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Jericho Conference

The Jericho Conference was a gathering of Palestinian notables and local leaders held on 1 December 1948 in Jericho, in the portion of Mandatory Palestine then controlled by Transjordan following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, where participants resolved to seek unification with the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan rather than pursuing independent Palestinian statehood or alignment with other Arab states.^[1]^[2] Convened amid the power vacuum left by the collapse of the Arab Higher Committee and the defeat of Arab forces, the conference included delegations from major West Bank towns such as Hebron and Nablus, reflecting support among segments of the Palestinian elite for King Abdullah I's expansionist ambitions.^[2]^[1] The resolutions passed at the conference explicitly urged Transjordan's annexation of the West Bank territories, framing it as a pragmatic response to Israeli territorial gains and the impracticality of establishing a viable Palestinian entity, which laid the groundwork for Jordan's formal incorporation of the area in April 1950.^[3]^[1] This pro-Hashemite stance contrasted sharply with pan-Arabist visions promoted by figures like the Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin al-Husseini, and was criticized by some as acquiescence to foreign domination, though it enjoyed backing from tribal and municipal leaders prioritizing stability over irredentist claims.^[1] The event underscored divisions within Palestinian society and Arab politics, influencing the geopolitical reconfiguration of the region by prioritizing monarchical ties over nascent nationalist aspirations.^[3]

Historical Background

The UN Partition Plan and 1948 Arab-Israeli War

On November 29, 1947, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Resolution 181 (II), recommending the partition of Mandatory Palestine into independent Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem and Bethlehem under international trusteeship.^[4] The plan allocated approximately 56% of the territory to the Jewish state despite Jews comprising about one-third of the population, reflecting demographic concentrations and economic considerations outlined by the UN Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP).^[5] The resolution passed by a vote of 33 in favor, 13 against, and 10 abstentions, falling short of the two-thirds majority typically required for such recommendations but proceeding due to procedural interpretations.^[6] The Jewish Agency for Palestine accepted the plan as a basis for negotiation, viewing it as a pathway to statehood amid post-Holocaust pressures and British withdrawal.^[5] In contrast, Arab representatives, led by the Arab Higher Committee, rejected it outright, contending that partition contravened the UN Charter's self-determination principles and rewarded Jewish immigration against majority Arab wishes.^[7] Rejection triggered immediate Arab attacks on Jewish communities, escalating into a civil war phase from December 1947 to May 1948, characterized by irregular forces clashing amid British Mandate forces' phased evacuation.^[8] Israel declared independence on May 14, 1948, as the British Mandate expired, prompting invasions by armies from Egypt, Transjordan (Jordan), Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon the following day.^[8] Jordan's Arab Legion, the most disciplined invading force, focused on areas east of Jerusalem, capturing the Old City, East Jerusalem, and the bulk of the West Bank—territories designated for the proposed Arab state under Resolution 181—by mid-1948.^[7] These gains stemmed from Jordanian military coordination with irregular Palestinian forces and tacit understandings with Jewish leaders to avoid all-out conflict in certain sectors, though broader Arab coordination faltered due to inter-state rivalries.^[8] By late 1948, as armistice talks loomed and no independent Arab Palestinian entity had materialized amid battlefield losses elsewhere, Jordan administered roughly 5,000 square kilometers of former Mandate territory, displacing partition's vision and positioning Transjordan to influence Palestinian futures directly.^[1]

Jordan's Military Involvement and Territorial Gains

The Arab Legion of Transjordan, commanded by British officer John Bagot Glubb (known as Glubb Pasha), invaded the territory of the former British Mandate of Palestine on May 15, 1948, immediately following Israel's declaration of independence.^[9] ^[7] The force initially numbered around 5,000 troops in Palestine, with approximately 3,500 concentrated in the Jerusalem area, supported by additional units crossing from Transjordan.^[10] King Abdullah I ordered the 6th Battalion to advance toward Jerusalem on May 17 to defend Arab positions there.^[11] Key operations included the Legion's capture of strategic positions such as Latrun in late May 1948, which controlled access routes to Jerusalem and disrupted Israeli supply lines during the Battle of Jerusalem.^[12] The Legion entered the Old City of Jerusalem on May 18, securing control over its eastern sector amid intense urban fighting and shelling that isolated Jewish neighborhoods in West Jerusalem.^[7] These actions, part of broader efforts to hold Arab-designated areas under the UN Partition Plan, involved coordinated advances from Transjordan toward Nablus, Ramallah, and Hebron, though limited by the Legion's relatively small size compared to other Arab contingents.^[13] By the time of the armistice agreements signed in early 1949, Jordanian forces held approximately 5,200 square kilometers of territory west of the Jordan River, encompassing what became known as the West Bank, including East Jerusalem and surrounding areas from Jenin in the north to Hebron in the south.^[8] This control included the Old City of Jerusalem, captured and defended against Israeli offensives, providing Jordan with de facto administration over roughly 400,000 Palestinian Arabs and displacing Jewish communities previously resident in the area.^[14] These territorial gains, formalized through Jordan's annexation of the West Bank in April 1950, stemmed directly from the Legion's defensive successes in securing and retaining central Palestinian highlands against Israeli advances.^[15]

Organization and Proceedings

Initiative by King Abdullah I

King Abdullah I of Transjordan, whose forces had occupied the West Bank during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, sought to legitimize Jordanian control over the territory by obtaining endorsements from local Palestinian leaders for unification rather than independence or partition.^[2]^[7] To advance this goal, he organized a series of meetings with pro-Hashemite Palestinian notables, including preliminary gatherings that paved the way for the Jericho Conference in December 1948.^[16]^[17] The initiative reflected Abdullah's strategic calculus amid the post-war power vacuum in Arab Palestine, where the Arab Higher Committee had lost influence and the All-Palestine Government in Gaza lacked effective control.^[18] By convening the conference in Jericho, a city under Jordanian military administration, Abdullah aimed to demonstrate voluntary Palestinian acquiescence to Hashemite rule, thereby countering opposition from rival Arab states and bolstering his territorial claims.^[1]^[19] Participants were predominantly hand-picked elites from West Bank towns loyal to the Hashemites, such as mayors and sheikhs, who had previously engaged in consultations with Abdullah's representatives.^[16]^[18] This selection process ensured alignment with Abdullah's vision of unity under his sovereignty, as evidenced by resolutions requesting him to proclaim himself ruler of the annexed areas.^[2] The effort succeeded in producing unanimous support for integration, which Abdullah later ratified through formal annexation measures in 1950.^[7]^[20]

Attendees and Key Figures

The Jericho Conference on December 1, 1948, drew approximately 1,000 delegates from across the West Bank and other Palestinian areas under Jordanian control following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.^[21] ^[2] Participants included mayors, tribal chiefs, village headmen (mukhtars), military governors appointed by the Arab Legion, and representatives of refugees displaced from Israeli-held territories.^[21] ^[1] These attendees were predominantly pro-Hashemite Palestinian notables who favored integration with Transjordan over independence or alignment with rival Arab factions.^[16] The conference was presided over by Shaykh Muhammad Ali Jaʿbari, the mayor of Hebron and a prominent religious scholar and political leader from a notable family, who played a central role in advocating for unity with Jordan.^[21] ^[22] Delegations featured leaders from key cities such as Jerusalem, Hebron, Bethlehem, Nablus, and Ramallah, including the mayors of Hebron (Jaʿbari), Bethlehem, and Ramallah, alongside the Arab Legion's military governor general and district-level military officials.^[21] ^[1] ^[2] Although King Abdullah I of Transjordan did not attend the Jericho gathering, he was the driving force behind it, having convened pro-Jordanian Palestinians in prior meetings and receiving the conference's resolutions for annexation, which proclaimed him ruler over the unified territory.^[1] ^[16] Jordanian Prime Minister Tawfiq Abu al-Huda later endorsed the outcomes on behalf of the cabinet, facilitating formal steps toward integration.^[21] The assembly notably excluded figures aligned with Hajj Amin al-Husayni, the Mufti of Jerusalem and leader of the rival All-Palestine Government in Gaza, reflecting deep factional divisions among Palestinian elites.^[1]

Resolutions and Decisions

Calls for Unity with Transjordan

The Jericho Conference, convened on December 1, 1948, in Jericho under the auspices of Transjordan's King Abdullah I, resulted in the adoption of four resolutions by attending Palestinian notables, with the primary focus being a call for political unity between Arab Palestine and Transjordan.^[2] The first resolution explicitly declared: "Palestine Arabs desire unity between Transjordan and Arab Palestine and therefore make known their wish that Arab Palestine be annexed immediately to Transjordan."^[2] This call for annexation reflected the delegates' preference for integration into the Hashemite Kingdom over independent statehood, emphasizing Transjordan's absorption of the West Bank territories captured during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.^[1] A second resolution proclaimed Abdullah I ibn Hussein as King of all Palestine, framing the unity as a monarchical extension rather than a federation of equals.^[21] The delegates, including mayors and leaders from West Bank towns such as Nablus, Hebron, and Ramallah, voted unanimously in favor of these measures, signaling broad local elite support for Hashemite rule as a stabilizing alternative amid postwar fragmentation.^[23] This endorsement positioned Transjordan as the legitimate authority over Arab Palestine, with the resolutions urging immediate implementation to consolidate territorial gains under Jordanian sovereignty.^[24] The calls for unity were underpinned by pragmatic considerations, including Transjordan's military occupation of the West Bank and the perceived protection it offered against further Israeli advances, as articulated by conference participants who affirmed faith in pan-Arab solidarity under Hashemite leadership.^[21] While the resolutions rejected the United Nations partition plan, their core thrust was unification, proposing the merger of Palestine's Arab sectors into a single Hashemite entity without delineating separate administrative structures.^[2] This decision laid the groundwork for Jordan's formal annexation in 1950, though it drew criticism from rival Arab states for bypassing broader Arab consensus.^[18]

Rejection of Independence or Partition Alternatives

At the Jericho Conference on December 1, 1948, Palestinian delegates from West Bank cities including Hebron, Bethlehem, and Ramallah adopted resolutions that explicitly opposed the United Nations Partition Plan of November 29, 1947, which had proposed dividing Palestine into separate Arab and Jewish states alongside an international zone for Jerusalem.^[25] The first resolution declared that "since Palestine was once a part of natural Syria (an Arab country) and since the Palestinian Arabs have not accepted the Partition Resolution of 29 November 1947," thereby affirming rejection of partition as a framework for the territory under Jordanian control following the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.^[25]^[1] This stance extended to dismissing proposals for an independent Palestinian Arab state, such as the All-Palestine Government established in Gaza on September 30, 1948, under the auspices of the Arab League, which aimed to assert sovereignty over Arab-claimed areas without integration into neighboring states.^[26] Instead, the conference prioritized unification with Transjordan, with the primary resolution calling for "immediate unity" and requesting King Abdullah I to proclaim himself "King of Palestine and Jordan," while advocating elections for a parliament to ratify the merger.^[1]^[2] Of six proposed resolutions, four were adopted, focusing on gratitude to Arab states for military and refugee aid but centering annexation as the sole viable path forward amid perceived threats from Israel and disunity among Arab factions.^[1] The rejection reflected pragmatic considerations among attendees—predominantly local notables and military governors aligned with Jordan's Arab Legion—viewing independence as unfeasible due to military weakness and internal divisions, preferring Hashemite rule for stability and protection.^[1] This decision effectively nullified partition remnants in Jordan-held areas, as subsequent conferences in Ramallah (December 26, 1948) and Nablus reinforced the unity mandate, leading to Jordan's formal incorporation of the West Bank by April 1950.^[1]^[27]

Immediate Reactions

Support from Palestinian Notables and Jordan

The Jericho Conference on December 1, 1948, garnered immediate endorsement from prominent Palestinian notables primarily from the West Bank, who comprised the core attendees and drove its pro-unity resolutions. Presided over by Shaykh Muhammad Ali Jaʿbari, the mayor of Hebron, the gathering included mayors and leaders from cities such as Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nablus, and Ramallah, along with delegations representing broader Arab communities in the Jordan-held territories. These figures unanimously voted to petition King Abdullah I for the integration of Arab Palestine into Transjordan, proclaiming him as ruler over the unified entity and rejecting alternatives like independence or partition.^[2]^[1] This support extended beyond the initial proceedings, as evidenced by a follow-up Palestinian conference in Ramallah on December 26, 1948, where delegates reaffirmed the Jericho resolutions and emphasized unity under Hashemite leadership. Pro-Hashemite Palestinian elites, including tribal sheikhs and local administrators who had collaborated with Jordanian forces during the 1948 conflict, framed the conference outcomes as a pragmatic response to the collapse of Palestinian Arab Higher Committee authority and the realities of territorial control post-war.^[1]^[7] Jordan, under King Abdullah I, provided unequivocal backing, having initiated the conference through his emissaries to consolidate control over the annexed West Bank territories. Abdullah personally attended the Ramallah gathering, signaling royal endorsement and facilitating the "gentlemen's agreement" that paved the way for formal unification. Jordanian officials viewed the notables' alignment as legitimizing their military gains from the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, with the Arab Legion's occupation of these areas serving as the practical foundation for the proposed merger.^[24]^[7]

Opposition from Arab League and Other Arab States

The Arab League formally condemned the Jericho Conference resolutions of December 1, 1948, viewing them as undermining broader Arab interests in Palestine.^[1] This opposition reflected inter-Arab rivalries, with Egypt, Syria, and Saudi Arabia leading resistance against Transjordan's potential territorial expansion, which they perceived as a threat to their regional influence.^[26] Egypt expressed strong disapproval of the proposed unification, prioritizing its own strategic goals in the post-1948 war landscape over Jordanian integration of Palestinian territories.^[21] Syrian media outlets criticized the conference outcomes as a violation of Palestinian self-determination principles, aligning with Damascus's broader opposition to Hashemite dominance.^[1] Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri al-Said similarly rejected the resolutions, citing concerns over altered power dynamics among Arab states.^[1] Despite this unified front from the Arab League and key members, Palestinian delegates at the conference affirmed their commitment to unity with Transjordan, defying League pressure and highlighting fractures between local Palestinian leadership and pan-Arab institutions.^[28] The opposition intensified existing tensions, as rival states sought to counter Jordan's gains through diplomatic maneuvers and support for alternative Palestinian entities, such as the All-Palestine Government.^[26]

Outcomes and Annexation

Formal Integration into Jordanian Hashemite Kingdom

Following the Jericho Conference of December 1948, where Palestinian notables endorsed political union with Transjordan, the process advanced through subsequent meetings and legislative steps. In early 1949, Transjordan held elections in the West Bank territories under its control, selecting 20 representatives to join the Jordanian parliament, effectively integrating Palestinian voices into Transjordanian governance prior to formal annexation.^[14]^[18] On April 24, 1950, the Transjordanian House of Deputies and House of Notables convened in a joint session and unanimously adopted a resolution proclaiming "complete unity between the two sides of the Jordan and their union into one state, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, with one king."^[14]^[29] This act formally annexed the West Bank—including the districts of Jenin, Nablus, Tulkarm, Ramallah, Hebron, and East Jerusalem—into the kingdom, renaming Transjordan to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and granting automatic citizenship to all residents of the annexed territories.^[18]^[16] The annexation resolution specified equal rights and duties for citizens on both banks of the Jordan River, with Amman designated as the capital and Arabic as the official language. Administrative integration followed, incorporating West Bank municipalities and institutions into Jordanian structures, though local autonomy in some areas persisted under Jordanian oversight until 1967.^[14]^[30] This formal union reflected the pro-Hashemite consensus from the Jericho gathering and aligned with King Abdullah I's expansionist ambitions, solidified amid the power vacuum post-1948 Arab-Israeli War.^[18]

International Recognition and Non-Recognition

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan's formal annexation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem on April 24, 1950—building on the Jericho Conference's December 1948 resolution for political unity with Transjordan—received de jure recognition from only two countries: the United Kingdom and Pakistan.^[14]^[31] Iraq provided additional support, though its recognition was more limited in scope and formality compared to the others.^[32] The United States withheld formal endorsement, opting instead for tacit accommodations such as permitting Jordan to extend its postal and monetary systems bearing U.S.-approved symbols to the annexed areas, without affirming the annexation's legality.^[14] The annexation lacked broader international legitimacy, with the United Nations declining to recognize Jordan's sovereignty over the territories; subsequent UN General Assembly resolutions from the 1950s onward treated the West Bank as disputed or occupied land rather than legitimately incorporated.^[15] Israel rejected the claim outright, viewing Jordan's control as an extension of wartime occupation without legal basis under international law, a position echoed in its diplomatic protests and refusal to negotiate borders on those terms.^[14] Most Arab states, coordinated through the Arab League, condemned the move as a unilateral betrayal of pan-Arab commitments to Palestinian self-determination, leading to diplomatic isolation of Jordan on the issue despite some de facto acceptance of its administration until the 1967 Six-Day War.^[18] This sparse recognition underscored the annexation's precarious status, as global powers and institutions prioritized the 1947 UN Partition Plan's framework—envisioning separate Jewish and Arab states—over Jordan's expansionist integration, rendering the West Bank's incorporation a de facto rather than de jure reality for nearly two decades.^[33] Jordan maintained administrative control, including granting citizenship to West Bank residents by 1950, but the absence of widespread endorsement fueled ongoing disputes over territorial sovereignty.^[14]

Legacy and Criticisms

Impact on Palestinian Political Identity

The Jericho Conference of December 1, 1948, convened by pro-Hashemite Palestinian notables, resolved to petition King Abdullah I for the annexation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem to Transjordan, rejecting independent Palestinian statehood or adherence to the 1947 UN Partition Plan.^[1] This decision facilitated Jordan's formal unification of the East and West Banks on April 24, 1950, expanding Jordan's territory by 5,640 square kilometers and its population to over 1.2 million, with two-thirds of Palestinian origin.^[16] Palestinians in the annexed areas received Jordanian citizenship through a February 1949 amendment to the nationality law and the 1954 Nationality Law, enabling legal equality but integrating them into Hashemite political structures without a referendum on the union.^[16]^[20] Jordanian policies of "Jordanization" followed, prohibiting the term "Palestine" in official documents from May 1950 and promoting a singular Jordanian identity to assimilate West Bank residents and refugees.^[16] Nationalist Palestinians, however, resented the annexation as a forfeiture of self-determination, viewing the conference's delegates—largely appointed rather than elected—as unrepresentative of broader aspirations for sovereignty.^[16]^[20] This resentment manifested in the 1951 assassination of King Abdullah by a Palestinian linked to nationalists opposed to the union, underscoring early fractures in the imposed identity merger.^[16] Despite formal incorporation, Palestinian political identity persisted in dual form: Jordanian citizenship coexisted with a distinct Palestinian consciousness, particularly among the 18% of refugees in camps who preserved claims to the "right of return" under UN General Assembly Resolution 194 (December 11, 1948).^[16] The Palestine Liberation Organization's founding in 1964 revived organized nationalism, challenging Jordanian dominance and culminating in the 1970-1971 Black September clashes, where Jordanian forces expelled Palestinian fedayeen groups, exposing the fragility of unified identity and delineating ethnic-political boundaries.^[20] Jordan's 1988 disengagement from West Bank claims further affirmed the separation, as Palestinian nationalism solidified independently, with the conference retrospectively critiqued as a historical pivot that delayed but ultimately intensified assertions of distinct statehood.^[20]

Role in Later Jordanian-Palestinian Relations and Conflicts

The Jericho Conference's endorsement of unity with Transjordan paved the way for Jordan's formal annexation of the West Bank on April 24, 1950, integrating roughly 370,000 Palestinians as Jordanian citizens and expanding the Hashemite Kingdom's territory.^[16] ^[14] This move, however, faced immediate and enduring contestation from Palestinian nationalists, who regarded the annexation as a dilution of distinct Palestinian sovereignty and a Hashemite power grab rather than genuine self-determination, fostering resentment among factions aligned with figures like the Mufti Haj Amin al-Husseini and the short-lived All-Palestine Government.^[16] ^[32] These underlying divisions intensified after the 1967 Six-Day War, as the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), established in 1964, rejected Jordan's representational claims over Palestinians and built a parallel power structure through fedayeen bases in Jordanian territory.^[16] PLO militias, numbering in the tens of thousands by 1970, engaged in cross-border attacks on Israel while increasingly defying Jordanian authority, culminating in the Black September clashes from September 15 to 25, 1970. During this intra-Arab conflict, Jordanian forces loyal to King Hussein suppressed PLO attempts to seize control of Amman and other cities, resulting in thousands of deaths—estimates range from 3,000 to 25,000, predominantly Palestinian fighters and civilians—and the expulsion of PLO leadership to Lebanon.^[34] The violence exposed the conference's advocated unity as untenable, with Palestinian armed groups viewing Jordanian rule as colonial imposition, while Jordan asserted its sovereignty against what it perceived as subversive anarchy.^[35] The fallout from Black September reshaped relations, prompting Jordan to curtail Palestinian political activities and cut funding to West Bank institutions, while the PLO consolidated as a rival authority.^[36] At the 1974 Rabat Arab Summit, the Arab League designated the PLO as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people," sidelining Jordan's post-conference claims and affirming Palestinian nationalism's precedence over Hashemite integration.^[37] Jordan formally disengaged from the West Bank on July 31, 1988, renouncing citizenship ties and administrative links to bolster PLO legitimacy amid the First Intifada, though this left lingering demographic and economic interdependencies, with over 2 million Palestinians holding Jordanian passports as of the 2020s.^[7] These events illustrate how the conference's framework of unity, initially pragmatic amid post-1948 chaos, inadvertently catalyzed conflicts by clashing with emergent Palestinian insistence on separate statehood, perpetuating mutual suspicions in subsequent peace processes like the Oslo Accords.^[38]

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