^[47] Among its innovations, the madrasa blended Persianate Timurid aesthetics—evident in the refined tile mosaics and muqarnas—with Central Asian structural adaptations, such as earthquake-resistant adobe and baked brick construction, to create a resilient form suited to the region's nomadic and sedentary influences.^[48]^[50] Furthermore, its qiblah orientation was determined astronomically and is nearly parallel to that of the nearby Bibi Khanum Mosque (difference of approximately 2°), though both deviate about 20° from Mecca.^[51]

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[20]
[PDF] The Evolution of Religious Architecture in the Sasanian Period
The apadana (a stone columned/hypostyle audience hall) at Susa (plan 3), described as an Achaemenid building by its excavator, has been attributed by a small ...
[21]
None
### Summary of Iwan Usage in Abbasid Architecture
[22]
The Art of the Abbasid Period (750–1258)
Oct 1, 2001 · A distinctive style emerged and new techniques were developed that spread throughout the Muslim realm and greatly influenced Islamic art and architecture.
[23]
The Seljuk Iwan - Muslim Heritage
Apr 13, 2003 · The dome consisted of similar formal elements of its sister in the south in terms of the hemispheric shape, the eight tripartite squinches, as ...Missing: details | Show results with:details
[24]
Muqarnas, an introduction – Smarthistory
### Summary of Muqarnas Vaulting Development and Spread in Islamic Architecture
[25]
An Investigation of Historical Structures in Iranian Ancient Architecture
The pre-Islamic styles of Iranian architecture draw on 3-4 thousand years of architectural development from various. Each of the periods of Elamites, ...
[26]
[PDF] The Muqarnas Dome: Its Origin and Meaning Author(s) - CORE
One of the most original inventions of Islamic architec- ture is the muqarnas, and one of the most effective and widespread of its applications is without ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[27]
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES in Persian ...
... Sasanian architecture. From early in the Islamic period the pointed arch was also in use in stone and mud-brick construction, as well as in buildings of ...
[28]
Local seismic culture in Iranian vernacular architecture - Built Heritage
Mar 9, 2022 · This paper introduces an essential part of Iranian local seismic culture by recognising and classifying the vernacular earthquake-resistant techniques used in ...
[29]
Comparative Comparison of Iwan Proportions in Safavid Mosques of ...
This research compared the geometrical proportions of Iwans in seven mosques as targeted samples. The mosques of the Safavid period of Isfahan were chosen ...
[30]
[PDF] Comparative Comparison of Iwan Proportions in Safavid Mosques of ...
Jan 21, 2024 · This article compares the golden proportions used in the design of the Iwans of Khayat-ha, Ali, Sheikh. Lotfollah, Imam (Abbasi Mosque), Hakim, ...
[31]
(PDF) Is there any geometrical golden ratio in traditional iranian ...
The measurement unit in Iran is called Gaz (see Table 1). All elements, especially openings used to be built based on this unit and its proportion. is one of ...Missing: iwan | Show results with:iwan
[32]
The acoustics of Mamluk masjids: A case study of Iwan-type masjids ...
The present work investigates the effects of the architectural features of these masjids (closed and semi-closed) on their acoustic characteristics.
[33]
The Seljuk Madrassa - Muslim Heritage
Apr 14, 2003 · The Madrassa was adopted by the Seljuk Emir Nizam Al-Mulk to become a public domain under his control, an inspiration from the Ghasnavids rulers of Persia.
[34]
Ilkhanid {1256-1353} - Archnet > Collection > Timeline
The most prominent mosque model comprised the following traditional elements: the four-iwan cum open courtyard, the domed qibla chamber with mihrab supported by ...
[35]
Timurid architecture - Wikipedia
The mosque, still present today within the much-expanded complex and known as the Goharshad Mosque, consists of a four-iwan courtyard attached to the shrine.
[36]
Cosmic Motifs & Elements in Seljuk and Ottoman Architecture
Sep 29, 2005 · The plan with four iwans and a central courtyard has been interpreted as an image of the cosmos. This plan has a very long past; it has been ...
[37]
[PDF] The Bibi Khanum Mosque in Samarqand: Its Mongol and Timurid ...
The architectural design of the Bibi Khanum Mosque is unique not only for Timurid architecture, but it remains the only mosque compound in the Islamic world ...
[38]
Timurid {1370-1506} - Archnet > Collection > Timeline
The complex is built on the plan of a four-iwan madrassa and oriented to the qibla (i.e. east-west) with the entrance in the centre of the west facade. The ...
[39]
Nadir Divan-begi Madrasa, Bukhara, Uzbekistan
... (iwan, or gateway) serving as the main entrance. The iwan was likely originally decorated with mosaic faience tiles (in the manner of the Mir Arab Madrasa) ...
[40]
[PDF] Eyvan Türbesi in Anatolia during the Seljuk and beyliks period
Abstract: Iwan or Eyvan is an architectural unit with three sides closed and one side entirely open with ahuge Arch, Islamic Architecture used Iwan In ...
[41]
[PDF] THE REUSE OF BYZANTINE SPOLIA IN THE GREEN MOSQUE OF ...
The Green Mosque of Bursa was built at a time when the Ottoman State had recently evaded invasion by Timur and the following fights for the throne and ...<|separator|>
[42]
Silk Road Seattle - Isfahan - University of Washington
An iwan is a vast vaulted space open at one end. It was a symbol of absolutist authority dating back to pre-Islamic Persia, when iwans functioned as audience ...
[43]
[PDF] Islamic Art and Culture: a resource for teachers
The largest iwan, in the qiblah wall, served as the prayer hall; smaller ones were probably used by religious teachers. Their openings are framed by elaborate ...
[44]
(PDF) Spatial Analysis of the Use of Iwan in Turkish Architecture ...
Aug 1, 2025 · The iwan, an ancient architectural form in Iran, Central Asia, and Mesopotamia, is monumental, functional, and symbolic. The tradition of ...Missing: Avestan | Show results with:Avestan<|separator|>
[45]
The Impact of Iwan as a Traditional Shading Device on the Building ...
Iwan is one of the cooling elements which is used in different forms and dimensions in the Islamic architecture. In the present research, Iwan has been ...
[46]
Archnet > Site > Madrasah-i Ulugh Beg (Samarkand)
### Summary of Madrasah-i Ulugh Beg (Samarkand)
[47]
[PDF] ULUGH BEG MADRASAH AS A PILLAR OF ASTRONOMICAL ...
Apr 3, 2025 · The Ulugh Beg Madrasah in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, has historically been one of the pillars of the spread of science throughout Central Asia.Missing: iwans | Show results with:iwans
[48]
Samarkand – Crossroad of Cultures - UNESCO World Heritage Centre
The major monuments include the Registan mosque and madrasahs, originally built in mud brick and covered with decorated ceramic tiles, the Bibi-Khanum Mosque ...
[49]
[PDF] A Study of Islamic and Central Asian Influences on the Architectural ...
Together, these buildings create a stunning ensemble of turquoise domes, intricate tilework, and towering minarets. The Ulugh Beg Madrasa, built in the early ...
[50]
[PDF] Silk Road - Silkroad Foundation
Mar 12, 2012 · orientation of the Ulugh Beg Madrasa is almost parallel to the orientation of the Bibi Khanum Mosque (the difference between the two is ...