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Kamet

Kamet is a mountain peak in the Garhwal Himalayas, located in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand, India, near the border with the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.^[1] Standing at an elevation of 7,756 meters (25,446 feet), it is the second-highest peak in the Garhwal region after Nanda Devi and ranks as the 29th highest mountain in the world.^[1] The peak's distinctive geography features a giant pyramid-like form topped by a flat summit region with two subsidiary peaks, surrounded by glaciers including the West Kamet, East Kamet, and Raikana Glaciers.^[2] Kamet's prominence in mountaineering history stems from its challenging yet accessible routes, with the first recorded attempts dating back to 1855.^[2] The summit was first reached on June 21, 1931, by a British expedition led by Frank Smythe, comprising Eric Shipton, R.L. Holdsworth, and the Sherpa climber Lewa Sherpa, via the East Kamet Glacier and Meade's Col.^[2] This ascent marked Kamet as the highest peak climbed at the time, holding that record until the first ascent of Nanda Devi in 1936,^[3] and notably, the expedition's descent led to the discovery of the Valley of Flowers.^[2] Today, expeditions typically involve five base camps and navigate steep snow and ice fields, making it a popular objective for experienced climbers despite its remote location and exposure to strong winds from the nearby Tibetan Plateau.^[1]

Geography

Location and coordinates

Kamet is situated in the Chamoli District of Uttarakhand, India, within the Garhwal Himalaya sub-range of the greater Himalayan mountain system.^[1] The peak lies close to the border with Tibet, forming part of the Zanskar Range extension in the region.^[4] Its precise geographical coordinates are 30°55′12″N 79°35′30″E, placing it in a remote, high-altitude area characterized by rugged terrain and limited human habitation.^[5] As the second-highest summit in the Garhwal region after Nanda Devi, Kamet occupies a prominent position in this sub-range, with neighboring peaks such as Abi Gamin rising nearby.^[6] Access to Kamet is facilitated through proximity to the pilgrimage town of Badrinath, with primary routes entering via the Niti Pass or the Mana Valley, both of which serve as gateways for expeditions into the upper Dhauliganga Valley.^[7] These approaches, starting from Joshimath, involve traversing villages like Niti, the last inhabited settlement before the Indo-Tibetan border, underscoring the peak's isolation and the logistical challenges of reaching it.^[8]

Surrounding features

Kamet is encircled by several prominent neighboring peaks that define its immediate topographic context. Abi Gamin rises to 7,355 m directly to the north, forming a close connection via a high col, while Mana reaches 7,272 m to the southeast. Further afield, Badrinath Peak (also known as Chaukhamba I) stands at 7,138 m, contributing to the encircling high skyline around the peak.^[9]^[10]^[11] The mountain's summit features a flat plateau with two principal subsidiary peaks: Kamet East and Kamet West, both forming part of the main 7,756 m elevation and offering distinct vantage points over the surrounding terrain. These sub-peaks enhance the overall massif structure, with the east point providing expansive views toward the Tibetan Plateau.^[9] To the north, the Niti Valley extends along the Dhauli Ganga, serving as a historic access route into the region and separating Kamet from more distant northwestern features. A critical pass, Meade's Col at around 7,100 m, links the northeast ridge of Kamet to Abi Gamin, facilitating traversal between these giants while underscoring the rugged connectivity of the area.^[10]^[9] This configuration of high ridges and cols isolates Kamet within a cirque-like basin, amplifying its visual dominance and pyramid-like profile when observed from western approaches such as the Ghastoli Glacier. The surrounding topography, marked by steep enclosing walls, emphasizes the peak's remote prominence in the Garhwal Himalayas.^[10]^[12]

Physical characteristics

Dimensions and prominence

Kamet stands at an elevation of 7,756 meters (25,446 feet) above sea level.^[13] This height places it as the 29th highest mountain in the world among peaks exceeding 7,200 meters.^[13] Within the Garhwal Himalaya, it ranks second, surpassed only by Nanda Devi.^[14] The mountain's topographic prominence measures 2,825 meters, indicating its significant rise above the surrounding terrain.^[13] Its parent peak is Nanda Devi, to which Kamet is topographically connected via a key col.^[13] This prominence qualifies Kamet as an ultra-prominent peak, highlighting its independent stature within the Himalayan range.^[13] Kamet's summit features a distinctive pyramid-like form topped by a flat plateau area, which includes two subsidiary peaks.^[14] This configuration contributes to its imposing profile when viewed from afar, emphasizing its role as a major topographic feature in the region.^[14]

Geological composition

Kamet is situated within the Higher Himalayan Crystalline (HHC) sequence, a major tectonic unit formed during the ongoing collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates that began in the Paleocene and continues to drive Himalayan orogenesis.^[15] This collision has resulted in the southward thrusting of the HHC over the Lesser Himalayan Sequence along the Main Central Thrust (MCT), a prominent ductile shear zone that bounds the HHC to the south in the Garhwal region.^[16] The MCT zone in this area exhibits intense deformation, with the HHC representing a thickened, NE-dipping metamorphic core approximately 20 km thick, exhumed through combined thrusting and erosion processes.^[17] The primary rock types comprising Kamet belong to the HHC and include high-grade metamorphic assemblages such as garnet-biotite-muscovite schist and psammitic gneiss in the lower sections, transitioning northward to kyanite- and sillimanite-bearing biotite gneiss and schist, along with migmatites and leucogranite intrusions.^[16] These rocks originate from Precambrian protoliths that underwent amphibolite- to granulite-facies metamorphism during the Cenozoic, with evidence of inverted metamorphism increasing in grade northeastward toward the mountain's base.^[18] Granitic bodies, including muscovite-tourmaline and biotite-muscovite varieties, intrude these metamorphic units, contributing to the crystalline basement exposed on Kamet's flanks. Geological features of Kamet reflect intense glacial erosion acting on this resistant crystalline basement, sculpting its steep, pyramidal faces and prominent ridges, particularly along the southwest and northeast aspects.^[19] Uplift and exhumation in the Garhwal Higher Himalaya, including around Kamet, occur at rates of approximately 1.5-2.5 mm per year, as determined by fission track analysis in nearby valleys.^[17] The metamorphic shearing inherent to the HHC renders Kamet prone to geological hazards, including frequent rockfalls and avalanches triggered by discontinuity planes and tectonic instability along sheared gneiss and schist layers.^[20] These processes are exacerbated by the steep topography and ongoing uplift, leading to fragmented rock masses that pose risks to surrounding valleys, though specific hazard assessments emphasize the role of structural weaknesses in the MCT zone.^[21]

Glaciers and hydrology

Major glaciers

Kamet is flanked by several prominent glaciers that originate from its high slopes and contribute to the region's cryospheric dynamics. The East Kamet Glacier, also referred to as the Purbi Kamet Glacier, is the longest among them and descends from the eastern flanks of the peak. This glacier descends steeply through a series of icefalls and moraines, forming a key feature of the mountain's southeastern aspect.^[22] The West Kamet Glacier, known locally as the Paschim Kamet Glacier, drains the northwestern side of Kamet. It features a broad accumulation zone at higher elevations, transitioning into narrower tongues lower down, characteristic of Himalayan valley glaciers. This glacier played a brief role in early exploration efforts by providing access routes to the mountain's western approaches.^[23] On the southeastern flank lies the Raikana Glacier (also spelled Raikhana), a shorter tributary system that feeds into the East Kamet Glacier and larger glacial networks around the peak, with a more fragmented structure due to its position in a less expansive cirque.^[24] Recent glaciological studies indicate significant retreat across these glaciers amid climate warming. In the Dhauliganga catchment, glaciers have experienced an approximately 12% loss in surface area from 2001 to 2020, driven by rising temperatures and reduced precipitation. Mass balance measurements reveal negative rates of -0.22 m water equivalent per year (2000-2021), reflecting accelerated ablation over accumulation in the region.^[22]^[25]

Associated rivers

The glaciers of Kamet drain into two principal river systems that form part of the upper Ganges basin, channeling meltwater southward through the Himalayan valleys. The East Kamet Glacier feeds the Dhauliganga River on the mountain's eastern side, a 84.3 km-long stream that originates from glacial melt and flows through a high-density drainage network before merging with the Alaknanda River at Vishnuprayag. On the western flank, the Paschimi Kamet Glacier and adjacent Chamrao Glacier contribute to the Saraswati River, a ~970 km² catchment tributary that joins the Alaknanda near Badrinath after traversing a U-shaped valley. Both rivers ultimately bolster the Alaknanda, a major headwater of the Ganges, with Kamet's glaciers among dozens in the region directing flow into this system. Hydrologically, meltwater from Kamet significantly sustains the upper Ganges, where glaciated areas provide 60-75% of the flow in upstream reaches, particularly during non-monsoon periods when river discharge relies heavily on ice and snow ablation. Seasonal dynamics feature peak discharge from May to September, coinciding with the ablation season and intensified by monsoon rains, which elevate flood hazards in valleys like Niti along the Dhauliganga—exemplified by the 2021 glacial lake outburst flood that caused widespread devastation, including over 200 fatalities and damage to infrastructure. These drainages profoundly influence human activities in the Badrinath region, irrigating ~644 km² of agricultural land in the broader Alaknanda basin to support terraced cultivation of cereals like paddy and wheat, as well as cash crops such as potatoes (yielding up to 11.7 t/ha) and off-season vegetables via perennial streams and local canals. The rivers also underpin pilgrimage networks, enabling access to Badrinath temple—a site drawing ~22,000 visitors daily in peak season (May-June)—and fostering economic resilience through tourism amid challenges like land abandonment from emigration.

Exploration history

Early surveys

The initial scientific interest in Kamet arose during the mid-19th century as part of broader British efforts to map the Himalayan frontier. In 1848, Richard Strachey, working under the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, conducted a pioneering trigonometric survey from the Indian side, determining the approximate height of Kamet at 25,447 feet and establishing its position through triangulation using theodolites from distant observation points.^[26] This measurement, remarkably accurate for the era, marked the first precise assessment of the peak, which had previously remained uncharted from British territory due to its remote location beyond the main Himalayan range.^[27] Subsequent attempts combined exploration with surveying, though often thwarted by misidentification. In June 1855, brothers Adolf and Robert Schlagintweit, Austrian explorers commissioned by the British East India Company, approached the Kamet massif from Tibet and reached an altitude of 22,240 feet on what they believed to be Kamet itself, setting an early altitude record for Himalayan climbing efforts.^[28] In reality, their route lay on the neighboring Abi Gamin peak, highlighting the challenges of navigating the glacier-shrouded terrain without prior detailed maps.^[28] Throughout the latter half of the 19th century, the British Survey of India intensified mapping operations in the Garhwal region, incorporating Kamet into geodetic frameworks via the North-West Himalaya Longitudinal Series and related triangulations. Surveyors employed plane-table surveys at scales of half-inch to one inch, supplemented by secondary triangulation rays from stations up to 19,000 feet, to delineate the peak's contours and surrounding features from afar.^[27] These surveys produced foundational maps, such as the 1861 Kumaun and Garhwal sheets, integrating Kamet into broader topographic series despite reliance on remote observations.^[27] Exploration continued into the early 20th century with climbing attempts that built on survey data. In 1912, Charles F. Meade led a reconnaissance that reached Meade's Col (7,138 m) between Kamet and Abi Gamin via the East Kamet Glacier, identifying a viable route for future ascents.^[29] Persistent challenges hampered these endeavors, including political restrictions in sensitive border zones near Tibet, where access was curtailed by local authorities and the 1857 Mutiny, as well as extreme weather conditions like heavy snowfall and altitudes exceeding 18,000 feet that limited observation windows and endangered personnel.^[27] Such obstacles confined much of the work to indirect methods, fostering a reconnaissance era that laid essential groundwork for later expeditions.

First ascent

The first ascent of Kamet was achieved by a British expedition led by Frank S. Smythe in 1931, marking a significant milestone in Himalayan mountaineering. The team included Eric E. Shipton, R. L. Holdsworth, and support from experienced Sherpa sirdar Lewa, along with other members such as E. B. Beauman, Raymond Greene, and E. St. J. Birnie.^[23] This effort built on earlier surveys but succeeded where previous attempts had failed, establishing a load-carrying route to the mountain's formidable north face.^[23] On June 21, 1931, Smythe, Shipton, Holdsworth, and Lewa reached the summit after departing from a high camp at approximately 7,000 meters. The route ascended via the East Kamet Glacier, crossing Meade's Col and traversing the northeast edge of the north face before following a snow ridge to the top.^[23] A second ascent followed on June 23 by other team members, confirming the viability of the approach.^[23] The expedition faced severe challenges, including intense snowstorms that delayed progress, treacherous crevasses on the glacier, and the physiological strains of extreme altitude without supplemental oxygen.^[23] Despite these obstacles, the climb of Kamet, at 7,756 meters, became the highest peak ever ascended at the time, holding that record for five years until the 1936 ascent of Nanda Devi.^[23]^[30] This achievement demonstrated the feasibility of high-altitude climbing in the Garhwal Himalayas and advanced techniques for future expeditions.^[23]

Climbing

Routes and approaches

The standard route to the summit of Kamet follows the northeast ridge, beginning with an ascent of the East Kamet Glacier (also known as Purbi Kamet Glacier) to Meade's Col at approximately 7,138 meters, followed by a snow and ice climb along the ridge to the summit. This path, first pioneered during the 1931 expedition, involves moderate technical difficulties overall, graded as Alpine AD, with the final summit slopes reaching a maximum angle of 50 degrees and requiring ice axe and crampon use, potentially with short belays if conditions are icy. The approach typically starts from the trailhead at Niti Village (around 3,600 meters), involving a multi-day trek through remote valleys to the primary base camp near Vasudhara Tal at about 4,800 meters, with advanced camps established at roughly 5,100 meters, 5,600 meters, 6,300 meters, and 6,500 meters before reaching the col.^[31]^[9] An alternative approach via the southwest face offers a more technical challenge, involving a nearly 2,000-meter mixed rock and ice climb accessed from the Raikhana Glacier side, graded as AD with steep snow traverses (up to 60 degrees) linked by ice gullies that may require hauling loads and short pitches of aid or mixed climbing. This route demands greater experience due to its exposure to seracs, loose rock, and variable ice conditions, contrasting with the more straightforward glacier travel of the standard path. Base camp logistics remain similar, starting from Niti Village, but the southwest approach requires additional route-finding and fixed protection on the lower face. First ascended in 2012 by a French team, it remains a demanding option.^[32] Climbing Kamet requires permits; foreign teams apply through the Indian Mountaineering Foundation (IMF) at least 90 days in advance, including peak fees starting at US$1,000 for teams of two on peaks over 7,000 meters (as of pre-2023; Indian climbers exempt from fees since August 2023 per Uttarakhand government policy), along with inner line permits for the restricted border area. Indian teams apply via state authorities with shorter timelines. The optimal climbing season spans pre-monsoon (May to June) for stable weather and post-monsoon (September) to avoid heavy snow accumulation, though expeditions must prepare for sudden storms and high-altitude logistics such as Sherpa support up to 6,500 meters.^[33]^[34]^[35]^[36]

Notable ascents

The first ascent by an Indian team occurred in 1955, led by Major N.D. Jayal of the Indian Army's Corps of Engineers, marking a significant milestone in the post-independence era of Indian mountaineering.^[37] The team, comprising Jayal, Ang Tharkay, Da Namgyal, Ang Temba, and Lakpa Dorje, summited on July 6 via the standard northeast ridge route from Meade's Col, establishing the Purbi (East) Kamet Glacier approach as a reliable path for future Indian expeditions.^[38] This success, organized by the Himalayan Mountaineering Institute, highlighted the growing capabilities of Indian climbers and Sherpas in high-altitude endeavors.^[9] In 2006, the Kolkata Section of the Himalayan Club mounted a commemorative expedition for the 75th anniversary of Kamet's first ascent, led by Air Vice Marshal (Retd.) Apurba Kumar Bhattacharyya.^[24] On June 24, ten members—Gautam Ghosh, Debajyoti Bhattacharya, Jayanta Chattopadhyay, Subrata Chakraborty, Tapas Sanyal, Subrata Santra, Pradeep Sahoo, Shibnath Basu, Devinder Singh Rana, and Kapil Rana, supported by Sherpas Mingma, Lhakpa, Dawa, and Lama—reached the summit via the northeast ridge, demonstrating strong teamwork in establishing multiple camps up to 6,700 meters.^[24] The effort also included environmental cleanup, removing accumulated garbage from higher camps, underscoring a commitment to sustainable climbing practices.^[24] Tragedy struck during an Indian Army expedition in 2010, when an avalanche on September 21 near the advance base camp at around 5,800 meters claimed the lives of Lieutenant Colonel C. Poornachandra of the 9 Para Special Forces and Major Manish Gusain of the 11 Kumaon Regiment.^[39] The 44-member team, part of routine high-altitude training near Mana Pass, was traversing a snowfield when the slide occurred, highlighting the inherent risks of the mountain's unstable glacial terrain.^[40] Following the 1962 Sino-Indian War, the Kamet region near the Tibet border was closed to foreign expeditions until 2005, leading to a surge in Indian-led climbs that dominated ascents for decades.^[29]^[12] This shift fostered self-reliance among Indian mountaineers, with teams from the armed forces, mountaineering institutes, and clubs like the Himalayan Club conducting numerous successful summits, often via the standard route.^[41] In the 2020s, ascents continue amid escalating climate challenges, including retreating glaciers and increased avalanche risks, as seen in the 2008 first ascent of the southeast face by Japanese climbers Kazuya Hiraide and Kei Taniguchi, who navigated unstable seracs and rockfall in alpine style.^[42]

Nomenclature

Etymology

The name "Kamet" originates from Tibetan linguistic roots, with varying interpretations proposed by early explorers. According to British mountaineer C. F. Meade, who attempted the peak in the early 20th century, Tibetans refer to it as "Kangmen," signifying "huge grandmother of a sacred snow chain," evoking its prominent role in the regional snow-covered landscape.^[43] In contrast, Frank Smythe, leader of the successful 1931 expedition, argued in his book Kamet Conquered that the name derives from the Tibetan "Kangmed," meaning "the lower snows" (from kang for "snow" and med for "lower"), highlighting Kamet's position as a subordinate peak to the taller Nanda Devi nearby.^[43] Another theory associates "Kang-Med" with "glacier fire" in Tibetan, reflecting the mountain's dramatic illumination by the rising and setting sun, which bathes its glaciers in a fiery glow reminiscent of alpenglow.^[44] This visual phenomenon likely contributed to the name's evocative quality among local observers. The name first appeared in Western records during British surveys of the Himalayas, with initial measurements conducted in 1855 as part of the Great Trigonometrical Survey, where it was transliterated as "Kamet."^[45]

Cultural references

Kamet occupies a revered position in Hindu religious traditions, forming an integral part of the Badrinath pilgrimage circuit in the Garhwal Himalayas. Situated near the Badrinath Temple—a key site in the Char Dham Yatra dedicated to Lord Vishnu—the mountain enhances the spiritual landscape of the region, often regarded as a sacred guardian and abode of deities within the broader Himalayan sacred geography. Local beliefs associate its towering presence with divine protection, linking it to the extended sanctity of sites like Kailash Mansarovar.^[46] In the folklore of the Bhotia tribes, who have historically inhabited the high-altitude valleys surrounding Kamet, such as the Bhotia Mahal near Niti and Mana, the tribes revere Himalayan peaks as abodes of deities in narratives rooted in a syncretic blend of Hindu and Tibetan Buddhist influences. These stories shape Bhotia customs, including rituals of reverence for mountain deities that guide seasonal migrations, trade practices, and community ceremonies. The legends trace Bhotia origins to disciples of Tibetan lamas, portraying the peaks as mystical realms where divine and human worlds intersect, fostering a cultural ethos of harmony with the harsh Himalayan environment.^[47] In contemporary contexts, Kamet symbolizes regional pride for the people of Garhwal, embodying the resilience and natural grandeur of Uttarakhand. It prominently appears in Indian mountaineering literature, highlighted by accounts of the first successful Indian ascent in 1955 led by Nandu Jayal, which marked a post-independence milestone in national climbing achievements and inspired subsequent expeditions.^[48] The mountain's proximity to the Indo-Tibetan border underscores its historical role in facilitating trade routes and cultural exchanges. The nearby Niti Pass, opening seasonally after snowmelt, served as a vital corridor for Bhotia traders exchanging goods like salt, wool, borax, and grains between India and Tibet, promoting linguistic, religious, and artisanal interactions that enriched local customs over centuries.

Scientific research

Physiological studies

The 1920 expedition to Kamet, led by Alexander M. Kellas and accompanied by Henry T. Morshead, marked one of the earliest dedicated efforts to study human physiological responses to extreme altitudes in the Himalayas, focusing on acclimatization processes above 6,000 meters. Kellas, a pioneering physiologist, conducted field experiments on oxygen deprivation and its effects, utilizing a closed-circuit oxygen apparatus with Oxylithe chemical generators to simulate and mitigate hypoxia during ascents reaching approximately 7,130 meters. Observations included elevated pulse rates during moderate exercise, which Kellas documented as consistently higher than at sea level, reflecting the cardiovascular strain of low oxygen availability; for instance, resting pulse rates at high camps showed increases attributable to incomplete acclimatization in most team members, with only Kellas and Morshead achieving satisfactory adaptation after prolonged exposure. These tests emphasized gradual ascent rates to allow physiological adjustments, such as improved oxygen utilization by the body, and provided empirical evidence that unassisted climbing above 6,500 meters led to rapid fatigue and impaired performance due to hypoxia.^[49]^[50] During the 1931 Kamet expedition, which achieved the mountain's first ascent, Eric Shipton and team members under Frank Smythe's leadership maintained detailed logs of altitude sickness symptoms and hypoxic effects without supplemental oxygen, documenting responses from base camp at 4,725 meters up to the 7,756-meter summit. Common manifestations included headaches, profound lassitude, and breathlessness at 5,500–6,000 meters, escalating to Cheyne-Stokes respiration, mental fog, and a sensation of suffocation during exertion above 6,000 meters; for example, at Camp Four (6,700 meters), climbers reported frequent halts every few steps due to oxygen debt, with pulse rates implicitly elevated though not quantified in logs. Smythe noted individual variability, with some porters succumbing to acute mountain sickness at 5,100 meters despite prior acclimatization, while others tolerated 6,500 meters with minimal distress after rhythmic pacing—alternating steps with deep breaths to optimize oxygen intake. These observations highlighted the absence of oxygen supplementation as a key factor in symptom severity, with hypoxia inducing sluggish circulation and vivid nightmares at intermediate altitudes (5,500–6,100 meters). The expedition's success integrated these physiological insights, as careful pacing allowed the summit team to push beyond symptomatic thresholds without descent.^[26] Key findings from both expeditions underscored critical thresholds for high-altitude pathologies, particularly around 7,000 meters where unacclimatized individuals risked pulmonary edema precursors like severe breathlessness and fluid retention symptoms, as inferred from exhaustion and respiratory distress reports without direct diagnoses. Smythe's logs emphasized hydration's role, with hot tea from melted snow providing essential fluids to counter dehydration-exacerbated hypoxia, and deliberate pacing—limiting daily gains to 300–500 meters above 6,000 meters—to facilitate acclimatization and reduce edema risk. Kellas's earlier work complemented this by demonstrating oxygen's palliative effects on pulse acceleration and fatigue, though logistical challenges limited its routine use. These insights established hydration and controlled ascent as foundational for mitigating hypoxia-related impairments.^[49]^[26] The physiological studies on Kamet left a lasting legacy, informing subsequent Himalayan research by validating supplementary oxygen's benefits and acclimatization protocols, directly influencing preparations for the 1920s–1930s Everest expeditions where Kellas's oxygen advocacy and Smythe's symptom documentation shaped strategies for extreme-altitude survival.^[49]^[51]

Glaciological investigations

Recent monitoring of Kamet's glaciers has utilized satellite remote sensing data from the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), revealing ongoing retreat in the Garhwal Himalaya region. In the Upper Alaknanda Basin, which encompasses Kamet's glaciated slopes, glacier area decreased by 4.2 ± 2.9% from 1994 to 2020, with accelerated loss after 2000 attributed to rising temperatures.^[25] A 2019 study using declassified spy satellite imagery indicated widespread glacier thinning across the Himalayas, with an average ice thickness loss of 0.43 m water equivalent per year from 2000 to 2016, doubling prior rates (1975–2000: 0.22 m/year) and affecting glaciers in regions like the Garhwal Himalaya.^[52] Field-based glaciological investigations in the Garhwal Himalaya employ standard techniques such as ice core sampling and ablation stakes to assess accumulation rates and surface melt. These methods, combined with snow pit analyses, provide ground validation for satellite observations and highlight heterogeneous retreat patterns, where smaller glaciers tend to lose area faster than larger ones.^[53]^[54] These changes correlate strongly with climatic warming in the Garhwal Himalaya, where mean annual temperatures have risen by approximately 1.6°C over the past century, with accelerated increases of 0.06°C per year since 1980.^[55] In the Garhwal region, summer temperatures show a rise of approximately 0.26°C per decade, enhancing melt during the ablation season and reducing accumulation efficiency.^[56] Global projections indicate that Himalayan glaciers could lose 18–36% of their volume by 2100 under +1.5°C to +2°C warming scenarios relative to pre-industrial levels, with regional variations; specific projections for Kamet-area glaciers remain limited, but ongoing monitoring by institutions like ISRO and the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology continues to track changes as of 2025.^[57]^[58] The glaciological trends around Kamet contribute to broader Himalayan water security challenges, as meltwater from its glaciers sustains the Alaknanda River, a key tributary of the Ganges supporting over 500 million people downstream.^[59] Reduced ice storage heightens seasonal flow variability, increasing flood risks in summer and drought threats in winter, while cumulative Himalayan ice loss, including from Kamet, accounts for about 0.1–0.2 mm of global sea-level rise since 2000.^[60] These investigations underscore the need for integrated monitoring to inform adaptation strategies in water-dependent ecosystems.^[61]

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[24]
HJ/63/9 Kamet, 2006 - The Himalayan Club
The largest lake lies at the snout of the confluence of three glaciers. These glaciers are the East Kamet glacier, Raikana glacier and the North Raikana glacier ...Missing: Raikhana | Show results with:Raikhana
[25]
Glacier inventory and glacier changes (1994–2020) in the Upper ...
Dec 13, 2022 · Recent projections indicate that, depending on the climate scenario, Himalayan glaciers will lose between 30 and 60% of their current mass by ...
[26]
None
Below is a merged summary of Richard Strachey’s 1848 survey of Kamet, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a single, comprehensive response. To maximize detail and clarity, I will use a table in CSV format to organize key information, followed by additional narrative notes where necessary.
[27]
[PDF] historical records of - the survey of india
Neither the Himalaya, snows, nor arid deserts, nor dense unhealthy jungle, nor hostilities, ... have been allowed to arrest the progress of surveys in our time ...
[28]
Report on the Expedition to Kamet, 1920 - jstor
The earliest attempted ascent of Kamet was made in Jnne 1855 by the brothers A. and R. Schlagintweit, who reached a height of 22,240 feet on a mountain ...
[29]
Indian Himalaya Review - Harish Kapadia
Frank Smythe reached the summit of Kamet in 1931 to break the record. This was soon overtaken by the climb of Nanda Devi in 1936.
[30]
Martin Moran. Mountaineering and ice climbing courses
Mixed ground (with fixed ropes) and steep glacier leads to a final camp on the Meade's Col at 7138m, from which the North-East Ridge is climbed on snow and ice ...
[31]
Kamet (7756m), southwest face, Spicy Game - AAC Publications
We took the easiest route up the nearly 2,000m face, a succession of steep snow traverses linked by good soft-ice gullies (some requiring the leader to haul his ...Missing: Raikhana | Show results with:Raikhana
[32]
[PDF] 312 D r . Kellas' Expedition to Kamet in 1920. - Alpine Journal
From the Raikana base camp our route was identical with that of C. F. Meade in 1913, and led over the moraines and crevasses of the east Kamet Glacier for a ...
[33]
Peak Fee - Indian Mountaineering Foundation
Peak fees vary by height: below 6500m (US$500 for 2), 6501-7000m (US$700 for 2), 7001m+ (US$1000 for 2), and trekking peaks (US$200 for 2). Additional members ...
[34]
Expedition Application Process - Indian Mountaineering Foundation
Apply to IMF at least 90 days prior with the form and fees. IMF will provisionally book the peak. Applications can be made online or via tour operators.
[35]
Mount Kamet Expedition (7756 M) - Shikhar Travels
Next 18 days for acclimatization, Establish Higher camps and Attempt the Peak Mt. Kamet and return to Base camp. Meals: NA. Day 26: Base Camp – Niti VillageMissing: 5000m 6500m
[36]
Asia, India, Kamet and Abi Gamin - AAC Publications
An all-Indian expedition made a remarkable record in Garhwal in 1955, accomplishing the second ascent of Kamet (25,447 feet) and the third ascent of Abi Gamin ( ...
[37]
Expeditions undertaken by HMI - Himalayan Mountaineering Institute
Expeditions undertaken by HMI ; Kamet, 7,758m, July 6,1955, Maj N. D. Jayal. Maj N.D. Jayal; Ang Tharkery; Da Namgyel; Ang Temba; Lakpa Dorjee ; Sakang, 7,317m ...
[38]
Two Army officers die in Himalayan avalanche - The Hindu
Sep 22, 2010 · The bodies of Lieutenant Colonel Poornachandra of 9 Para and Major Manish Gusain of 11 Kumaon were brought down to the advance base camp on ...
[39]
Uttarakhand: Two Army officers killed in avalanche - NDTV
Sep 21, 2010 · The Army expedition to Mt. Kamet comprised of six officers, three JCOs and 38 jawans.
[40]
Climbing History of Kamet - Bielefeldt.de
Aug 21, 2005 · It took until 1931 when the first climb was achieved by a British expedition led by Frank Smythe. For five years, Kamet was the highest mountain ...Missing: ascent | Show results with:ascent
[41]
Chronology Of Indian Himalayan Events - Harish Kapadia
1856 Triangulation and survey of Kashmir begins. 1858 Height of K2 (8,616 m), in west Karakoram, is discovered. 1860 Survey of India khalasi fixes a pole on ...
[42]
Much-Eyed Face on Kamet Finally Climbed
Jul 31, 2024 · Japanese climbers Kazuya Hiraide and Kei Taniguchi have completed the first ascent of the 6,000-foot southeast face of Kamet (7,756m/25,446′) in ...Missing: notable | Show results with:notable
[43]
Kamet - Indo Vacations
However, Frank Smythe writes in his book Kamet defeated that the origin of the name is from the Tibetan word Kangmed ("the lower snows", from kang, “snow”, and ...Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
Asia, India—Garhwal, Kamet - AAC Publications
The name Kamet is more properly Kang-Med, Tibetan meaning “Glacier Fire.” This being the highest peak in the region, it catches the first rays of the rising sun ...Missing: Sanskrit alpenglow
[45]
Mount Kamet Expedition - Trekyaari - Best Trekking Company in India
Kamet stands at an elevation of approximately 7,756 meters (25,446 feet) above sea level, making it the second-highest peak in the Indian Himalayas after ...Missing: height | Show results with:height
[46]
Mt Kamet Expedition
Mount Kamet (7,756 meters / 25,446 feet) is the second-highest peak in the Garhwal Himalayas of Uttarakhand, India, after Nanda Devi. Its remote and imposing ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
HJ/62/10 Bhotias of the Bhotia Mahal - The Himalayan Club
Legend has it that the valleys were populated by chelas (disciples) of Shakiya Lama, a holy man of Tibet and thus the land populated by them became known as ...
[48]
Prelude to Everest: Alexander M. Kellas and the 1920 high altitude ...
The results of the field studies conducted during the 1920 Kamet Expedition provided strong support for the use of supplementary oxygen at high altitude.
[49]
Prelude to Everest: Alexander M. Kellas and the 1920 High Altitude ...
Aug 9, 2025 · The results of the field studies conducted during the 1920 Kamet Expedition provided strong support for the use of supplementary oxygen at high ...Missing: pulse | Show results with:pulse
[50]
A Consideration of the Possibility of Ascending Mount Everest
Aug 9, 2025 · The results of the field studies conducted during the 1920 Kamet Expedition provided strong support for the use of supplementary oxygen at high ...
[51]
Himalayan glacier melting doubled since 2000, spy satellites show
Jun 19, 2019 · But the melting has accelerated, with an average loss of 43cm a year from 2000 to 2016.Missing: ISRO Kamet
[52]
Satellite Insights: Expanding Glacial Lakes in the Indian Himalayas
Apr 22, 2024 · Long-term satellite imagery covering the catchments of Indian Himalayan river basins from 1984 to 2023 indicates significant changes in glacial lakes.Missing: Kamet 2000
[53]
[PDF] GLACIERS OF INDIA - USGS Publications Warehouse
Although the Gangotri-Chaukhamba, Kāmet, and Nanda Devi mountain groups are adjacent to each other, they are separated by major river valleys. (figs. 4, 5) ...
[54]
Glacier changes in the Garhwal Himalaya, India, from 1968 to 2006 ...
Based on the glacier atlas of India, 968 glaciers exist in the Garhwal Himalaya, covering ∼2885 km 2 or ∼5.3% of the state (Srivastava, 2008). Our research area ...
[55]
[PDF] Measuring mass balance on mountain glaciers
Jul 15, 2016 · Typically, stakes are drilled into the glacier in the ablation zone and changes in surface level are measured against stake height. Density ...
[56]
[PDF] Glacier changes in the Garhwal Himalaya, India, from 1968 to 2006 ...
The loss in glacier area ranged from 2% to $28% in this basin. The glacierized area across both basins decreased from. 599.9 Ж15.6 km2 (1968) to 572.5 Ж18.0 km2 ...
[57]
[PDF] Climate change perceptions, data, and adaptation in the Garhwal ...
Feb 13, 2020 · For example, across the Himalayas, the warming trend has been. ∼0.06°C/year since circa 1980 (Negi et al., 2012; Shrestha, Gau- tam, & Bawa, ...Missing: Kamet | Show results with:Kamet
[58]
Hydroclimate change in the Garhwal Himalaya, India at 4200 yr BP ...
Nov 29, 2021 · The multi-proxy record generated from Deoria Tal identifies major hydroclimate anomalies in the Garhwal Himalaya at 4850, 4200, and 3100 cal ...
[59]
Global glacier change in the 21st century: Every increase ... - Science
Jan 5, 2023 · Glaciers are projected to lose 26 ± 6% (+1.5°C) to 41 ± 11% (+4°C) of their mass by 2100, relative to 2015, for global temperature change scenarios.
[60]
As Himalayan Glaciers Melt, a Water Crisis Looms in South Asia
Oct 3, 2022 · The melting could have far-reaching consequences for flood risk and for water security for a billion people who rely on meltwater for their ...
[61]
Acceleration of ice loss across the Himalayas over the past 40 years
Jun 19, 2019 · Results suggest that the observed acceleration of ice loss can be explained by an average temperature ranging from 0.4° to 1.4°C warmer during ...
[62]
Himalayan Glaciers Hydrology Climate Change and Implications for ...
This study will explore the potential impacts of climate change on glacier-fed streamflow and regional water supplies in one region, the Himalayas.